■■■ 


ii 


ALASKA 


ITS     RESOURCES 


WILLIAM    H.    BALL, 

DIRECTOR  OF  THE  SCIENTIFIC  CORPS   OF   THE    LATE  WESTERN    UNION 
TELEGRAPH   EXPEDITION. 


BOSTON 

LEE    AND    SHEPARD    Publishers 

1897 


1-  i  ut 
X3 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  m  the  year  1870,  by 

W  I  L  I.  I  A  M     H  .      HALL, 

the  Clerk'i  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


yottooofi  )3rrBS  : 
Berwick  *  Smith.  NorwnoJ,  Mom.,  f..S.A. 


iLo  tlic  Xllcmorn 
ROBERT    KENNICOTT, 

FIRST    DIRECTOR    OF    THE    SCIENTIFIC    CORPS, 

Cfjis  iOork  is  rrbrrriitly  DtliiratrlJ. 

HE    JOINED    TO    A     NOBLE    AND    GENEROUS    HEART    AN    ENTHUSIASTIC 
LOVE   OF   nature;    DEFYING    IN   THE   PURSUIT  OF   KNOWLEDGE 
THE   MIASMA   OF   THE  TROPICS  AND  THE   RIGORS  OF  THE 
ARCTIC     WINTER;     MANFULLY     ENDURING      ISOLA- 
TION,     SICKNESS,      AND      PRIVATION,      AND 
DYING    IN     THE    FIELD,    A    MARTYR 
TO   THE    CONSCIENTIOUS    DIS- 
CHARGE   OF    HIS 
DUTY. 


9831)52 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  purpose  of  this  volume  has  been  to  comprise  in  a  small 
compass  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  present  knowledge  of 
Alaska.  The  writer  has  specially  endeavored  to  convey  as  much 
information  as  his  scope  would  allow,  in  regard  to  the  native 
inhabitants,  history,  and  resources  of  the  country.  This  end  has 
been  kept  steadily  in  view,  perhaps  at  the  risk  of  dulness. 

The  greatest  care  has  been  taken  to  verify  such  facts  as  have 
not  come  under  the  personal  observation  of  the  writer.  Toward 
this  end  every  accessible  work  containing  information  in  regard 
to  the  country  has  been  consulted  in  the  original.  Where  au- 
thorities have  differed,  the  statements  thought  most  worthy  of 
confidence,  or  such  as  best  agreed  with  the  experience  of  the 
author,  have  been  adopted.  Many  discrepancies  have  been  recon- 
ciled, and  not  a  few  errors  have  been  corrected.  Mistakes  to  a 
certain  extent  are  inevitable,  but  it  is  hoped  that,  in  all  important 
points,  the  statements  herein  made  will  stand  the  test  of  time 
and  future  observation.  Many  of  the  conclusions  in  regard  to 
the  natives  may  seem,  to  the  superficial  observer,  unwarranted  ; 
indeed,  the  author  found,  during  a  second  year's  experience,  that 
not  a  few  of  his  earlier  impressions  were  erroneous,  and  constant 
intercourse  with  the  natives,  during  that  year  while  isolated  from 
other  white  men,  enabled  him  to  clear  up  many  doubtful  points 
which  previous  observations  had  left  unsettled.  The  geograph- 
ical information  here  recorded  is,  of  necessity,  partly  approximate. 
W^ith  a  base  upon  which  to  found  future  observations,  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  accurate  determination  of  many  points  will  not 
long  be  delayed. 


VI 


INTRODUCTION. 


Theories  and  opinions  have  been,  as  far  as  possible,  kept  in  the 
background,  or,  when  expressed,  so  separated  from  the  statements 
of  facts,  that  the  reader  is  left  free  to  adopt  or  reject  them  from 
the  evidence  presented. 

Now  that  the  native  and  Russian  names  of  places  and  people 
in  Alaska  are  to  be  introduced  into  American  literature,  it  is  very 
desirable  that  they  should  be  spelled  as  simply  and  uniformly  as 
their  phonetic  value  will  allow.  Great  care  has  been  taken  in 
this  respect ;  a  slight  knowledge  of  the  Russian  language  having 
been  of  much  assistance.  It  is  earnestly  recommended  that 
other  writers  will  join  their  efforts  to  promote  the  acceptance 
and  use  of  the  method  of  spelling  adopted  in  this  volume.  It 
is  evidently  for  the  interest  of  all  that  simplicity  and  accuracy 
should  be  the  only  guides,  and,  above  all,  that  uniformity  should 
j)revail. 

It  is  but  just  that  the  first  acknowledgment  should  be  made  to 
the  Directors  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company.  By  the 
liberality  and  generosity  of  these  gentlemen  a  grand  opportunity 
was  afforded  of  investigating  the  Natural  History  of  this  interest- 
ing region  ;  while  the  operations  of  the  E.xpedition  were  not 
impeded,  a  large  amount  of  information  was  collected,  for  which 
thev  should  receive  the  thanks  of  scientific  men  of  all  countries. 
In  the  faihire  of  the  direct  objects  of  the  E.xpedition,  it  must  be 
no  small  consolation  to  reflect  that  by  such  liberal  conduct,  at  an 
insignificant  expense,  results  of  such  importance  and  of  lasting 
value  have  been  obtainetl. 

The  writer  has  been  under  many  obligations,  during  the 
|)rogress  of  the  explorations,  to  Captain  Charles  S.  Bulkley,  En- 
ginccr-in-Chief  of  the  I^xpedition  ;  Captain  C.  M.  Scammon, 
U.  S.  R.  S.,  Chief-of-Marine  ;  Adjutant  George  M.  Wright ;  Ered- 
erick  W'hymper,  l^sq..  Artist  of  the  ICxpedition  ;  and  especially 
to  Captain  V,.  I^verett  Smith,  of  the  schooner  F.  L.  Steele,  for 
many  favors. 

The  writer  also  desires  to  express  his  sense  of  the  favors  con- 


INTRODUCTION.  Vll 

fcrrcd  and  facilities  offered,  during  the  progress  of  this  work,  by 
the  Smitlisonian  Institution,  under  the  direction  of  Professor 
Joseph  Henry.  There  is  no  other  place  where  so  much  practical 
and  valuable  information  can  be  found,  in  regard  to  the  less 
known  parts  of  North  America,  as  in  the  archives  of  this 
establishment.  To  Professor  S.  F.  Baird,  of  the  Institution, 
the  author  is  also  under  deep  obligations  for  advice  and  assist- 
ance. 

To  the  trustees  and  librarian  of  the  Boston  Athenaeum  and  the 
Boston  Public  Library ;  to  Professor  Theodore  Gill,  and  Mr.  Spof- 
ford,  of  the  Congressional  Library ;  to  Mr.  S.  H.  Scudder,  of  the 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History  ;  Mr.  Kalusowski,  Librarian  of 
the  L^nited  States  Treasury  ;  Mr.  Buynitsky,  of  the  Treasury  De- 
partment ;  Mr.  Chew,  of  the  Department  of  State ;  Mr.  Young, 
of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics ;  Dr.  C.  A.  Parry,  of  the  Agricul- 
tural Bureau  ;  Captain  Patterson,  Mr.  Hilgard,  and  other  officers 
of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey;  Mr.  Bannister,  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  ;  Dr.  Torrey,  of  the  United  States  Assay 
Office ;  Dr.  J.  T.  Rothrock,  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Penn- 
sylvania; Dr.  Packard,  of  the  Peabody  Academy  of  Science; 
Dr.  Uhler,  of  the  Peabody  Institute  in  Baltimore  ;  Mr.  George 
Gibbs  ;  Mr.  F.  B.  Meek  ;  Mr.  George  Davidson ;  Dr.  A.  Kel- 
logg ;  Professor  Poesche  ;  R.  D.  Cotter  ;  Mr.  Chas.  Wright ;  Mr. 
J.  T.  Dyer;  W.  H.  Ennis  ;  Baron  O.  de  Bendeleben ;  Mr.  Michael 
Lebarge  ;  Captain  Frank  E.  Ketchum  ;  Mr.  George  R.  Adams  ; 
F.  H.  Francis  ;  Captain  Charles  Riedell ;  Miss  S.  K.  Dall,  and 
many  others,  he  is  indebted  for  information  or  assistance. 

The  illustrations  are  all  from  original  sketches  by  the  writer,  or 
from  the  articles  themselves,  and  owe  whatever  artistic  merit  they 
may  possess  to  the  pencil  of  Mr.  H.  W.  PZlliott.  The  illustra- 
tions of  birds  were  engraved  by  Mr.  H.  H.  Nichols,  and  the 
others  are  by  Mr.  John  Andrew. 

The  map  is  a  photo-lithograph  from  the  original,  drawn  under 
the   direction    of   the   writer  and    now    in   the   possession  of   the 


Viii  INTRODUCTION. 

United  States  Coast  Survey,  and  was  put  on  stone  by  I\Ir.  Julius 
Bien,  of  New  York. 

The  ethnological  specimens  figured  are  mostly  from  the  col- 
lection of  the  Smithsonian   Institution. 

Should  further  details  be  desired,  reference  may  be  made  to 
the  works  of  which  a  list  is  given  in  the  Appendix.  Addi- 
tional information  of  any  kind  is  requested,  and  will  be  used, 
and  full  credit  given,  should  a  future  opportunity  be  offered. 

S.MiTHsoMAx  Institution. 


CONTENTS. 


PART    I. 

TRAVELS    ON    THE    YUKON    AND    IX    THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 
CHAPTER    I. 

Page 
Arrival  in  Norton  Sound.  —  Circumstances  of  previous  visit.  —  News  of  tiie 
death  of  Robert  Kennicott.  —  Change  of  plans. —  Receive  my  appointment 
as  Director  of  the  Scientific  Corps,  and  determine  to  remain  in  the  country. 

—  Landing,  organization,  and  departure  of  the  vessels.  —  Departure  of  the 
\Yilder  for  Unalaklik. —  Russian  peechka.  —  St.  Michael's  Redoubt  and  Isl- 
and. —  Russian  traders.  —  Stepanoff.  —  Natives  and  their  houses.  —  Skin 
boats.  —  Departure  from  the  Redoubt.  —  Journey  to  Unalaklik.  —  Detention 
at  Kegiktowruk.  —  Seal-hunting. — Innuit  graves.  —  Bath  as  enjoyed  by  the 
Innuit.  —  Character  of  the  coast.  —  Departure  from  Kegiktowruk. — Topa- 
nika.  —  Arrival  off  the  mouth  of  the  river.  —  Ice-cakes.  —  Arrival  at  Unala- 
klik. —  Cockroaches.  —  Native  clothing.  —  Description  of  the  post  and  village. 

—  Deficiency  of  medical  supplies.  —  Departure  for  Nulato  via  Ulukuk. — 
Iktigalik  and  its  inhabitants.  —  Telegraph  stew.  —  Escape  of  dogs  and  return 
to  Unalaklik.  —  Russian  baths.  —  Disagreeable  trip  to  Iktigalik.  —  All  gone 
on  my  arrival.  —  Second  return  to  Unalaklik.  —  Impromptu  theatricals.  — 
Departure  for  Ulukuk.  —  Deserted  village.  —  Arrival  at   Ulukuk.  —  Springs. 

—  Transportation  of  goods.  —  Arrival  of  Mike  with  the  brigade  from  Nulato. 

—  Departure  for  Nulato.  —  Parhelia. — Mysterious  caterpillar. — First  view 

of  the  Yukon.  —  Arrival  at  Nulato   .........         3 

CHAPTER  II. 
Arrival  at  Nulato,  and  introduction  to  the  Creole  bidarshik.  —  Description  of 
the  post  and  its  inhabitants.  —  Adjacent  points.  —  History. — The  Nulato 
massacre  and  its  cause.  —  Barnard's  grave.  —  Daily  life  at  Nulato.  —  Larri- 
own. —  Koyukun  Indians.  —  Ingaliks. —  Kurilla. —  Plans  for  the  coming 
season.  —  Examination  of  a  coal-seam. —  Nuklukahyet  chief — Christmas 
festivities.  —  New  Year's  and  erection  of  the  first  telegraph  pole.  —  Aurora.  — 
Return  of  Ketchum. — Collections  in  Natural  History.  —  Indian  rumnr. — 
Cannibalism.  —  Russian  ingenuity.  —  Founding  of  Fort  Kennicott.  —  Depart- 
ure of  Ketchum  and  Mike  on  their  winter  journey  to  Fort  Yukon. —  .\rrival  of 
our  bidarra.  —  Trip  to  Wolasatu.x'  barrabora.  —  Scarcity  of  food.  —  First  signs 
of  spring.  —  Robbing  a  grave.  —  First  goose.  —  Indian  children.  —  Rescue  of 
the  bidarshik.  —  Anecdote  of  Major  Kennicott  and  erection  of  a  monument 
to  his  memory.  —  Formation  of  alluvium. —  Preparations  for  our  journey. — 
Breaking  up  of  the  ice  on  the  Yukon 44 


X  CONTEXTS. 

CHAPTER  III. 
Our  departure  from  Nulato.  —  Sukaree.  —  Crossing  in  the  ice.  —  Peculation.  — 
Camp.  —  Kovukuk  Sopka.  —  Barter  on  the  Yukon. —  Indian  grave.  —  Oos- 
kon.  —  Indian  pipes.  —  Tohonidola.  —  Koyukun  dress.  — Catching  butterflies 
.Melozikakat  Kiver.  — Arrival  at  Nowikakat.  — Trading  for  meat.  —  Shaman- 
ism. —  Indian  theology.  —  Treating  the  sick.  —  Departure  from  Nowikakat.  — 
Birch  canoes.  —  Runaway  from  Fort  Yukon.  —  Tozikakat  River.  —  Nuklu- 
kahyet  and  the  Twin  Mountains.  —  Xuklukahyet  tyone  and  other  Indians.  — 
I  )ci)arture  from  Xuklukahyet.  —  The  Ramparts  and  Rapids.  —  Moose-killing. 

—  Pass  the  Ramparts.  —  Mosquitoes.  —  Plains  north  of  the  Yukon.  —  Kutcha 
Kutchin  camp.  —  Sachniti.  —  Arrival  at  Fort  Yukon.  —  History  of  the  fort.  — 
Five  years  without  bread.  —  Degradation  of  the  servants  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company.  —  Intense  heat.  —  Arrival  of  the  bateau.x.  —  The  annual  trade.  — 
Tenan  Kutchin  Indians.  —  Other  tribes.  —  Drowning  of  Cowley.  —  Red  Leg- 
gins. —  Arrival  of  Ketchum  and  Mike. — Missionaries  and  their  value. — 
Course  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  with  the  Indians.  —  Massacre  at  Fort 
Nelson.  —  Indians  of  the  Western   United  States.  —  Furs  in  the  storehouse. 

—  Departure  from  Fort  Yukon.  —  Arrival  at  Nulato.  —  Unexpected  orders. 

—  Start  for  the  Yukon-mouth.  —  Seal  and  beluga  in  the  river.  —  Arrival  at  St. 
Michael's 74 

CHAPTER  IV. 
.■\rrival  of  the  vessel.  —  Arrange  to  remain  in  the  country.  —  Departure  of  the 
Clara  Bell.  —  Mushrooms.  —  Plans  for  the  season.  —  Start  for  Unalaklik. — 
The  Major's  Cove.  —  Voyage  to  Kegiktowruk.  —  Description  of  the  casine. 
End  of  the  old  bidarra.  —  Leave  Kegiktowruk.  —  Crossing  the  bar  of  the 
Unalaklik  River.  —  .Send  back  for  the  goods.  —  Trip  to  Ulukuk.  —  Death  of 
Stareek. —  Bears  and  bear-hunting.  —  Geological  reconnoissance,  and  discov- 
ery of  fos.sils.  —  Return  to  Unalaklik.  —  Purchasing  winter  supplies.  —  Innuit 
of  Norton  Sound.  —  Tribes,  physique,  games,  kyaks.  —  Disposition,  morality, 
marriages,  and  infanticide.  —  Treatment  of  the  women,  and  work  allotted  to 
the  sexes.  —  Dress,  labiets  of  the  different  tribes.  —  Property,  method  of  com- 
putation, and  map-drawing.  —  Fire-drills.  —  \Veapons  of  bone,  flint,  and 
ivory.  —  Guns  and  trading.  —  Intercourse  with  Indians,  and  boundary  lines 
of  their  territory.  —  Shamanism.  —  Patron  spirits. —  Interment  of  the  dead. 

—  Habits  and  means  of  gaining  subsistence  throughout  the  year.  —  Dances 
and  festivals.  —  Arrival  of  my  new  bidarra.  —  Sudden  illness,  and  departure 
for  the  Redoubt.  —  Storm  and  detention  at  Kegiktowruk.  —  Proceed  to  the 
Redoubt  on  foot.  —  Return  to  Unalaklik.  —  Kill  a  deer.  —  Cowardly  abuse  of 
the  natives  by  the  Russians.  —  Kamokin  and  his  barbarity  to  the  sick.  — 
Deaths  in  the  village.  —  Making  dog-harness 121 

CHAPTER    V. 
Arrival  i)(  Kurilla  and  the  dogs.  —  Departure  from  Unalaklik.  —  Various  kinds 
of  sledges.  —  Arrival  at  Iktigalik.  —  Series  of  detentions.  —  Indian  avarice. 

—  At  Ulukuk  and  across  the  portage. — Comparative  merits  of  different 
sledges.  —  Wolasatux.  —  Arrival  at  Nulato.  —  Sham  hysterics.  —  Fish-traps. 

—  Kurilla's  return.  —  Journey  to  the  Kaiyuh  River.  —  Housekeeping.  — 
Christmas   and  New-Year's.  —  Snaring   grouse.  —  Yukon    fish.  —  Continued 


CONTENTS.  XI 

sickness.  —  Arrival  of  tiie  mail.  —  Start  for  the  Redoubt.  —  I  low  the  Russians 
travel  vs.  how  the  Americans  travel.  —  Arrival  at  the  Redoubt. —  Return  to 
Iktigalik.  —  Break-down  and  repairs.  —  Dog-driving,  and  camp  life  in  the 
Yukon  territory.  —  Snowshoes.  —  Arrival  at  Xulato.  —  E.xpeditions  among 
the  Nulato  hills.  —  Hostile  Koyukuns.  —  Reasons  for  their  hostility.  —  Char- 
acter of  the  western  Tinneh.  —  Endurance.  —  Prevalent  diseases.  —  Snow- 
goggles.  —  Totems.  —  Dances  and  songs.  —  Arms.  —  Habits  of  life.  —  Addi- 
tional notes  on  the  Kutchin  tribes.  —  Making  shot.  —  Attack  on  Tekunka  and 
the  result.  — Arrival  of  swallows  and  geese.  —  Break-up  of  the  ice.  —  Narrow 
escape.  —  Non-arrival  of  Indians.  —  Pavloff's  departure 164 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Departure  from  Nulato.  —  Lateness  of  the  season.  —  Yeto.  —  Kwikhtana  bar- 
rabora.  —  Lof  ka's.  —  Habits  of  the  beaver.  —  Swan-shooting.  —  Indian  carv- 
ings. —  First  Indians.  —  Klantilinten.  —  A  letter.  —  Meeting  with  the  Mahle- 
muts.  —  Anvik.  —  The  Stareek.  —  Pottery.  —  Sand-hill  cranes.  —  Canoes.  — 
Leather  village  on  the  Shageluk.  —  Great  abundance  of  food.  —  Demand  for 
liquor  by  the  Mahlemuts. — Dances. — Attack  and  narrow  escape.  —  Leave 
the  village.  —  Manki.  —  Ekogmuts.  —  Loon-cap  village.  —  Carvings,  old 
houses  and  graves.  —  Great  breadth  of  the  Lower  Yukon.  —  Arrive  at  the 
Missipn.  —  Pass  the  Great  Bend.  —  Fishing-village.  —  Myriads  of  wild  fowl. 
—  Energetic  collection  of  specimens.  —  Rasbinik  village.  —  Starry  Kvvikhpak 
village.  —  Obtain  a  guide.  —  Andreafifsky.  —  Tragedy  in  1855.  —  Mistake  of 
guide. — Arrive  at  the  Uphoon. —  Kutlik. —  Emperor  geese. — Arrival  of 
Teleezhik.  —  Go  on  to  Pastolik.  —  Beluga-hunting.  —  Innuit  carvings.  — 
Drawings  on  bone.  —  Rise  of  the  water.  —  Elephant  bones. — Start  for  the 
Redoubt.  —  News  of  the  ships.  —  Arrival  at  the  Redoubt,  and  meeting  with 
old  friends.  —  Traders.  —  Embarkation  for  California.  —  Abuses  prevalent  in 
the  new  territory.  —  Value  of  a  territorial  government.  —  Necessary  legisla- 
tion. —  Disparagement  of  the  territory.  —  Arrival  in  San  Francisco  .        .     207 


PART    II. 

GEOGRAPHY,    HISTORY,    IXHABITANT.S,    AND    RESOURCES    OF    ALASKA. 

CHAPTER  I. 
General  geographical  and  topographical  description  of  Alaska.  —Adjacent  seas. 
—  Groups  of  islands.  —  Coasts  and  harbors.  —  River  system.  —  Ocean  cur- 
rents.—  Mountain  chains  and  peaks.  —  Area.  —  Earlier  maps.  —  Review  of 
some  recent  maps.  —  The  authorities  for  the  present  map.  —  Field  for  future 
explorations 245 

CHAPTER    II. 

A  chronological  history  of  the  progress  of  exploration  and  trade  in  Alaska  and 
the  adjoining  territories,  from  1542  to  1868 294 


Xll  CONTEx\TS. 

CHAPTER     III. 
Aboriginal  Inhabitants  of  Alaska 373 

CHAPTER     IV. 
Climate  ami  Agricultural  Resources 433 

CHAPTER    V. 
Geology  and  Mineral  Resources .         .         -457 

CHAPTER    VI. 
Fisheries,  Fur  Trade,  and  other  Resources  not  previously  mentioned      .         .         4S1 

CHAPTER    VII. 
Adjacent  Territories  and  their  Inhabitants    .......     506 


APPENDIX. 

A.  Glossary 529 

B.  Population  of  Alaska •        •  537 

C.  St.atistics  of  the  Fur  Trade  of  Alaska 538 

D.  Meteorology 539 

E.  Latitude  and  Longitude  of  Important  Points  ....  545 

F.  VOCAHULARIES 547 

G     Natural  History. 

List  of  the  Mammalia  of  Alaska 576 

List  of  the  Fishes  of  Alaska 579 

List  of  the  Birds  of  Alaska 580 

List  of  the  Lepidoptera  of  Alaska      ........  587 

List  of  the  Hymenoptera  of  Alaska 587 

List  of  the  Neuroptera  of  Alaska .        .  588 

List  of  Useful  Plants  of  Alaska 589 

H.    List  of   Works   containing   Information   in    regard  to   Alaska 

and  the  Adjacent  Territories       .......  595 

ISDEX 610 


PART  I. 


TRAVELS  OX  THE  YUKON  AND  IN  THE  YCKON 
TERRITORY. 


CHAPTER     I. 

Arrival  in  Norton  Sound.  —  Circumstances  of  previous  visit.  —  News  of  the  death  of 
Robert  Kennicott.  —  Change  of  plans.  —  Receive  my  appointment  as  Director  of 
the  Scientitac  Corps,  and  determine  to  remain  in  the  country.  —  Landing,  organiza- 
tion, and  departure  of  the  vessels.  —  Departure  of  the  Wilder  for  Unalaklik.  — 
Russian  peechka.  —  St.  Michael's  Redoubt  and  Island.  —  Russian  traders.  —  Ste- 
panoff.  —  Natives  and  their  houses.  —  Skin  boats.  —  Departure  from  the  Redoul)t. 

—  Journey  to  Unalaklik. -^  Detention  at  Kegiktowruk. —  Seal-hunting.  —  Innuit 
graves.  —  Bath  as  enjoyed  by  the  Innuit.  —  Character  of  the  coast. —  Depar- 
ture from  Kegiktowruk.  —  Topanika.  —  Arrival  off  the  mouth  of  the  river.  —  Ice- 
cakes.  —  Arrival  at  Unalaklik.  —  Cockroaches.  —  Native  clothing.  —  Descrip- 
tion of  the  post  and  village.  —  Deficiency  of  medical  supplies.  —  Departure  for 
Nulato  via  Ulukuk.  —  Iktigalik  and  its  inhabitants.  —  Telegraph  stew.  —  Escape 
of  dogs  and  return  to  Unalaklik.  —  Russian  baths.  —  Disagreeable  trip  to  Iktigalik. 

—  All  gone  on  my  arrival.  —  Second  return  to  Unalaklik.  —  Impromptu  theatricals. 

—  Departure  for  Ulukuk. — Deserted  village. — Arrival  at  Ulukuk.  —  Springs. — 
Transportation  of  goods  —  Arrival  of  Mike  with  the  brigade  from  Nulato.  —  De- 
parture for  Nulato.  —  Parhelia.  —  Mysterious  caterpillar.  —  First  view  of  the  Yu- 
kon. —  Arrival  at  Nulato. 

ON  the  24th  of  September,  1866,  the  clipper  ship   Nightin- 
gale came  to  anchor  half  a  mile  southeast  of  Egg  Island, 
Norton  Sound. 

A  driving  storm  from  the  north  and  northeast  obscured  the 
atmosphere,  and  covered  the  deck  with  an  inch  or  two  of  half- 
melted  snow  and  hail.  The  waves  were  yellow  with  sediment, 
churned  up  by  their  own  violence,  and  the  very  white-caps  had 
a  sullied  look  which  spoke  of  shallow  water.  We  were  drawing 
nineteen  feet,  with  a  rise  and  fall  of  the  waves  of  at  least  twelve 
feet  more,  and  the  breeze  was  freshening.  This  did  not  leave 
a  very  large  margin  under  the  keel,  and  the  well-known  rapidity 
with  which  a  north  wind  will  diminish  the  depth  of  water  in 
the  Sound,  sometimes  making  a  difference  of  a  fathom  in  the 
course  of  a  few  hours,  added  to  the  anxiety  of  our  ship's  officers. 
Our  indefatigable  commander,  Captain  Scammon,  was  seriously 
ill.  Altogether,  the  circumstances  attending  our  arrival  in  the 
vicinity  of  Redoubt  St.  Michael's  were  not  propitious. 


^  THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 

A  little  more  than  a  year  before,  we  had  visited  this  point  in 
the  bark  Golden  Gate.  We  left  a  party  to  make  the  prelimi- 
nary explorations,  previous  to  deciding  on  the  line  on  which  it 
was  proposed  to  build  the  international  telegraph.  This  party 
was  under  the  command  of  the  Director  of  the  Scientific  Corps, 
Robert  Kennicott,  whose  previous  experience  in  the  Hudson  Bay 
Territory  to  the  westward  had  fitted  him  above  all  others  to  fill 
the  arduous  post  of  commander  of  the  explorations  in  Russian 
America.  Several  members  of  the  Scientific  Corps  were  of  his 
party,  and  to  their  combined  labors  we  looked  hopefully  for  a 
solution  of  the  problem  of  the  identity  of  the  Yukon  River  with 
the  so-called  Kwikhpak  of  the  Russians.  This  identity  was 
stoutly  upheld  by  Mr.  Kennicott,  though  persistently  denied  by 
many,  who  looked  upon  the  so-called  Colvile  River,  flowing  into 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  as  the  true  mouth  of  the  Yukon,  while  they 
considered  the  Kwikhpak  as  a  distinct  river.  The  question  was 
regarded  as  uncertain  by  all.  Information  received  from  the 
Russians,  however,  soon  put  the  matter  beyond  a  doubt,  and 
we  looked  to  Mr.  Kennicott  and  his  party  as  the  favored  few  who 
were  to  pass  the  terra  incognita  between  the  limit  of  Russian 
explorations  and  the  Hudson  Bay  Territory,  and  thus  complete 
the  exploration  of  the   Lower  Yukon. 

Though  their  equipment  was  not  such  as  we  could  have  wished, 
and  though  grave  doubts  prevailed  as  to  the  value  of  a  miniature 
steamer,  of  which  much  had  been  expected,  still  we  left  all  of  them 
in  the  highest  spirits,  and  with  the  heartiest  wishes  for  their 
success,  as  we  sailed  slowly  away  from  Stuart  Island,  September 
17,  1865. 

During  the  year  which  had  passed  many  changes  had  taken 
place  in  the  organization  of  the  Expedition.  No  word  had  been 
received  from  the  party  even  through  the  Russian  mail,  which  is 
carried  overland  from  St.  MichaeFs  every  winter  to  Nushergak 
and  thence  by  sea  to  Sitka, 

Various  detentions  kept  the  vessels  of  the  fleet  lying  in  San 
Francisco  Bay  long  after  they  should  have  reached  the  shores  of 
Bering  Sea,  and  it  was  only  in  the  month  of  July  that  the  Expe- 
dition finally  set  sail.  We  had  been  lying  in  Plover  Bay  several 
weeks,  during  which  time  a  rumor  had  reached  us  that  an  explor- 
ing party  had  been  at  Grantley  Harbor  during  the  winter,  and  that 


THE    YUKON'    TERRITORY.  5 

one  member  of  the  party  had  been  badly  frost-bitten.  i\ll  were 
supposed  to  be  aUve  and  well. 

Now  that  we  had  again  come  within  reach  of  our  friends  and 
companions,  our  anxiety  may  be  imagined.  The  state  of  the 
weather  and  our  distance  from  St.  Michael's,  almost  twelve  miles, 
prevented  our  landing  in  a  body.  A  boat  with  two  officers  was 
despatched  late  in  the  afternoon,  but  the  distance  and  the  still 
increasing  storm  forbade  us  to  expect  their  return  that  night. 

My  own  impatience  was  so  great  that  I  soon  abandoned  the 
attempt  to  sleep,  and  accompanied  the  officer  of  the  deck  in  his 
inclement  night-watch,  pacing  up  and  down  in  the  rain  and 
sleet  ;  and  I  almost  fancied  that  there  was  something  derisive  in 
the  whistle  of  the  wind  through  the  rigging  and  insulting  in  the 
masses  of  slush  which  the  swaying  cordage  occasionally  threw  in 
our  faces. 

The  next  morning  the  storm  continued  with  little  abatement. 
About  noon  we  saw  the  steamer  George  S.  Wright,  which  we 
knew  had  arrived  with  the  commander  of  the  expedition  a  day  or 
two  before,  getting  up  steam  behind  the  point  of  Stuart  Island. 
About  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  she  came  out  and  anchored 
under  the  lee  of  Egg  Island  near  us,  and  we  soon  saw  a  boat  put 
oft'  from  her.  Every  glass  was  pointed  at  her,  and  every  eye  was 
strained  for  a  glimpse  of  some  familiar  face  ;  but  the  long  hair  and 
beards,  the  unfamiliar  deer-skin  dresses  and  hoods  defied  recog- 
nition. 

Pressing  forward  to  the  gangway,  as  the  first  man  came  over 
the  side,  my  first  question  was,  "  Where  is  Kennicott  ?"  and  the 
answer,  "  Dead,  poor  fellow,  last  May,"  stunned  me  with  its  sudden 
anguish.  I  stayed  to  hear  no  more,  but  went  to  my  cabin  as 
one  walks  in  a  dream. 

So  he  was  gone,  that  noble,  impetuous,  but  tender-hearted  man. 
who  had  been  to  me  and  many  others  as  more  than  a  brother  ! 
During  the  past  two  years  many  had  had  bitter  controversies  with 
him,  but  all  felt  and  expressed  their  grief  at  his  untimely  death. 
He  was  one  who  made  enemies  as  well  as  friends,  but  even  ene- 
mies could  not  but  respect  the  purity  of  motive,  the  open-handed 
generosity,  the  consideration,  almost  too  great,  for  his  subor- 
dinates, and  the  untiring  energy  and  lively  spirits  which  were 
the  prominent  characteristics  of  the  man. 


6  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

The  details  of  his  explorations  and  death  will  be  found  else- 
where. His  body  had  been  cenderly  cared  for,  brought  down  the 
Yukon  from  the  point  where  he  died,  placed  in  a  vault  at  the 
Redoubt,  and  was  to  be  taken  home  in  charge  of  Mr.  Charles 
Pease,  who  had  been  his  friend  from  boyhood,  and  ^Ir.  H.  M. 
Bannister,  both  members  of  the  Scientific  Corps.  This  would 
leave  the  Corps  without  a  single  representative  in  the  whole  of 
Russian  America  north  of  Sitka. 

My  own  plan  had  been,  to  explain  the  operations  of  the  Corps 
during  the  past  year  to  Mr.  Kennicott,  and  if  approved  by  him 
to  cross  to  the  Siberian  side  and  obtain  such  information  and  col- 
lections as  opportunity  might  offer,  and  especially  to  determine 
by  the  barometer  the  height  of  the  different  volcanoes  for  which 
Kamchatka  is  renowned. 

Under  the  circumstances,  however,  and  considering  the  infor- 
mation in  regard  to  North  American  natural  history  and  geology 
more  important  than  that  relating  to  the  other  continent,  I  re- 
solved to  remain  at  St.  Michael's  or  in  the  valley  of  the  Yukon 
during  the  ensuing  season.  I  determined  to  use  my  best  energies 
to  complete  the  scientific  exploration  of  the  northwest  extremity 
of  the  continent,  as  it  had  been  planned  by  Mr.  Kennicott,  and 
which  comprised  the  exploration  of,  — 

First,  the  region  between  Fort  Yukon,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Yukon  and  the  Porcupine,  and  Nulato,  the  most  eastern  Russian 
post  on  the  former  river ; 

Second,  the  region  between  Nulato  and  the  sea,  westward  across 
the  portage,  and  south  by  way  of  the  Yukon  to  the  sea  ;  and.  — 

Lastly,  the  whole  region  bordering  on  Norton  Sound  and  the 
sea  to  the  north  and  south  of  it. 

Toward  this  considerable  collections  and  many  observations 
had  been  made  at  St.  Michael's,  but  little  had  been  done  in 
other  parts  of  the  country. 

Captain  Charles  S.  Bulkley,  U.  S.  A.,  Engineer-in-chief  of 
the  Expedition,  having  signified  his  desire  that  I  should  succeed 
Mr.  Kennicott  as  Director  of  the  Scientific  Corps,  and  learning 
that  I  desired  to  remain  in  the  country,  ordered  me  to  act  as 
Surgeon  in  general  charge  of  the  district  between  Bering  Strait 
and  the  Yukon.  I  submitted  my  plans  for  the  scientific  opera- 
tions of  the  coming  year  to  him,  and  they  met  with  his  entire 
approval.  , 


THE    VLKON    TERRITcJRV.  7 

Great  expedition  was  necessary  in  makini;  my  preparations. 

The  continued  north  wind  began  to  tell  on  the  depth  of  water 
in  the  Sound,  and  on  Saturday  we  grounded  with  every  swell. 
Luckily  the  bottom  here  is  an  impalpable  soft  mud,  without  any 
stones,  otherwise  the  old  Nightingale  would  have  left  her  bones 
there  ;  and  as  it  was,  every  few  moments  she  came  thumping 
down,  with  a  severity  that  shook  everything,  from  truck  to 
kelson. 

The  following  morning  it  cleared  off,  and  those  who  were 
to  remain  took  their  seats  in  a  large  scow  loaded  with  coal,  which 
was  to  be  towed  ashore  by  the  steamer  Wilder.  The  Wilder  was 
one  of  two  small  stern-wheel  steamers,  built  in  San  Francisco, 
and  brought  up  on  the  deck  of  the  Nightingale,  designed  for 
river  navigation.  They  were  shaped  much  like  an  old-fashioned 
fiat-iron,  and  were  just  about  as  valuable  for  the  purposes 
required  ;  being  unable  to  tow  anything,  or  to  carry  any  freight, 
while  in  a  breeze  of  any  strength  it  was.no  easy  matter  to  steer 
them. 

Sitting  pensively  on  the  larger  lumps  of  coal,  we  had  ample 
opportunity  of  studying  the  defects  of  our  tug,  and  it  became  an 
interesting  matter  as  to  what  we  should  do  if  she  should  break 
down  before  reaching  shore,  as  seemed  likely.  A  cold  and 
extremely  penetrating  rain  gave  us  a  foretaste  of  the  concom- 
itants of  exploration,  and  rendered  our  departure  anything  but 
romantic.  Indeed,  I  could  not  help  thinking  that  we  bore  much 
more  resemblance  to  a  party  of  slaves  ai  route  for  the  galleys,  as 
X'ictor  Hugo  describes  them,  than  to  a  party  of  young  and  ardent 
explorers,  defying  the  powers  of  winter,  and  only  anxious  for  an 
opportunity  to  exhibit  our  prowess. 

We  finally  arrived  in  safety  at  the  landing,  near  the  Russian 
trading-post  of  St.  Michael.  Having  pocketed  some  biscuit,  I 
was  provisioned,  and,  picking  out  a  soft  plank  in  a  back  room, 
I  rolled  myself  in  a  blanket,  and  after  some  difficulty  got  to  sleep. 
The  rain  continued  ;  the  Russians  were  holding  an  orgie,  with 
liquor  obtained  from  the  ves.sels  ;  the  dogs  howled  nearly  all 
night  ;  the  roof  leaked,  not  water,  but  fine  volcanic  gravel,  with 
which  it  was  covered.  If  this  is  a  .sample  of  the  country,  I 
thought,  it  is  not  prepossessing  ! 

On  rising  in  the  morning  I  found,  as  might  be  expected,  that 


8  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

I  was  likely  to  feel  for  some  time  the  effect  of  my  new  style  of 
bed  in  a  way  that  was  anything  but  agreeable. 

On  Monday,  the  ist  of  October,  1866,  the  Nightingale  sailed 
for  Plover  Bay.  All  was  activity  on  shore,  preparing  the  Wilder 
and  all  available  boats  for  a  trip  to  Unalakli'k,  the  seaboard 
terminus  of  the  portage  to  the  Yukon,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Una- 
lakli'k River.  My  friend,  Mr.  Whymper,  the  genial  and  excellent 
artist  of  the  expedition,  proposed  to  leave  for  Unalakli'k  on  the 
steamer. 

The  work  of  construction  and  exploration  had  been  divided. 
The  larger  number  of  men,  and  the  work  to  be  done  in  the  region 
west  of  the  Yukon,  had  been  placed  in  charge  of  Mr.  VV.  H. 
Ennis  and  several  assistants.  Here  the  work  of  exploration  had 
been  mainly  finished,  and  construction,  exclusive  of  putting  up 
the  wires,  was  to  be  immediately  commenced. 

The  work  of  exploration  and  future  construction,  to  the  north 
and  east  of  Nulato  on  the  Yukon,  was  intrusted  to  Mr.  F.  E. 
Ketchum,  to  whom,  with  Mr.  Michael  Lebarge,  the  honor  of 
exploring  the  region  between  Nulato  and  Fort  Yukon  had  fallen 
after  Kennicott's  death. 

■  Mr.  Ketchum,  who  bore  the  title  of  Captain  in  the  service  of 
the  Expedition,  was  thoroughly  qualified  for  the  execution  of  the 
trust  committed  to  him.  He  had  been  eminently  faithful  to  Mr. 
Kennicott  during  his  arduous  explorations,  and  had  successfully 
carried  out  his  plans  after  his  death. 

I  proposed  to  accompany  him  to  Nulato,  the  place  best  suited 
for  the  prosecution  of  the  scientific  work,  and  as  he  had  decided 
to  remain  for  a  while  at  St.  Michael's,  after  consultation  with  him, 
we  secured  a  room  in  the  Russian  quarters  together. 

On  Tuesday  the  steamer,  in  charge  of  Captain  E.  E.  Smith,  with 
a  Russian  pilot,  started  for  Unalakli'k.  As  we  were  waving  our 
congratulations,  to  our  dismay  we  saw  her  come  to  a  stand-still, 
plump  on  a  rock  at  the  entrance  of  the  cove.  It  seemed  as  if  her 
career  were  about  to  come  to  an  ignominious  conclusion,  but  after 
a  good  deal  of  labor  she  worked  off  without  damage,  and  proceeded 
on  her  way. 

We  returned  to  our  quarters,  where  we  built  a  fire  in  the 
Russian  stove.  These  stoves  are  a  "  peculiar  institution,"  in  use 
throughout  the  territory,  and  worthy  of  description.     Here  they 


THE    VIKON    TliRKiroKV.  9 

are  built  of  fragments  of  basalt,  the  prevalent  rock,  and  smeared 
inside  and  out  with  a  mortar  made  of  clay.  A  damper  in  the 
chimney  is  so  arranged  as  to  shut  off  all  draught,  and  is  taken 
out  when  the  fire  is  made.  After  the  whole  has  been  thoroughly 
heated  by  a  wood  fire  the  coals  are  removed.  The  damper  is  put 
in,  thus  preventing  the  escape  of  hot  air  by  the  chimney,  and 
without  further  fire  this  stove  will  warm  the  room  for  twenty-four 
hours.  It  is  admirably  suited  to  the  climate  and  country,  and  its 
only  objectionable  point  is  the  amount  of  room  it  occupies.  A 
good  deal  of  cooking,  baking,  &c.,  can  be  accomplished  in  a  large 
one,  and  the  remainder  is  done  in  a  building  erected  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  called  the  povdrnia.  The  Russian  name  for  this  stove  is 
pccclika,  but  an  iron  stove,  such  as  is  used  in  the  United  States,  is 
called  a  kanccla.  The  foundation  of  the  peechka  is  of  wood,  filled 
in  with  volcanic  gravel,  and  covered  with  brick  or  slabs  of  lava. 
In  Russia  they  are  generally  built  of  brick  entirely,  and  are  often 
tiled  over  on  the  outside  with  painted  tiles,  such  as  are  yet  to  be 
found  in  some  of  the  older  houses  in  New  England. 

Our  beds,  as  in  all  the  houses  in  this  part  of  the  territory,  were 
made  on  a  platform  raised  a  few  feet  from  the  floor,  and  about 
seven  feet  wide.  Mine  consisted  of  a  reindeer  skin  with  the  hair 
on,  and  with  one  end  sewn  up,  so  as  to  make  a  sort  of  bag  to  put 
the  feet  in  ;  a  pillow  of  wild-goose  and  other  feathers  is  essential 
to  comfort ;  this,  with  a  pair  of  good  blankets,  is  all  that  one  needs 
in  most  instances.  Sheets  are  unknown  in  this  part  of  the  world, 
and  counterpanes  are  almost  so. 

Our  time  was  well  occupied  in  getting  everything  in  readiness 
for  transportation,  if  the  steamer  should  return  as  we  hoped.  If, 
as  was  probable,  she  found  ice  in  the  Unalakli'k  River,  she  would 
have  to  go  into  winter  quarters  at  once. 

Meanwhile  I  took  a  careful  survey  of  the  old  trading-post,  or 
Michaelovski  Redoubt,  as  the  Russians  call  it. 

By  order  of  Baron  VVrangell,  Michael  Tebenkoff,  an  officer  of 
the  Russian  American  Company,  established  this  post  in  1833. 
It  is  stated  by  different  writers  to  be  in  latitude  63°  33'  or  63"  28' 
north,  and  longitude  161°  55'  or  161°  44'  west  of  Greenwich. 
Few  points  were  established  by  the  Russians  with  the  accuracy 
deemed  indispensable  in  modern  English  or  American  surveys. 
It  is  stated  by  Tikhmenief  that,  in   1836,  the  Unaligmuts  of  the 


lO  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

vicinity  attacked  the  Redoubt,  which  was  successfully  defended 
by  Kurupanoff,  the  commander. 

It  is  built  of  spruce  logs,  brought  by  the  sea  from  the  mouths  of 
the  Yukon  and  Kuskoquim,  which  annually  discharge  immense 
quantities  of  driftwood.  This  is  stacked  up  by  the  Russians  in 
the  fall,  for  miles  along  the  coast  north  and  west  of  the  Redoubt, 
and  is  carried  in  winter  to  the  fort  over  the  ice  by  means  of  dogs 
and  sleds.  No  other  fuel  exists  on  the  island  and  adjoining 
shores.  These  are  entirely  destitute  of  wood,  if  we  except  low, 
scrubby  willows  and  alders,  which  are  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
water.  St.  Michael's  is  situated  on  a  small  point  of  the  island  of 
the  same  name,  which  puts  out  into  the  sound  and  forms  a  small 
cove,  abounding  in  rocks  and  very  shallow.  Here  a  temporary 
landing-place  is  built  out  into  water  deep  enough  for  loaded  boats 
drawing  five  feet  to  come  up  at  high  tide.  This  is  removed  when 
winter  approaches,  as  otherwise  it  would  be  destroyed  by  the  ice. 
The  shore  is  sandy,  and  affords  a  moderately  sloping  beach,  on 
which  boats  may  be  drawn  up.  A  few  feet  only  from  high-water 
mark  are  perpendicular  banks  from  six  to  ten  feet  high,  composed 
of  decayed  pumice  and  ashes,  covered  with  a  layer,  about  four 
feet  thick,  of  clay  and  vegetable  matter  resembling  peat.  This 
forms  a  nearly  even  meadow,  with  numerous  pools  of  water,  which 
gradually  ascends  for  a  mile  or  more  to  a  low  hill  of  volcanic  ori- 
gin, known  as  the  Shaman  Mountain. 

The  fort  is  composed  of  log  buildings  with  plank  roofs,  placed  in 
the  form  of  a  square,  and  with  the  intervals  filled  by  a  palisade  about 
ten  feet  high,  surmounted  by  a  chevaiix-dc-frise  of  pointed  stakes. 
This  is  also  continued  round  the  eaves  of  the  buildings.  There  are 
two  outlying  bastions,  pierced  for  cannon  and  musketry,  and  con- 
taining a  number  of  pieces  of  artillery  of  very  small  calibre  and 
mostly  very  old-fashioned  and  rusty,  except  two  fine  brass  howitzers 
of  more  modern  manufacture.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  com- 
mander's house,  —  consisting  of  two  private  rooms,  an  armory  and 
a  counting-room,  or  contornm,  —  a  couple  of  buildings  used  as  store- 
houses, a  bath-house,  and  separate  houses  for  the  married  and 
unmarried  workmen.  There  is  a  flag-staff  leaning  apologetically 
as  if  consciously  out  of  place,  and  a  gallery  for  the  watchman,  who 
is  on  duty  day  and  night,  with  reliefs,  and  who  tolls  a  bell  on  the 
hour  stroke  to  notify  the  inmates  that  he  is  not  asleep.     One  of 


•c^-^1 


'Mr 


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5  f'  Su 


THE    YIKON     rERKITOKY.  U 

the  bastions  is  without  cannon,  and  is  used  as  a  i;uard-housc  for 
refractory  subjects. 

Outside  of  the  stockade  are  several  other  buildings,  —  a  small 
storehouse  used  for  furs,  a  large  shed  where  boats  are  drawn  u})  in 
winter,  a  blacksmith's  shop,  and  a  church.  The  latter  is  octagonal 
in  shape,  with  a  small  dome,  surmounted  by  a  cross,  and  a  beam 
bearing  a  bell  at  the  side  of  a  small  porch  which  covers  the  door- 
way. Other  small  buildings  are  scattered  about  ;  a  sun-dial  is  to 
be  found  not  far  from  the  church,  and  a  noticeable  feature  in  the 
fall  is  the  stacks  of  bleached  driftwood,  which,  from  a  distance, 
look  not  unlike  tents  or  bastions. 

Between  the  point  on  which  St.  MichacFs  is  built  and  the  main- 
land, a  small  arm  of  the  sea  makes  in,  in  which  three  fathoms 
may  be  carried  until  the  flagstaff  of  the  fort  bears  west  by 
north.  This  is  the  best-protected  anchorage,  and  has  as  much 
water  and  as  good  bottom  as  can  be  found  much  farther  out. 

At  the  southwest  extremity  of  this  arm,  known  as  Tebenkoff 
Cov^e,  we  enter  a  narrow  and  tortuous  channel,  often  not  more 
than  fifty  feet  wide,  which  separates  the  island  of  St.  Michael 
from  the  mainland.  This  has  been  aptly  named  the  Canal  by 
the  Russians,  and  it  divides  midway  into  two  branches  which  are, 
it  seems  to  me,  equally  tortuous,  though  they  are  st}led  the 
Straight  and  the  Crooked  respectively. 

The  mainland  near  St.  Michael's  gradually  rises  from  the  Canal 
and  the  adjacent  shores  into  low  basaltic  hills,  with  a  rugged  and 
rocky,  though  not  elevated  coast. 

The  inmates  of  the  fort  —  with  the  exception  of  Sergei  Stepan- 
off  Riisanoff,  an  old  soldier,  who  commands  not  only  this,  but  all 
the  trading-posts  in  the  District  of  St.  Michael,  under  the  title 
of  Uprovah'sha  —  may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  convicts, 
Creoles,  and  natives. 

The  workmen  of  the  Russian  American  Company  were,  al- 
most without  exception,  convicts,  mostly  from  Siberia,  where 
the  Company  was  originally  organized.  They  were  men  con- 
victed of  such  crimes  as  theft,  incorrigible  drunkenness,  burglary, 
and  even  manslaughter.  These  men,  after  a  continued  resi- 
dence in  the  country,  naturally  took  to  themselves  wives,  after  the 
fashion  of  the  country,  since  Russian  subjects  in  the  Company's 
employ  were  prohibited  from  legal  marriage  with  native  women. 


12  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

These  connections  are  looked  upon  with  a  difterent  fceUng  from 
that  which  prevails  in  most  communities,  and  these  native 
women  mix  freely  with  the  few  Russian  and  half-breed  women  in 
the  territory  who  have  been  legally  married.  Their  children  are 
termed  Creoles,  and  formerly  were  taken  from  their  parents  and 
educated  in  Sitka  by  the  Company,  in  whose  service  they  were 
obliged  to  pass  a  certain  number  of  years,  when  they  became 
what  is  called  "  free  Creoles,"  and  were  at  liberty  to  continue  in 
the  service  or  not,  as  they  liked.  Many  of  the  most  distinguished 
officers  of  the  Company  were  Creoles,  among  them  Etolin,  Kush- 
evarofif,  and  Malakoff. 

There  are  a  few  Yakuts  in  the  service  of  the  Company,  and  these, 
with  some  native  workmen,  who  are  generally  of  the  tribe  which 
inhabits  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  post,  compose  the  garrison. 

The  regular  workman  gets  about  fifty  pounds  of  flour,  a  jDound 
of  tea,  and  three  pounds  of  sugar,  a  month  ;  his  pay  is  about 
twenty  cents  a  day.  Some  of  the  older  men  get  thirty  cents  and 
a  corresponding  addition  to  the  ration  of  flour.  They  w^ork  with 
little  energy  and  spirit  as  a  general  thing,  but  can  accomplish 
a  great  deal  if  roused  by  necessity.  Small  offences  are  punished 
by  confinement  in  the  guard-house,  or  boofka,  and  greater  ones  by 
a  thrashing  administered  by  the  commander  in  person  ;  those  who 
commit  considerable  crimes  are  forced  to  run  the  gauntlet,  receive 
one  or  two  hundred  blows  with  a  stick,  or  in  extreme  cases  are  sent 
for  trial  to  Sitka,  or,  in  case  of  murder,  to  St.  Petersburg. 

The  present  Uprovalisha,  Stepanofif,  has  been  in  office  about 
four  years.  He  is  a  middle-aged  man  of  great  energy  and  iron 
will,  with  the  Russian  fondness  for  strong  liquor  and  with  un- 
governable passions  in  certain  directions.  He  has  a  soldier's  con- 
tempt for  making  money  by  small  ways,  a  certain  code  of  honor 
of  his  own,  is  generous  in  his  own  way,  and  seldom  does  a  mean 
thing  when  he  is  sober,  but  nevertheless  is  a  good  deal  of  a  brute. 
He  will  gamble  and  drink  in  the  most  democratic  way  with  his 
workmen,  and  bears  no  malice  for  a  black  eye  when  received  in  a 
drunken  brawl ;  but  woe  to  the  unfortunate  who  infringes  discipline 
while  he  is  sober,  for  he  shall  certainly  receive  his  reward  ;  and 
Stepanoft'  often  says  of  his  men,  when  speaking  to  an  American, 
"  You  can  e.xpect  nothing  good  of  this  rabble :  they  left  Russia 
because  they  were  not  wanted  there." 


THK    YIKON    TERRITORY 


13 


The  commanders,  or  hi(/(irs/ii/cs,  of  the  smaller  posts  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  St.  Michael  are  appointed  by  Stepanoff,  who  has  absolute 
authority  over  them,  and  does  not  fail  to  let  them  understand  it, 
making  them  row  his  boat,  when  the  annual  supply-ship  is  in  port, 
as  Alexander  might  have  called  his  captive  kings  to  do  him  menial 
service.  But  Stepanotf  trembles  before  the  captain  of  the  ship  or 
an  old  officer  of  the  Company,  much  in  the  same  way  that  his 
workmen  cringe  before  him.  This  sort  of  subserviency,  the  fruit 
of  a  despotic  government,  is  characteristic  of  the  lower  classes  of 
Russians  ;  and  to  such  an  extent  is  it  ingrained  in  their  characters 
that  it  seems  impossible  for  them  to  comprehend  any  motives  of 
honor  or  truthfulness  as  being  superior  to  self-interest. 

The  native  inhabitants  of  this  part  of  the  coast  belong  to  the 
great  family  of  Inniiit.  The  name  of  the  tribe  is  Unalcct,  and  their 
name  for  the  village,  half  a  mile  west  of  the  Redoubt  on  the  island 
of  St.  Michael,  is  Tsatsumi.  The  few  families  living  there  bear 
the  local  designation  of  Tutsogcmut,  much  as  w^e  should  say 
Bostonian  or  New-Yorker.  The  village  comprises  half  a  dozen 
houses  and  a  dance-house,  built  in  the  native  fashion  ;  that  is  to 
say,  half  underground,  with  the  entrance  more  or  less  so,  and  the 
roof  furnished  with  a  square  opening  in  the  centre,  for  the  escape 
of  smoke  and  admission  of  light. 


Diagram  of  Innuit  T6pek. 

They  are  built  of  spruce  logs,  without  nails  or  pins,  and  are 
usually  about  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  .square.  The  entrance  is  a 
small  hole  through  which  one  must  enter  on  hands  and  knees,  and 
is  usually  furnished  with  a  bear  or  deer  skin  or  a  piece  of  matting 
to  exclude  the  air.  Outside  of  this  entrance  is  a  passage-way, 
hardly  larger,  which  opens  under  a  small  shed,  at  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  to  protect  it  from  the  weather. 


'4 


THE    YUKON    TKRRITORV. 


They  are  about  eight  feet  high  in  the  middle,  but  the  eaves  are 
rarely  more  than  three  or  four  feet  above  the  ground.  The  floor 
is  divided  by  two  logs  into  three  areas  of  nearly  equal  size,  the 
entrance  being  at  the  end  of  the  middle  one.  This  portion  of 
the  floor  is  always  the  native  earth,  usually  hardened  by  constant 
passing  over  it.  In  the  middle,  under  the  aperture  in  the  roof, 
the  fire  is  built,  and  here  are  sometimes  placed  a  few  stones. 
On  either  side  the  portion  separated  by  the  logs  before  men- 
tioned is  occupied  as  a  place  to  sit  and  work  in  during  the  day, 
and  as  a  sleeping-place  during  the  night.  The  earth  is  usually 
cov^ered  with  straw,  or  spruce  branches  when  obtainable,  and 
over  this  is  laid  a  mat  woven  out  of  grass.  Sometimes  the 
space  is  raised,  or  a  platform  is  built  of  boards,  or  logs  hewn  flat 
on  one  side.  This  is  a  work  of  such  labor,  however,  that  it  is 
seldom  resorted  to.  The  beds,  which  generally  consist  of  a 
blanket  of  dressed  deerskin,  or  rabbit-skins  sewed  together,  are 
rolled  up  and  put  out  of  the  way  during  the  day.  Almost  all 
sorts  of  work  are  done  in  the  houses  after  the  cold  weather  sets 
in.  At  this  time,  however,  there  did  not  appear  to  be  any  people 
in  the  village,  and  Captain  Ketchum  told  me  that  they  would  not 
return  for  a  week  or  two,  being  absent  at  Pastolik.  where  they 
were  killing  the  beluga  or  white  whale.  A  solitary  old  woman, 
perhaps  of  exceptional  ugliness,  spent  her  time  picking  berries, 
which  were  abundant  near  the  village. 

Sunday,  October  yth.  —  A  party  of  natives  of  the  Mahlemut 
tribe  arrived,  in  a  skin  boat,  bringing  letters  from  Unalakli'k, 
saying  that  the  boats  had  arrived  safely  at  that  point.  The  tur- 
rets or  bastions  of  the  Russian  post  were  being  fitted  up  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  officers,  and  winter  quarters  for  the  men 
were  being  arranged  and  made  comfortable.  The  ground  was 
well  covered  with  snow,  and  we  were  advised  to  use  all  practi- 
cable expedition  in  reaching  Unalakli'k  by  water,  before  the  forma- 
tion of  ice  should  interfere  with  navigation.  The  thermometer 
averaged  9°  Fahrenheit  during  the  day,  and  no  time  was  to  be 
lost. 

We  therefore  made  arrangements  for  starting  the  next  day,  —^ 
Captain  Ketchum  and  myself  in  one  boat,  Mr.  Westdahl  our 
astronomer,  and  a  party  of  natives,  with  two  others. 

The  skin  boats,  in  which  most  of  the  travelling  by  water  is  done. 


TIIK    Vl'KON    TKKRITOKV, 


15 


are  of  three  kinds.    One  is  a  lari;e  open  boat,  flat-bottomed  and  con- 
sistiniT  ot' a  wooden  frame  tied  with  sealskin  tiioni^s.  or  n'liiiii,  and 


with  the  skins  of  the  seal  properly  prepared,  oiled,  and  sewed  to- 
gether, stretched  over  this  frame  and  held  in  place  by  walrus-skin 
line,  or  uiihoiit.  This  kind  of  boat  is  known  among  all  the  In- 
nuit  by  the  name  o6miak\  and  is  called  a  bidarrd  by  the  Russians. 


Another,  a  smaller  boat,  for  one  man,  is  made  essentially  in  the 
same  way,  but  covered  completely  over,  e.xcept  a  hole  in  which  the 
occupant  sits,  and  around  the  projecting  rim  of  which,  when  at  sea, 
he  ties  the  edge  of  a  waterproof  shirt,  called  a  kamldyka  by  the 
Russians.  This  is  securely  tied  around  the  wrists  and  face  also  ; 
the  head  being  covered  by  a  hood,  so  that  no  water  can  by  any 
means  penetrate  to  the  interior  of  the  boat.  This  boat  is  called 
by  the  natives  a  kyak,  and  by  the  Russians  a  biddrka. 

The  other  kind  is  used  only  by  the  Russians,  and  was  copied 
from  those  of  the  Aleutians,  differing  from  the  last  only  by  being 
longer  and  having  tw^o  or  three  holes  ;  it  is  adapted  to  carry  two  or 
three  people.  These  boats  are  admirably  light  and  strong,  and 
extremely  valuable  for  making  short  journeys.  It  is,  with  persons 
skilled  in  their  use,  all  but  impossible  to  swamp  them,  and  the 
Russians  have  introduced  them  into  every  part  of  the  territory 
as  an  invaluable  adjunct  to  exploration.  They  call  them  simply 
two  or  three  hcled  bidarkas.  They  are  propelled  by  single  or 
double  ended  paddles,  and  attain  an  extraordinary  speed. 

Monday,  ^th.  —  The  weather  being  clear  and  fine,  the  wind 
nearly  fair,  we  determined  to  put  off  for  Unalakli'k.  We  left  St. 
Michael's  about  noon,  Westdahl  leading,  but  the  wind  hauling 
ahead  we  ran  closer  in,  and  left  him  making  a  long  tack,  which 
Ketchum  was  rather  apprehensive  would  be  unsuccessful,  .is  it  is 


1 6  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

impossible,  or  almost  so,  to  beat  against  the  wind  with  one  of 
these  flat-bottomed  skin  boats. 

About  eight  o'clock  p.  m.  we  put  into  a  small  rocky  cove  about 
twenty-two  miles  from  the  Redoubt.  This,  from  two  small  rocky 
islets  which  protect  it,  is  known  to  the  Unaleets  as  Kegiktownik, 
a  word  derived  from  kikhUik,  meaning  an  island.  There  is  quite 
a  village  on  the  high  bank  back  of  the  cove,  and  the  inhabitants 
came  down  and  helped  us  to  haul  our  boat  up  on  a  sort  of  ways, 
built  of  round  logs,  held  in  place  by  large  masses  of  rock.  These 
are  necessary,  as  the  cove  is  very  shallow  and  so  full  of  rocks  that 
the  skin  boats  are  very  liable  to  be  cut  on  them  at  low  tide. 
There  were  no  signs  of  the  other  boats. 

The  village  is  notable  on  account  of  the  number  of  graves 
scattered  over  the  plain  about  it,  and  also  for  the  large  size  of  the 
dance-house,  or  cashic  as  the  Russians  term  it.  This  building  is 
to  be  found  in  almost  every  village,  and  serves  for  a  general  work- 
room, a  sort  of  town-hall,  a  steam  bath-house,  a  caravanserai  for 
travellers,  and  a  meeting-house  for  celebrating  their  annual  dances 
and  festivals. 

It  is  usually  the  largest  and  cleanest  house  in  the  village,  and 
generally  empty  at  night,  so  that  travellers  prefer  it  to  one  of  the 
smaller  and  more  dirty  and  crowded  houses.  In  the  present  case 
we  were  quartered  in  it  very  comfortably. 

We  immediately  sent  out  our  teakettle,  in  this  country  always 
made  of  copper,  and  universally  known  as  the  cJiynik\  —  tea  be- 
ing cJiy  in  the  Russian,  a  derivative  from  the  original  Chinese 
chaJi. 

Chy  being  ready,  we  imbibed  deeply,  and  filling  up  the  chynik 
with  water  we  dispensed  the  diluted  fluid  to  our  native  friends,  in 
the  bountiful  tin  cups  provided  by  the  Company.  A  small  hand- 
ful of  broken  biscuit  added  to  the  acceptability  of  the  treat  and 
disguised  the  weakness  of  the  chy.  This  is  the  invariable  and 
expected  tribute  to  the  hospitality  of  the  natives  from  all  travellers 
who  avail  themselves  of  the  casine  and  other  accommodations  of 
the  village  ;  for  which  the  Innuit  have  not  yet  learned  to  charge 
by  the  night's  lodging. 

Appreciating  the  banquet,  and  warmed  to  enthusiasm  b}'  the 
hot  water,  an  old  blear-eyed  individual  seized  an  article  something 
between  a  drum  and  a  tambourine,  and  began  to  beat  upon  it  with 


THE    VLKOX    TERRITORY.  I  7 

a  long  elastic  rod.  I  Ic  was  joined  by  all  the  old  men  in  the 
vicinity,  in  a  dismal  chorus  of 

Lul;  hi  yali,  ali  ha  y;ih,  yah  yah  yah,  Sec, 

keeping  time  upon  his  drum  with  an  energy  which  showed  that  the 
vigor  of  his  youth  had  not  departed  from  him. 

Four  or  five  of  the  young  men  began  to  dance,  posturing  in 
different  attitudes,  moving  their  arms  and  legs,  stamping  on  -the 
floor,  all  in  perfect  accord  with  one  another,  and  keeping  accurate 
time  with  the  drum.  We  were  too  tired,  however,  to  appreciate 
this  exhibition,  and  signified  as  much  to  the  company,  who  finalh- 
left  us  to  enjoy  a  good  night's  rest. 

Tuesday,  <^th. — We  were  awakened  by  an  officious  native,  who 
put  his  head  in,  bawling  at  the  top  of  his  lungs  that  the  weather 
was  bad,  very  bad  indeed,  and  that  we  could  not  get  away  to- 
day ;  after  which  pleasing  piece  of  information  he  left  us  to  our 
own  reflections. 

On  getting  up  and  going  out  I  found  that  the  sky  was  cloudy 
and  the  wind  adverse,  and  ordering  one  of  our  Mahlemuts  to  put 
on  the  chynik,  I  went  down  and  reported  the  situation,  which 
involved  our  remaining  a  day  or  two  where  we  were.  Breakfast, 
consisting  of  chy,  with  sugar,  —  but  of  course  no  milk,  —  biscuit, 
and  a  savory  piece  of  bacon,  was  duly  discussed  ;  and  after  a  com- 
forting pipe,  we  were  quite  ready  to  bear  our  detention  with  the 
true  voyageur's  philosophy. 

I  went  out,  and  soon  made  the  acquaintance,  by  signs  and  the 
very  few  native  words  which  I  had  picked  up,  of  a  fine-looking 
young  Mahlemut.  who  was  also  on  his  way  to  Unalakli'k  with  his 
family.  The  interview  commenced  by  his  begging  for  a  little 
tobacco,  upon  receiving  which  he  was  so  delighted  as  to  take  me 
to  his  tent,  a  poor  little  affair,  made  of  unbleached  sheeting  pro- 
cured from  the  Russians.  Here  he  introduced  me  by  signs  to  his 
wife  and  child,  the  latter  about  two  years  old.  The  former  was 
not  particularly  ugly  or  pretty,  but  was  engaged  in  manufacturing 
tinder,  which  rather  detracted  from  the  neatness  of  her  person. 
This  tinder  is  made  out  of  the  fur  of  the  rabbit,  the  down  from  the 
seed-vessels  of  the  river  poplar,  or  cotton  lint  obtained  from  the 
Russians  ;  either  of  which  is  rubbed  up  with  charcoal  and  water, 
with  a  very  little  gunpowder,  and  then  dried.     The  rubbing  pro- 


1 8  THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 

cess  was  just  going  on,  and  I  was  thankful  that  etiquette  did  not 
require  hand-shaking,  among  the  Innuit  of  Norton  Sound.  The 
husband  was  a  fine-looking,  athletic  fellow,  standing  about  five 
feet  five  inches,  with  a  clear  brunette  complexion,  fine  color,  dark 
eyes,  and  finely  arched  eyebrows.  The  flat  nose,  common  to  all 
the  Eskimo  tribes,  was  not  very  strongly  marked  in  him,  and  a 
pleasant  smile  displaying  two  rows  of  very  white  teeth  conquered 
any  objection  I  might  have  felt  to  his  large  mouth.  The  baby 
looked  like  any  other  baby,  and  was  notable  only  from  never  show- 
ing any  disposition  to  disturb  the  peace. 

Returning  after  a  while  to  the  casine,  I  observed  that  the  aper- 
ture in  the  roof  was  closed  by  a  covering  composed  of  the  intestines 
of  seals,  cut  down  on  one  side,  cleaned,  oiled,  and  sewed  together 
into  a  sheet,  which  is  sufficiently  translucent  to  admit  the  light 
while  it  retains  the  warm  air. 

The  universal  salutation  of  the  Innuit  is  CJiavimi !  CJiamnii ! 
and  as  likely  as  not,  some  greasy  old  fellow  will  hug  you  like 
a  brother  upon  a  first  meeting.  As  they  are  given  to  raising  a 
certain  kind  of  live-stock,  this  method  of  proceeding  is  not  likely 
to  suit  the  fastidious. 

A  note  arrived  from  Westdahl  by  a  native,  one  of  his  crew, 
saying  that  on  account  of  rough  weather  he  had  been  obliged 
to  put  into  a  small  cove,  some  miles  south  of  us,  had  cut  his 
bidarra  on  the  rocks  and  wet  almost  everything. 

Ketchum  immediately  despatched  four  men  with  a  needle,  some 
twisted  thread  made  of  deer  sinew,  called  gila,  and  a  piece  of  seal- 
skin prepared  for  use,  technically  known  as  luvtdk.  These,  with 
some  grease  to  rub  on  the  seam,  are  all  that  is  needed  to  repair 
any  injury  done  to  the  skin  of  a  bidarra  or  bidarka. 

Wednesday,  \otJi.  —  The  water  of  the  little  cove  in  front  of  the 
village  was  white  with  foam  when  wc  rose  in  the  morning  :  evi- 
dently we  were  not  to  get  away  yet.  We  walked  over  to  a  sniall 
bay  on  the  other  side  of  the  point  on  which  Kegiktowruk  is  situ- 
ated. Here  we  found  a  cache,  that  is  to  say,  a  kind  of  small  log  en- 
closure about  six  feet  square,  covered  with  logs  held  down  by  heavy 
stones.  In  it  were  the  bodies  of  four  small  hair  seal,  called  nerpa 
by  the  Russians  and  iiiksiik  by  the  Mahlemuts.  They  are  covered 
with  short,  stiff  hair  of  a  greenish  silvery  tinge,  with  darker  spots 
surrounded  by  dark  rings,  especially  on  the  back.     The  young  are 


I 


THE    YIKOX     rKRKlTORV.  19 

very  beautiful,  covered  with  Ioiil^,  silky,  silvery  hair,  softer  than  in 
the  adult  and  without  the  dark  spots.  They  are  about  eighteen 
inches  long,  and  the  adults  not  more  than  four  feet.  The  flippers 
have  five  long  nails  and  are  covered  with  hair  like  that  on  the 
boily.  The  eye  of  the  seal  is  black,  very  large  and  liquid, 
almost  human  in  its  expression,  and  the  whiskers  are  placed  like 
those  on  a  cat  ;  the  bristles  are  perfectly  transparent,  three-sided 
and  twisted,  looking  like  glass  threads,  about  four  inches  long. 
The  blood  of  these  seal  is  very  black,  and  so  is  the  flesh,  both 
having  a  slightly  disagreeable  odor  when  fresh.  They  are  caught 
in  rawhide  nets.  There  is  a  much  larger  seal  (like  Phoca  jiibatd) 
which  is  called  inaklok  by  the  natives ;  the  name  has  been 
frequently  applied  to  both  species,  but  erroneously.  The  fat  or 
blubber  is  about  an  inch  and  a  half  thick,  very  white  and  firm. 
The  natives  eat  it,  as  well  as  the  meat,  and  trade  it  with  the 
Indians  of  the  interior.  The  oil  is  used  for  burning,  and  the 
casine  is  lighted  by  means  of  four  saucer-shaped  dishes  full  of 
dry  moss  or  sphagnum  soaked  in  this  oil,  which  give  out  quite 
as  much  smoke  as  light. 

Returning,  our  attention  was  attracted  by  the  numerous 
graves.  These  are  well  worth  the  careful  attention  of  the  eth- 
nologist ;  many  of  them  are  very  old.  The  usual  fashion  is  to 
place  the  body,  doubled  up,  on  its  side,  in  a  box  of  plank  hewed 
out  of  spruce  logs  and  about  four  feet  long  ;  this  is  elevated  sev- 
eral feet  above  the  ground  on  four  posts,  which  project  above  the 
coffin  or  box.  The  sides  are  often  painted  with  red  chalk,  in  fig- 
ures of  fur  animals,  birds,  and  fishes.  According  to  the  wealth 
of  the  dead  man,  a  number  of  articles  which  belonged  to  him  are 
attached  to  the  coffin  or  strewed  around  it.  Some  of  them  have 
kyaks,  bows  and  arrows,  hunting  implements,  snowshoes  or  even 
kettles,  around  the  grave  or  fastened  to  it ;  and  almost  invariably 
the  wooden  dish,  or  kaiitdg,  from  which  the  deceased  was  accu.s- 
tomed  to  eat  is  hung  on  one  of  the  posts. 

There  are  many  more  graves  than  present  inhabitants  of  the 
village,  and  the  story  is  that  the  whole  coast  was  once  much  more 
densely  populated. 

On  arriving  at  the  casine  we  met  some  men  carrying  long  sticks 
of  light-wood,  and  were  requested  to  remove  our  bedding  and  other 
traps  from  the  building,  as  the  inhabitants  were  about  to  take  a 


20  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

bath.  This  we  did,  much  to  our  disgust,  and  adjourned  to  one  of 
the  houses  till  it  should  be  over,  as  a  cold  wind  was  blowing. 

These  baths  are  made  by  building  a  very  hot  fire  in  the  casine, 
the  middle  part  of  the  floor  being  removable,  so  that  the  earth 
may  be  exposed.  Here  the  fire  is  built,  and  when  it  has  sub- 
sided into  coals  the  gut  cover  before  mentioned  is  put  over  the 
smoke-hole,  and  the  inmates  proceed  to  bathe  themselves  in  an 
unmentionable  liquid,  which  is  carefully  saved  for  this  and  other 
purposes.  Strange  as  it  may  appear,  this  habit  was  not  con- 
tracted without  reason,  for  the  alkaline  properties  of  this  fluid 
combine  with  the  oil  with  which  they  are  smeared,  and  form  a 
soapy  lather,  which  cleanses  as  thoroughly  as  soap,  which  they 
cannot  obtain,  and  removes  the  dirt,  which  water  alone  would  not 
do.  After  this  they  wash  off  with  water  and  retire  to  certain 
shelves,  which  are  placed  near  the  roof  of  the  building,  and  repose, 
wrapped  in  a  deerskin,  until  the  lassitude  produced  by  the  bath 
passes  away. 

We  waited  as  long  as  possible  before  entering  the  casine,  but  as 
evening  came  on  we  were  obliged  to  return  to  it.  As  might  be 
supposed,  the  ammoniacal  odor  was  nearly  stifling,  and  only  the 
raw,  blustering  weather  prevented  us  from  sleeping  outside. 

T/mrsday,  nth.  —  To  our  great  delight  the  sea  had  gone 
down  a  good  deal  and  the  wind  was  fair.  We  bundled  our 
things  into  the  boat,  and  although  short-handed  —  two  of  our 
men  having  remained  with  Westdahl  —  we  put  out  about  eight 
o'clock,  and  just  as  we  rounded  the  point  saw  the  other  boats, 
which  had  repaired  damages,  following.  The  character  of  the 
shore  is  abrupt  and  rocky  from  the  Redoubt  to  Kegiktowruk, 
thence  to  Golsova  River,  known  by  the  two  small  islets  or  rather 
rocks  in  the  vicinity,  and  finally  around  Tolstoi  Point  to  a 
place  called  Topanika.  There  are  very  few  points  at  which 
a  boat,  especially  a  skin  boat,  can  land  even  in  perfectly  smooth 
weather,  and  in  rough  weather  only  two  between  Tolstoi  Point 
and  the  Redoubt.  The  first  of  these  is  the  Major's  Cove,  so 
named  because  it  was  the  first  point  at  which  Major  Kennicott 
landed,  after  leaving  St.  Michael's  with  his  party.  The  other 
is  Kegiktowruk.  We  passed  Tolstoi  Point  and  reached  To- 
panika in  safety.  Here  there  is,  except  at  high  tide,  a  narrow, 
shelving  beach,  backed  by  perpendicular  walls  of  sandstone  in 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  21 

blufts  from  twenty  to  one  hundred  feet  hii;h.  This  beach  con- 
tinues all  the  way  to  the  mouth  of  the  Unalaklik  River,  the  bluff 
growing  gradually  lower,  until  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  there 
is  only  a  marshy  plain  behind  the  beach.  As  the  wind  was  light 
we  sent  two  of  our  men  ashore  with  a  long  mahout  line  to  "track" 
the  boats  along  the  beach.  We  were  now  about  ten  English  miles 
from  Unalaklik.  The  wind  blowing  fair  and  freshening,  we  took 
our  men  on  board  and  made  a  straight  course  for  the  mouth  of  the 
river.  ^Meanwhile  it  was  growing  dark.  I  had  been  snoozing 
under  a  deerskin  for  an  hour  or  two,  as  the  air  was  very  cold, 
but  finally  took  up  the  paddle  to  warm  myself,  when  Ketchum's 
experienced  ear  caught  the  crunch  of  ice,  and  in  a  minute  we  were 
into  it.  Large  cakes  about  four  inches  thick  covered  the  surface  of 
the  water,  and  we  all  had  our  hands  full  in  staving  them  off,  as 
they  would  have  sunk  the  boat  had  they  nipped  us.  We  were  not 
far  from  shore  ;  the  lights  at  the  trading-post  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  were  plainly  visible.  We  fired  several  shots,  but  appar- 
ently without  rousing  any  one,  and  were  obliged  to  go  nearly  a 
mile  north  of  the  post  to  find  a  bit  of  beach  sufficiently  clear  of 
ice  to  land  upon.  Having  succeeded  in  hauling  the  boat  above 
high-water  mark,  we  stumbled  amongst  the  driftwood  with  which 
the  beach  was  strewn,  up  to  the  fort  or  trading-post,  which 
was  closed,  every  one  being  asleep.  We  soon  roused  them,  how- 
ever, and  after  a  regale  of  tea  and  bread  I  appropriated  the  bed 
of  a  Russian,  and  sank  to  slumber,  surrounded  and  overrun  by 
not  less  than  thirty  thousand  adult  cockroaches  and  their  families. 

Friday,  \2th.  —  Rose  with  the  determination  of  going  some- 
where where  there  were  no  tcrrakdnoff,  as  the  Russians  call  the 
insects  with  which  their  apartment  was  infested.  I  obtained  a 
tent,  pitched  it,  and  moved  most  of  my  traps  out  into  it.  Planted 
a  flag-pole  and  threw  the  ensign  of  the  Scientific  Corps  to  the 
breeze,  with  the  resolution  to  carry  the  blue  cross  and  scallop, 
before  the  year  was  out,  where  no  other  flag  had  yet  floated,  if 
that  were  possible. 

I  began  to  provide  myself  with  suitable  clothing,  such  as  the 
natives  wear.  First,  an  artcgi,  or  parka,  as  the  Russians  call  it. 
This  is  a  .shirt  of  dressed  deerskin,  with  the  hair  on,  coming  down 
to  the  knees,  and  to  be  confined  by  a  belt  around  the  waist. 
There  is  no  opening  in   the  breast  or  back,  but  a  hood   large 


2  2  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

enough  to  cover  the  head,  which  may  be  pushed  back  when  not 
needed.  This  garment  is  trimmed  around  the  skirt,  wrists,  and 
hood  with  strips  of  white  deerskin  and  woh'erine  or  wolfskin, 
both  of  which  are  highly  prized  for  the  purpose.  Around  the 
hood  the  wolfskin  is  broad  and  taken  from  the  back  of  the  animal, 
where  the  longest  hairs  are  barred  with  white  and  black,  which, 
when  the  hood  is  drawn  up,  makes  a  kind  of  halo  about  the  face 
which  is  not  unbecoming.  When  travelling,  these  long  hairs 
shield  the  face  from  a  side  wind  to  a  surprising  extent.  The 
parka  is  exceedingly  warm,  and  the  wind  does  not  penetrate  it  ; 
while  in  exceedingly  cold  weather  a  light  one,  made  of  fawn-skin, 
or  zviperotky,  as  the  Russians  term  it,  may  be  worn  with  the  hair 
turned  in,  inside  of  the  usual  garment,  which  is  made  of  various 
skins,  according  to  the  fancy.  The  fall  skin  of  the  young  deer, 
known  as  needrcss,  is  the  most  common  and  perhaps  the  best. 
The  skins  of  Parry's  marmot  {Spcnnophilus  Parryi)  and  the  musk- 
rat  {Fiber  zibethiais)  are  praised  for  their  durability,  and  wipe- 
rotky  parkies  are  neat  and  light,  but  do  not  last  long.  On  the 
whole  the  needress  is  as  strong,  durable,  and  warm  as  any,  and 
almost  as  handsome  when  well  trimmed. 

The  next  most  important  articles  are  the  torbassd  or  Eskimo 
boots.  These  are  made  of  the  skin  of  the  reindeer's  legs,  where 
the  hair  is  short,  smooth,  and  stiff.  These  are  sewed  together  to 
make  the  tops  of  the  boots,  which  come  up  nearly  to  the  knee, 
where  they  are  tied  The  sole  is  made  of  sealskin,  or  luvtak  pre- 
pared in  the  same  way  as  for  making  boats.  This  sole  is  turned 
over  at  heel  and  toe,  and  gathered  like  the  skirt  of  a  dress,  so  as  to 
protect  those  parts,  and  broughi  up  on  each  side.  It  is  of  course 
nearly  waterproof  and  rather  durable,  but  can  be  easily  replaced  in 
half  an  hour  by  a  new  one  if  necessary.  It  is  wetted  before  being 
sewed,  which  makes  the  sealskin  flexible,  and  the  proper  formation 
of  the  toe  is  aided  by  the  teeth  of  the  seamstress.  In  wearing 
these  boots,  which  are  made  much  larger  than  the  foot,  a  pad  of 
dry  grass,  folded  to  the  shape  of  the  sole,  is  worn  under  the  foot. 
This  absorbs  any  moisture,  serves  as  a  non-conductor,  and  protects 
the  foot  from  the  inequalities  of  ice  or  the  soil.  The  whole  fur- 
nishes a  warm  and  comfortable  covering,  indispensable  to  winter 
travel.  There  are  a  pair  of  strings,  one  on  each  side,  which  are 
tied  about  the  ankle,  supporting  it  and  preventing  the  foot  from 
slipping  about  in  the  boot. 


THE    VIKOX    TRRKITORV, 


23 


Deerskin  breeches  are  worn  by  ihe  natixx-s.  but  are  rarely 
needed  by  white  men  when  provided  with  clothing  of  ordinary 
warmth  and   thickness. 

The  value  of  a  good  parka  is  at  present  about  six  dollars. 
Boots  and  other  articles  are  usually  obtained  by  barter.  Ten 
musket-balls  and  a  few  caps  are  the  regular  price  for  a  pair  of 
torbassa,  a  pair  of  deerskin  mittens  being  worth  from  four  to  si.x 
balls ;  ornamental  gloves  and  other  articles  are  more  or  less 
costly,  according  to  the  amount  of  work  and  the  scarcity  of  the 
article  at  the  time.  So  far,  the  natives  have  not  yet  learned  to 
make  a  well-shaped  thumb  to  gloves  and  mittens,  a  triangular 
shapeless  protuberance  serving  their  needs,  but  they  may  be  easily 
taught  a  better  mode  of  manufacture. 

A  deer  or  bear  skin  in  the  raw,  dry  state  is  used  as  a  bed,  and 
a  blanket  of  dressed  deer  or  rabbit  skins,  in  addition  to  a  pair  of 
woollen  ones,  completes  the  list  of  articles  needed  for  winter 
travel,  though  a  small  pillow  is  a  great  addition  to  one's  com- 
fort. A  deerskin  is  worth,  at  the  regular  price,  about  si.xt}' 
cents. 

For  a  number  of  days  nothing  occurred  of  special  interest. 
Captain  Ketchum  delayed  starting  across  the  portage  to  the 
Yukon  for  Nulato,  as  it  was  still  doubtful  whether  all  the  small 
rivers  were  securely  frozen  over.  I  found  my  nights  in  the  tent 
not  uncomfortable,  though  the  thermometer  ranged  from  twenty- 
eight  to  zero  of  Fahrenheit.  Waking  one  morning,  I  found  myself 
so  deeply  snowed  up  that  I  had  a  good  deal  of  difficulty  in  get- 
ting out  of  the  tent.  It  proved  to  be  only  a  drift,  however.  A 
tin  dipper  of  water  frozen  the  first  night  showed  no  signs  of 
melting. 

The  Russian  trading-post  at  this  point  is  much  smaller  than 
the  Redoubt.  It  is  in  rather  a  decayed  condition,  and  has  only 
two  glass  windows,  the  remainder  being  made  of  gut,  as  used  by 
the  natives.     Glass  is  a  rare  article  here. 

The  stockade  is  built  after  the  same  plan  as  that  at  St. 
Michael's,  and  encloses  one  barrack  building,  with  a  room  for 
the  commander,  a  store,  cook-hou.se,  bath-house,  and  a  shed  for 
storing  oil,  &c. ;  it  is  defended  by  two  square  bastions  pierced 
for  cannon.  The  guns  had  lately  been  removed,  and  the 
turrets  fitted  up  for  the  accommodation  of  our  officers.     They 


24  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

were  of  the  most  antiquated  description,  and  likely  to  do  as 
much  damage  by  the  breech  as  by  the  muzzle. 

The  fort  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Unalakli'k  River, 
where  it  empties  into  Norton  Sound.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
built  in  1840  and  1841. 

To  the  north  are  two  assemblages  of  houses  occupied  by  Innuit 
of  the  Kaviak,  Mahlemut,  and  Unaleet  tribes  during  part  of  the 
year,  the  latter  being  the  only  permanent  residents.  The  village 
was  formerly  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  but,  an  epi- 
demic occurring,  they  removed  and  built  new  houses  on  the 
north  side.  The  remains  of  the  old  houses  and  the  graves  may 
be  distinctly  traced. 

The  steamer  Wilder,  with  the  assistance  of  several  hundred 
natives  and  our  own  party,  under  the  direction  of  Captain  Smith, 
had  been  hauled  up  on  the  beach  beyond  the  reach  of  the  ice, 
and  might  be  considered  as  in  winter  quarters. 

The  Captain,  who  was  an  enthusiastic  and  successful  sportsman, 
gave  me  the  first  specimens  I  had  seen  of  the  beautiful  snow- 
white  arctic  grouse  {Lagopjis  albits),  which  may  be  started  in 
coveys  on  all  the  plains  around  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

The  beach  at  Unalakli'k  is  shelving  and  sandy,  and  is  bounded 
by  a  ridge,  on  which  the  houses  are  built.  Back  of  this  ridge  the 
land  is  low,  and  overflowed  for  some  distance  when  the  freshets 
occur  in  the  spring  ;  beyond  this  low  strip,  which  is  parallel 
with  the  beach,  it  rises  slowly  and  evenly,  culminating  in  the 
ridges  of  the  Shaktolik  hills,  which  trend  in  a  northeast  and 
southwesterly  direction,  and  attain  a  height  of  about  a  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea.  Several  miles  north  of  the  river  they  come 
down  to  the  shore  in  high  bluffs  of  gray  sandstone.  The  coun- 
try to  the  south,  already  mentioned,  is  much  the  same,  though 
the  hills  are  farther  inland  and  attain  a  higher  elevation.  From 
the  beach  near  the  fort,  Besborough  Island  may  be  seen  standing 
sharply  and  precipitously  out  of  the  sea,  about  thirty  miles  north- 
northwest.  Egg  Island  and  Stuart's  Island,  to  the  southwest,  are 
so  low  that  it  is  only  on  a  very  clear  day,  with  a  faint  mirage 
to  elevate  them,  that  they  can  be  distinguished.  Covered  with 
snow  and  without  trees,  the  easy  slopes  and  gracefully  rounded 
hills  have  an  aspect  of  serene  beauty  ;  the  effect  on  a  calm  moon- 
light evening  is  delightful. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  25 

Thursday,  October  25///.  —  Captain  Ketchuni  having  made  up 
his  mind  to  an  early  start  across  the  portage,  we  entered  on  the 
necessary  preparations  for  our  journey.  Appointing  Lieutenant 
F.  M.  Smith  Acting  Surgeon  for  the  Unalakh'k  party,  I  divided 
our  exceedingly  insufficient  supply  of  medicines  v^ith  him.  The 
liberal  scale  on  which  everything  was  purchased  allowed  of  no  ex- 
cuse for  the  inefficiency  and  red  tape  which  left  fifty  men  for  a  year, 
in  a  country  where  nothing  of  the  kind  was  obtainable,  with  a  sup- 
ply of  medicines  which  could  be  packed  into  a  Manila  cigar-box. 

The  proposed  party  for  Nulato  was  composed  of  Captain 
Ketchum  in  charge  of  that  division,  Mr.  Frederick  Whymper 
the  artist  of  the  Expedition,  Mr.  Francis  the  engineer  of  the 
Wilder,  Lieutenant  Michael  Lebarge,  a  constructor  who  may  be 
called  Scratchett,  and  myself.  Mr.  Dyer  the  quartermaster  pro- 
posed to  join  us  later  in  the  season.  It  will  doubtless  be  noticed 
that  this  comprised  some  six  officers  to  one  man,  but  it  must 
be  recollected  that  the  work  laid  out  for  the  coming  year  in  our 
division  comprehended  only  exploration,  and  that  we  relied  on 
the  Lidians  in  the  vicinity  of  Nulato  for  such  manual  labor  as 
we  should  need.  The  following  season  we  expected  to  receive  a 
large  number  of  constructors,  who  should  proceed  to  build  the 
line  as  soon  as  the  route  was  determined. 

We  intended  to  travel  with  dogs  and  sleds,  the  universal  and 
only  practicable  mode  of  winter  transportation  in  this  country. 
The  sleds,  harness,  and  so  forth,  I  shall  take  another  opportunity 
of  describing  minutely,  and  will  only  state  at  present  that  the 
dogs  are  about  the  size  of  those  of  Newfoundland,  with  shorter 
legs,  and  of  all  colors,  from  white,  gray,  and  piebald  to  black. 
They  are  harnessed  to  the  sled  on  each  side  of  a  line,  to  which 
the  traces  are  attached,  —  two  and  two,  with  a  leader  in  front ; 
and  the  usual  number  is  either  five  or  seven,  according  to  the 
load.  They  will  draw  when  in  good  condition  about  one  hun- 
dred pounds  apiece  with  the  help  of  the  driver,  who  seldom  rides, 
unless  over  a  smooth  bit  of  ice  or  with  an  empty  sled.  The  sleds 
of  the  Eskimo  are  heavy,  and  shod  with  bone  sawed  from  the 
upper  edge  of  the  jaw  of  the  bowhead  whale.  These  bones  are 
obtained  in  the  vicinity  of  Bering  Strait,  and  good  ones  are  quite 
valuable.  The  remainder  of  the  sled  is  made  of  spruce  wood. 
They  will   carry   from  six   to   eight  hundred  pounds.     The  sleds 


26  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

used  in  the  interior  are  much  Hghter  and  difterently  constructed. 
The  Eskimo  sleds  are  suitable  only  for  travelling  over  ice  and 
the  hard  snow  of  the  coast. 

Saturday,  2'jtJL.  —  Having  loaded  four  sleds  and  finding  the 
number  of  dogs  insufficient,  we  sent  down  to  the  village  and  pro- 
cured an  additional  supply,  seizing  any  stray  dog  whose  owners 
were  not  forthcoming,  and  pressing  him  into  the  service.  About 
eleven  o'clock,  just  as  we  were  ready  to  start,  an  old  woman,  howl- 
ing dismally,  cut  the  harness  of  one  of  these  conscripts  and  let  him 
go.  He  was,  however,  immediately  secured,  the  old  woman  paci- 
fied with  a  small  present  of  tobacco  ;  and  with  a  salute  of  one  gun 
from  the  fort  and  a  volley  of  revolver  shots  from  our  friends  we 
started  up  the  Unalakli'k  River  on  the  ice.  We  got  along  very  well, 
with  the  usual  number  of  small  casualties,  such  as  the  loss  of  one 
or  two  of  the  vicious  dogs,  who  gnawed  their  harness  in  two,  and 
the  breaking  of  the  bones  with  which  some  of  the  sleds  were 
shod.  We  proceeded  until  darkness  and  an  open  spot  in  the 
river  arrested  our  progress,  and  we  camped  on  the  bank  for 
the  night.  The  atmosphere  being  about  ten  below  zero,  we 
all  relished  our  tea,  biscuit,  and  bacon,  and  the  ever-grateful  pipe 
which  followed  it,  before  retiring.  No  tents  are  used  in  the 
winter,  as  they  become  coated  with  ice  from  the  breath  of  the 
sleepers  and  are  also  liable  to  take  fire  ;  so,  pulling  our  blankets 
over  our  heads,  we  slept  very  comfortably,  with  nothing  above  us 
except  the  branches  of  the  spruce-trees  and  the  canopy  of  the  sky. 
The  trees  commence  as  soon  as  we  get  sufficiently  far  up  the  river 
to  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  coast  winds  and  salt  air,  and  are  prin- 
cipally willows,  birch,  poplar,  and  spruce. 

Sunday,  28///. — Woke  to  the  disagreeable  discovery  that  four 
of  our  dogs  had  taken  advantage  of  the  darkness  to  gnaw  their 
sealskin  harnesses  and  decamp  to  Unalakli'k.  Pushing  on,  literally, 
with  only  three  dogs,  and  five  hundred  pounds  on  the  sled,  I  found 
rather  hard  work  for  a  beginner.  At  last,  about  noon,  we  arrived 
at  the  first  Indian  village,  called  Iktigalik,  where  we  unloaded  our 
sleds,  fed  our  dogs,  and  went  into  an  Indian  house  built  after  the 
Eskimo  fashion  and  very  clean  and  comfortable. 

Iktigalik  is  a  fishing  village  with  a  larger  population  in  summer 
than  in  winter.  On  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  which  is  about  six 
hundred  feet  wide,  are  eight  or  ten   summer  houses,  built  on  the 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  2'] 

bank,  of  split  spruce  logs  driven  into  the  ground,  and  roofed 
with  birch  bark.  The  door  is  at  the  end  facing  the  river,  and  is 
an  oval  opening  some  three  feet  high.  The  houses  are  about 
twelve  feet  square  and  entirely  above  ground,  as  in  summer  the 
underground  houses  are  full  of  water.  Behind  these  houses  are 
the  caches,  called  kradoiuoi  by  the  Russians.  They  are  simply 
small  houses,  about  six  feet  square  and  high,  elevated  from  six  to 
ten  feet  above  the  ground  on  four  upright  posts.  They  are  well 
roofed  and  are  used  only  as  storehouses  for  provisions,  dry  fish, 
and  furs,  and  are  thus  elevated  in  order  that  dampness  or  field- 
mice  may  not  gain  access  to  them  ;  much  like  an  old-fashioned 
corn-crib.  Frames  are  also  erected  where  the  sleds,  boats,  and 
snow-shoes  may  be  put  out  of  the  way  of  the  dogs,  who  are  always 
on  the  alert  for  any  animal  substance,  and  will  eat  sealskin  and 
even  tanned  leather  with  avidity,  even  when  moderately  well 
fed. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  river  are  two  winter  houses  and  several 
caches.  One  of  these  houses  was  the  property  of  an  old  and 
rather  wealthy  Indian,  as  Indians  go,  who  had  been  christened 
Ami'lka  by  the  Russians.  Ami'lka  was  anxious  to  obtain  the  title 
of  Tyone,  or  chief,  which  is  here  merely  a  title  and  conveys  no 
authority  except  what  age  and  wealth  may  bring  with  it.  He 
had  been  invested  with  the  title  by  the  explorers  during  the  pre- 
vious season,  and,  though  an  exceedingly  mean  old  fellow,  had 
been  of  some  assistance  to  them.  In  the  house  with  him  were  his 
wife,  a  very  fine-looking  Indian  woman  of  considerable  intelli- 
gence ;  and  a  young  fellow  called  Ingechuk  by  the  Russians,  who 
had  a  wife  about  four  feet  high,  of  whom  he  was  exceedingly 
fond  and  jealous.  The  other  occupants  were  an  intelligent  fellow 
known  as  Andrea,  and  his  wife,  an  old,  very  ugly,  but  dignified 
and  hospitable  woman.  On  our  entering,  she  ordered  some  one 
to  clear  a  place,  and  spreading  out  a  clean  grass  mat  motioned  to 
us  to  be  seated.  Without  relaxing  her  diligent  oversight  of  the 
children  around  her,  of  her  work,  or  of  a  kettle  that  was  boiling 
by  the  fire,  she  sent  out  to  the  cache  and  obtained  some  dried 
backfat  of  the  reindeer,  the  greatest  delicacy  in  this  part  of  the 
world  ;  cutting  it  into  pieces  of  uniform  size,  she  placed  it  on  a 
clean  wooden  dish  and  handed  it  to  us,  with  an  air  of  quiet  dig- 
nity quite  unaffected,  and  as  elegant  as  that  displayed  by  many  a 


28  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

civilized  dame  when  doing  the  honors  of  a  palace.  No  return 
was  asked  or  expected,  but  a  present  of  a  few  leaves  of  tobacco 
was  received  with  thanks.  The  backfat,  when  toasted  over  the 
fire,  has  a  rich  nutty  flavor  and  is  extremely  good. 

The  other  house  was  occupied  by  a  dirty  old  rascal  called 
Matfay,  and  another,  equally  dirty  and  more  stupid,  called  Meesh- 
ka.  Matfay  bore  his  greedy  and  deceitful  disposition  plainly  im- 
pressed on  his  countenance,  and  evidently  felt  aggrieved  that  we 
had  not  honored  his  house  with  our  presence,  instead  of  sending 
our  Mahlemuts  there,  who  would  make  him  no  presents. 

Ketchum  had  actually  gone  into  his  place  at  first,  thinking,  as 
the  house  was  new,  that  it  would  be  the  cleaner  of  the  two  ;  but 
after  a  glance  at  it  had  beaten  a  hasty  retreat. 

These  Indians  belong  to  a  branch  of  the  family  of  Ti'nneh,  or 
Chippewayans,  similar  to  those  of  Mackenzie  River  ;  their  tribal 
name  is  Ingalik,  or,  in  their  own  language,  Kaiyiili-khatdna,  or 
people  of  the  lowlands.  The  tribe  extends  from  the  edge  of 
the  wooded  district  near  the  sea  to  and  across  the  Yukon  be- 
low Nulato,  on  the  Yukon  and  its  affluents  to  the  head  of  the 
delta,  and  across  the  portage  to  the  Kuskoqui'm  River  and  its 
branches.  Many  of  the  adults  have  been  christened,  but  not 
Christianized,  by  the  missionaries  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  are 
usually  known  by  their  Russian  names.  They  retain  and  use 
among  themselves,  however,  their  original  Indian  names. 

Monday,  29///.  —  After  a  long  night's  rest,  woke  a  good  deal 
refreshed,  though  rather  stiff",  and  enjoyed  our  breakfast  thor- 
oughly. Francis  and  myself  took  a  walk  some  distance  up  the 
river,  finding  many  open  places  in  the  ice.  After  our  return  I 
made  a  few  sketches  of  the  houses  and  Indians,  and  obtained  a 
beginning  of  a  vocabulary  of  Ingalik  words.  These  Indians  all 
understand  a  little  Russian,  and  by  this  means  are  enabled  to 
communicate  with  the  whites.  No  one  in  the  territory  under- 
stands any  English.  The  Innuit,  especially  the  Mahlemut  dia- 
lect, is  so  easy  to  acquire  that  the  fur-traders  learn  it  in  prefer- 
ence to  attempting  the  difficult  task  of  teaching  them  Russian. 
Very  few  of  the  Innuit  understand  any  Russian,  while  almost  all 
the  Russians  understand  some  Eskimo.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Indian  dialect  is  so  much  harder  to  learn  than  the  Russian, 
that  the  Indians  pick  up  Russian  with  facility,  while  none  of  the 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


29 


Russians,  except  an  old  interpreter  named  Teleezhik,  know  more 
than  a  few  words  of  the  Indian  dialects. 

In  the  afternoon  Ingechuk  brought  us  some  white  grouse  and 
some  fresh  reindeer  meat.  Of  the  latter  a  delicious  dish  was  con- 
cocted, which  I  will  describe  for  the  benefit  of  future  explorers. 
It  was  invented  by  the  members  of  Kennicott's  party  during  the 
first  year's  explorations.  The  frozen  reindeer  meat  was  cut  into 
small  cubes  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  An  equal  amount  of 
backfat  was  treated  in  the  same  way.  Hardly  covered  with 
water,  this  was  simmered  in  a  stewpan  for  nearly  an  hour ;  water, 
pepper,  and  salt  being  added  as  needed.  When  nearly  done,  a 
little  more  water  was  added,  and  the  finely  broken  biscuit  from  the 
bottom  of  the  bread-bag  slowly  stirred  in,  until  the  whole  of  the 
gravy  was  absorbed.  This  done,  we  sat  down  to  enjoy  a  dish 
which  would  have  awakened  enthusiasm  at  the  table  of  Lucullus. 
It  was  known  among  the  initiated  as  "  telegraph  stew,"  and  the 
mere  mention  of  its  name  would  no  doubt  touch,  in  the  breast  of 
any  one  of  them,  a  chord  of  electric  sympathy. 

The  Russian  name  for  the  reindeer  is  alene,  perhaps  derived 
from  the  French.  These  deer  are  migratory,  feeding  on  the  twigs 
of  the  willow  and  the  fine  white  moss,  or  rather  lichen,  which  is  to 
be  found  on  every  hillside.  They  frequent  the  hills  during  the 
summer,  and  are  driven  thence  only  by  the  mosquitoes  to  seek 
refuge  in  the  water.  In  the  fall  and  winter  they  prefer  the  more 
sheltered  valleys,  and  appear  on  the  plains  in  immense  herds  in 
the  spring. 

Tuesday,  30///.  —  Walked  down  the  river,  and,  looking  into  some 
deserted  Indian  huts,  obtained  some  exquisite  green  mosses  and 
lichens  which  were  flourishing  there  notwithstanding  the  cold 
weather. 

A  number  of  sleds  arrived  from  Unalakli'k,  bringing  a  large 
amount  of  goods  and  provisions  for  transmission  to  Nulato. 

On  the  rolling  plain  between  the  summer  houses  and  the  bases 
of  the  Uliikuk  Hills  I  found  the  larch  {Larix  inicivcarpa  ? )  grow- 
ing sparingly  to  the  height  of  twelve  feet,  and  abundance  of  alders. 
The  snow-covered  sides  of  these  symmetrical  hills  stood  out  with 
striking  beauty  against  the  dark  clouds  which  formed  the  back- 
ground of  a  rich  crimson  and  purple  sunset. 

Wednesday,  'i^ist.  —  Ketchum  decided  to  send  back  all  the  heavy 


30  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

Mahlemut  sleds,  and  kept  nine  dogs  to  assist  us  in  taking  the 
goods  up  to  Nulato  on  the  light  IngaUk  sleds.  The  weather,  being 
above  the  freezing  point,  was  so  warm  as  to  render  the  prospect 
of  our  being  able  to  cross  the  Uliikuk  River  on  the  ice  rather 
dubious  ;  it  would  have  been  useless  to  start  until  we  could  cross 
it,  as  it  is  only  a  few  miles  from  Ikti'galik.  After  the  sleds  had 
started  for  Unalakli'k,  we  let  out  the  dogs  from  an  empty  summer 
lodge  where  they  had  been  confined  to  prevent  their  following 
their  comrades  down  the  river. 

At  this  period  of  our  explorations  arose  the  famous  controversy 
between  two  of  our  party,  in  regard  to  the  relative  merits  of  beans 
and  rice  as  articles  of  food.  However  insignificant  the  subject, 
such  was  the  earnestness  and  even  eloquence  developed  on  both 
sides,  such  was  the  array  of  facts  brought  forward  to  sustain  the 
several  arguments,  that  the  interest  of  every  one  was  awakened 
in  the  discussion.  This  lasted  late  into  the  night,  and  was  renewed 
immediately  the  following  morning.  I  am  sorry  to  be  obliged  to 
record,  however,  that,  as  in  many  other  discussions,  both  literary 
and  scientific,  no  definite  result  was  arrived  at,  although  each  was 
convinced  against  his  will  of  the  valuable  properties  of  the  escu- 
lent defended  by  his  opponent. 

Thursday,  November  \st. — The  weather  was  still  warm  and  snow 
falling  fast.  We  made  the  discovery  that  nine  or  ten  of  our  dogs 
had  apparently  decided  to  hold  a  town  meeting  in  Unalakli'k,  and 
had  accordingly  left  for  that  place.  This  was  exceedingly  pro- 
voking, as  it  would  render  our  starting  impossible  in  the  event  of 
a  sudden  cold  snap.  I  therefore  proposed  to  Ketchum  to  go 
back  to  Unalakli'k  and  get  the  dogs,  and  Francis  offered  to  do  the 
same  thing.  The  decision  was  postponed  till  the  next  day. 
Ketchum,  finding  dry  fish  likely  to  be  scarce,  called  on  the  Indians 
to  bring  out  what  they  had  to  spare,  and  purchased  it.  This  fish 
is  principally  salmon  and  some  small  white  fish,  and  is  dried  in 
the  sun  without  smoke  or  salt.  It  is  the  principal  staple  of  food, 
under  the  name  of  ukali,  for  all  travellers,  both  men  and  dogs  ; 
being  very  light  and  portable,  yet  full  of  oil  ;  of  not  the  most 
agreeable  flavor,  it  is  at  least  strong  if  not  strengthening.  Occa- 
sionally one  does  get  hold  of  a  clean,  well-dried  ukali,  that  tastes 
very  well  when  broiled  over  the  fire  ;  though  in  my  own  case  the 
use  of  it  invariably  produced  heartburn.     The  ration  for  a  dog  is 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


31 


one  salmon  weighing  from  a  pound  and  a  half  to  two  pounds,  or 
as  many  smaller  fish  as  will  amount  to  the  same.  They  will  travel 
on  less,  but  the  best  policy  is  to  feed  your  dogs  well,  and  you  may 
then,  with  proper  attention,  be  sure  that  they  will  work  well  and 
rarely  run  away. 

At  this  time  Ketchum  made  an  arrangement  with  Lofka,  a 
newly  arrived  Indian,  and  Andrea,  to  accompany  him  in  a  pro- 
posed winter  trip  up  the  Yukon,  and  paid  them  partly  in  advance. 

Friday,  2d.  —  Francis  and  I  started  at  nine  o'clock  for  Unala- 
kli'k  to  bring  back  the  missing  dogs.  Found  the  walking  good  but 
wet,  and  we  occasionally  had  to  take  to  the  bank.  The  distance 
is  twenty-two  English  miles  in  a  direct  line,  but  at  least  thirty  by 
the  river,  which  is  exceedingly  tortuous.  We  arrived  at  the  post 
at  two  o'clock,  just  in  time  for  a  glorious  Russian  bath  and  a  hot 
cup  of  tea.  These  baths  are  an  institution  to  be  proud  of.  Every 
Russian  trading-post  in  the  territory  is  furnished  with  a  bath-house, 
and  once  a  week  all  the  inmates  avail  themselves  of  it.  As  they 
reckon  time  according  to  Old  Style  in  the  Russian  colonies,  their 
Sunday  falls  on  our  Saturday,  and  as  a  consequence  bath-day 
comes  on  Friday.  The  apparatus  is  very  simple.  A  rude  arch 
of  loose  stones,  of  the  hardest  obtainable  kind,  is  built,  and  more 
stones  piled  over  it,  so  that  a  fire  made  beneath  the  arch  can  pen- 
etrate between  them.  There  is  no  chimney,  but  a  trap-door  in 
the  roof  A  large  cask  full  of  water  heated  for  the  purpose,  and 
another  of  cold  water,  generally  with  ice  floating  in  it,  and  a  suc- 
cession of  benches  one  above  the  other,  complete  the  equipment. 
When  the  stones  are  thoroughly  heated  and  the  smoke  has  all 
passed  out,  all  coals  are  removed  and  the  trap-door  is  shut ;  any 
smoke  or  coals  remaining  will  make  the  eyes  smart  and  the  bath 
very  uncomfortable.  Each  one  leaves  his  clothing  in  an  outer 
room,  and  on  entering  wets  his  head  and  throws  hot  water  on 
the  heated  stones  until  as  much  steam  is  produced  as  he  can 
bear.  He  then  mounts  as  high  on  the  benches  as  he  finds  com- 
fortable, and  the  perspiration  issues  from  every  pore.  He  then 
takes  a  sort  of  broom  or  bunch  of  dried  mint  or  birch  twigs,  with 
the  leaves  still  on  them,  which  is  prepared  at  the  proper  season 
and  called  meenik.  With  this  he  thrashes  himself  until  all  im- 
purities are  thoroughly  loosened  from  the  skin,  and  finishes  with 
a  wash  off  in  hot  water  and  soap.     Then  taking  a  kantag,  or 


32 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


wooden  dish,  full  of  ice-cold  water,  he  dashes  it  over  himself  and 
rushes  out  into  the  dressing-room.  This  last  process  is  disagree- 
able to  the  uninitiated,  but  is  absolutely  necessary  to  prevent  tak- 
ing cold.  I  have  known  cases  of  acute  rheumatism  brought  on  by 
omitting  it.  The  dressing-room  is  spread  with  straw  and  always 
communicates  with  the  outer  air.  The  temperature  is  often  many 
degrees  below  zero  ;  but  such  is  the  activity  of  the  circulation,  that 
one  dresses  in  perfect  comfort  notwithstanding.  A  warm  dressing- 
room  would  be  insupportable. 

These  baths  cannot  be  recommended  for  those  with  a  tendency 
to  heart  disease  or  apoplexy,  but  to  persons  in  a  healthy  condition 
the  effect  is  delightful ;  rheumatic  patients  are  frequently  cured  by 
their  means,  with  proper  precautions.  One  of  these  baths  will  re- 
move all  traces  of  extreme  exertion  or  fatigue  as  if  by  magic,  and 
they  may  be  advantageously  followed  by  a  few  cups  of  hot  tea 
and  an  hour's  repose. 

After  our  bath  w^e  found  to  our  disgust  that  the  dogs  had  been 
sent  back,  thanks  to  the  energy  of  Mr.  Dyer,  and  must  have  passed 
us  on  the  way,  while  making  a  short  portage.  The  weather  be- 
coming disagreeable,  we  were  soon  reconciled  to  our  disappoint- 
ment, and  were  snugly  ensconced  in  one  of  the  bastions,  which 
had  been  hung  with  reindeer  skins  for  comfort  and  warmth  dur- 
ing the  severe  winter,  relating  our  experiences  over  the  ever- 
grateful  cup  of  tea,  while  the  sleet  was  driving  and  the  storm 
howled  outside. 

Saturday,  ^d.  —  The  weather  continued  warm  and  disagreeable. 
The  ice  was  very  wet  and  bad,  and  we  concluded  not  to  return  to 
Ikti'galik  to-day.  The  village  beyond  Ikti'galik  is  called  Ulukuk, 
and  many  of  the  Russians  call  the  former  village  New  Ulukuk,  as 
it  was  built  since  the  latter,  by  Ulukuk  Indians,  the  point  being  a 
good  one  for  the  fisheries. 

The  mouth  of  the  Unalakli'k  River  is  obstructed  by  a  bar,  over 
which  at  low  tide  there  is  only  a  few  feet  of  water,  except  in  a 
narrow  and  tortuous  channel,  which  is  continually  changing  as 
the  river  deposits  fresh  detritus.  Inside  of  this  bar  we  get  two 
or  three  fathoms  of  water  for  a  few  miles,  but  the  river  has  only  a 
few  feet  in  the  channel,  most  of  the  summer,  from  the  mouth  to 
Ulukuk.  The  tide-water  comes  up  a  mile  or  two,  and  from  this 
cause  it  is  difficult  at  times  to  procure  fresh  water  for  drinking 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  33 

purposes,  as  the  well  water  is  disagreeably  brackish.  The  same 
trouble  is  found  at  St.  Michael's,  where  the  only  good  water  is 
obtained  from  springs  on  the  mainland,  near  the  shore  opposite 
the  island.  There  are  many  of  these  springs  near  the  shore  along 
the  coast,  and  they  are  unfrozen  all  winter,  the  water  having 
a  temperature  of  28"  to  30°  Fahrenheit,  even  when  the  air  is 
several  degrees  below  zero.  Whether  this  is  due  to  any  latent 
volcanic  heat  cannot  yet  be  decided,  but  the  islands  of  Stuart  and 
St.  Michael,  as  well  as  the  coast  as  far  north  as  Tolstoi  Point,  are 
composed  of  basaltic  lava,  full  of  amygdaloidal  cavities  and  crys- 
tals of  olivine,  and,  in  many  places,  roughly  columnar  in  five-sided 
pillars. 

Sunday,  4th.  —  In  the  morning  a  strong  northeast  wind  was 
blowing,  with  the  thermometer  about  16°,  and  a  great  deal  of 
loose  snow  driving  about.  I  determined,  in  spite  of  the  remon- 
strances of  the  others,  to  delay  no  longer,  and,  putting  some  bis- 
cuit and  ukali  in  my  pocket,  I  started  alone,  about  eleven  o'clock, 
for  Ikti'galik.  The  wind  sweeping  over  the  broad  plains  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river  was  so  violent,  and  the  sleet  was  so  blinding, 
that  I  was  unable  to  face  it,  and  was  obliged  to  go  from  side  to 
side  of  the  river  diagonally.  In  doing  this  I  was  misled  by  a 
branch  of  the  river,  and  proceeded  several  miles  before  I  found 
out  my  mistake.  Retracing  my  steps,  I  took  the  right  direction, 
and  reached  the  wooded  part  of  the  river,  where  the  trees  made  a 
shelter  from  the  force  of  the  wind  and  driving  snow,  late  in  the 
afternoon.  I  found  the  ice  rather  soft  and  covered  in  many 
places  with  drifted  snow,  so  that  the  travelling  was  very  laborious. 
To  add  to  my  annoyances,  it  soon  became  very  dark,  and  I  had  to 
grope  my  way  over  ice-hummocks  and  through  snow-drifts  until 
nearly  worn  out  by  the  exertion.  Passing  round  a  bend  in  the 
river,  the  ice  gave  way  under  me,  and  I  had  only  time  to 
throw  myself  on  one  side,  where  it  proved  more  solid,  and  I  got 
off  with  a  wetting  up  to  my  knees.  Taking  oft'  my  boots  and 
socks,  I  wrung  out  the  water  and  put  them  on  again,  when  they 
froze  immediately.  Nothing  but  the  want  of  an  axe  prevented  my 
camping  then  and  there  ;  but  a  howling,  which  came  evidently 
from  no  great  distance,  reminded  me  that  it  might  not  prove 
healthy  to  sleep  without  a  fire.  I  trudged  along,  and,  to  my  great 
delight,  about  eight  o'clock,  the  moon  rose,  and  I  soon  saw  the 
3 


34  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

high  caches  of  the  village  standing  out  against  the  sky.  I 
heard  no  dogs,  however,  and  on  reaching  the  entrance  of 
the  house  on  the  bank  I  found  it  closed  with  a  block  of  wood. 
Climbing  on  to  the  roof  and  looking  through  the  gut  cover,  I 
thought  I  saw  a  glimmer  as  of  live  coals  where  the  fire  had  been. 
My  shouts  finally  aroused  Ingechuk,  who  was  the  only  occupant. 
Ketchum  had  evidently  gone,  and  I  had  my  labor  for  my  pains  ! 
Between  the  small  stock  of  Russian  which  I  had  picked  up,  and 
the  little  Ingechuk  knew,  I  finally  managed  to  make  out  that 
they  had  left  that  day  and  gone  to  Uliikuk.  I  made  him  boil  the 
chynik,  and  changed  my  wet  clothes,  which  were  frozen  so  hard 
as  to  be  difficult  to  get  off ;  and  then,  after  taking  my  tea,  retired 
with  a  feeling  that  I  had  earned  a  good  night's  sleep. 

Monday,  ^th.  —  Not  wishing  to  take  another  useless  tramp,  I 
prevailed  on  Ingechuk  to  take  a  note  to  Ketchum,  if  he  was  at 
Uliikuk  and  if  he  wished  me  to  join  him  ;  and  feeling  rather  stiff, 
I  remained  in  the  house,  writing  and  resting  most  of  the  day. 
About  the  middle  of  the  afternoon,  Francis  arrived.  He  had  met 
an  Indian  with  a  note  from  Ketchum,  on  the  river,  and  knew  that 
he  was  gone,  but  had  kept  on  to  Ikti'galik.  Soon  after,  Ingechuk 
returned  with  a  note  from  Ketchum,  who  was  on  the  point  of 
starting  for  Nulato,  and  advised  us  to  return  to  Unalakli'k  and 
come  up  with  the  next  brigade  of  sleds. 

Tuesday,  6th.  —  Breakfasted  on  some  fine  salmon  trout  {koko- 
limya  of  the  Indians,  and  kolsJicli  of  the  Russians)  which  Ketchum 
had  sent  down  to  us.  These  fish,  when  broiled  in  their  skins  on 
a  stick  over  the  fire,  are  exceedingly  fine  eating,  but  if  fried  or 
cleaned  before  cooking  lose  much  of  their  flavor. 

Leaving  some  of  our  things  with  Ingechuk,  to  follow  us  the  next 
day,  we  started  for  Unalakli'k  about  eleven,  and  reached  it  about 
five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  ;  our  return  created  some  amuse- 
ment. The  ice  being  very  glairy  made  the  travelling  very  disa- 
greeable, and  we  were  well  satisfied  when  we  came  to  our  jour- 
ney's end. 

Adams,  one  of  the  original  party,  now  justly  known  as  the 
pioneers,  had  left  for  the  Redoubt  in  a  bidarra,  but  had  not  re- 
turned ;  some  fears  were  excited  that  he  might  not  be  able  to 
do  so  until  the  sea  ice  had  fully  formed.  Temperature  varied 
from  15°  to  20°. 


THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 


35 


For  several  clays  we  remained  in  static  quo.  Our  time  was 
taken  up  in  increasing  our  knowledge  of  Russian  and  the 
Mahlemut  dialect,  in  preparations  for  another  attempt  to  cross 
the  portage,  and  in  reading  a  variety  of  matter  provided  by  the 
kindness  of  some  of  the  officers  who  did  not  remain  in  the  coun- 
try. Several  evenings  were  pleasantly  diversified  by  an  amateur 
theatrical  performance,  aided  by  several  violins.  Many  capital 
personal  hits  were  made,  which,  being  taken  in  good  part  by  the 
victims,  were  productive  of  a  great  deal  of  merriment. 

Monday,  I2tk.  —  Started  for  Ikti'galik  about  ten  o'clock,  with 
two  Mahlemuts,  Shuriigeluk  and  Ichiluk  by  name,  commonly 
known  as  Shuggy  and  New-Years,  the  latter  having  been  hired 
the  previous  year  by  Mr.  Kennicott  on  New- Year  s  day.  We  had 
two  heavily  loaded  sleds  of  Mahlemut  make,  drawn  by  five  and 
four  dogs  respectively,  dogs  being  scarce.  The  party  consisted, 
besides  the  two  Eskimo  above  referred  to,  of  Messrs.  Dyer  and 
Francis,  and  myself,  —  Mr.  Francis  and  I,  not  wishing  to  be  idle, 
having  volunteered  to  assist  in  transporting  the  Nulato  goods  to 
Uliikuk.  By  making  several  short  portages,  the  distance  was 
materially  reduced,  and  we  arrived  in  good  condition  at  Ikti'galik 
about  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 

Tuesday,  13///.  —  After  breakfast,  loaded  up  one  Mahlemut  and 
one  light  Ingalik  sled  and  started  at  half  past  ten  for  Uliikuk, 
which  is  about  eleven  miles  from  Ikti'galik  by  several  portages 
and  the  river.  About  half-way  on  a  bend  of  the  river  were  two 
roofless  deserted  houses,  once  a  summer  fishing  village,  called  by 
the  Indians  N'tsoh.  Unromantic  as  it  may  appear,  the  sight  of 
these  poor  ruins,  indicating  probably  a  death  in  the  midst  of  the 
primeval  woods,  could  hardly  fail  to  produce  a  touch  of  emotion 
in  any  mind  less  occupied  than  that  of  the  hardy  and  careless 
voyageur.  They  formed  a  rude,  half-effaced,  but  effective  monu- 
ment of  human  sorrow,  in  a  country  where  humanity  seems 
hardly  to  have  taken  root,  existing  as  it  does,  only  by  a  constant 
struggle  for  the  necessities  of  life. 

Pursuing  our  way  up  steep  banks  and  down  sharp  declivities 
requiring  the  greatest  care  in  the  management  of  dogs  and  sleds, 
over  the  ice-bound  river  and  the  rolling  plains,  dotted  with  clumps 
of  larch  and  willow,  we  finally  struck  the  river  at  a  sharp  bend, 
just  below  the  point  where  the  village  of   Uliikuk   is   situated. 


36  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

Here  a  large  number  of  springs  exist,  some  of  them  below  the 
bed  of  the  river,  whose  waters  are  never  frozen,  an  open  patch 
being  found  here  during  the  most  severe  winters.  The  water  in 
these  springs,  measured  by  a  standard  thermometer  of  Greene's 
make,  was  not  very  warm,  but  retained  a  temperature  of  thirty- 
two  to  thirty-four  degrees  Fahrenheit  during  extremely  cold 
weather.  I  counted  seven  springs  in  the  gravel  beach  near  the 
village,  all  without  any  ice  about  them ;  most  of  them  continue 
open  during  the  entire  year,  but  are  covered  by  the  river  during 
the  spring  freshets. 

The  village  contains  five  winter  houses,  a  small  casine,  and  a 
row  of  high  caches.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river, 
which  is  here  about  two  hundred  feet  wide  ;  about  four  miles  to 
the  eastward  the  Ulukuk  Hills  rise  to  a  height  of  about  two  thou- 
sand feet.  At  this  time  they  were  snow  covered  of  course,  but 
they  are  free  from  snow  during  the  summer. 

The  open  water  in  the  river  makes  it  somewhat  difficult  to  ap- 
proach the  village  with  sleds  from  below,  the  banks,  though  low, 
being  steep  and  covered  with  small  trees.  Snow  or  ice,  placed 
upon  the  smooth  pebbles  from  beneath  which  the  springs  were 
flowing,  soon  melted,  though  the  weather  was  at  zero.  With  the 
atmosphere  at  eight  below  zero,  the  temperature  of  one  spring, 
which  gave  out  beautifully  clear  water  with  a  slight  saline  taste 
like  bicarbonate  of  soda,  was  thirty-two  degrees  ;  another,  quite 
tasteless,  was  thirty-four  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

The  water  in  the  river,  at  the  edge  of  the  ice,  which  was  about 
eighteen  inches  thick,  had  a  temperature  of  thirty-one  degrees.  A 
remarkable  abundance  of  fish  frequents  the  vicinity  of  this  patch  of 
open  water,  especially  the  delicious  salmon  trout  for  which  Ulukuk 
is  noted,  and  a  small  cyprinoid  fish  not  elsewhere  observ-ed. 

Ami'lka  has  a  house  in  this  village  also,  and  into  it  we  took  our 
baggage  and  rested  ;  an  old  Indian  called  Sammak  roasted  some 
trout  for  our  evening  meal,  while  with  some  fresh  alene  meat  and 
backfat  Dyer  concocted  one  of  those  appetizing  telegraph  stews 
previously  mentioned. 

Wednesday,  i^th.  —  Francis  and  our  two  Eskimo  started  off 
with  three  sleds  to  bring  loads  from  Ikti'galik.  Several  sick  Ind- 
ians came  to  me  for  treatment,  their  own  medical  knowledge  be- 
ing confined  to  steam-baths  and  to  counter-irritants  in  the  form  of 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


37 


bleeding  by  means  of  a  large  number  of  small  cuts  and  the  actual 
cautery.  They  have  no  knowledge  of  the  uses  of  the  indigenous 
herbs  of  the  country  or  of  any  medicines. 

I  purchased  a  fine  pair  of  snow-shoes  about  five  feet  long  for  a 
sheath-knife,  and  Dyer  obtained  a  large  number  of  the  river  trout 
from  the  Indians.  I  cannot  understand  why  Kane  and  other 
Arctic  travellers  could  not  preserve  fresh  provisions  in  a  frozen 
state,  for  winter  use.  In  this  country  immense  quantities  of  meat 
and  fish  are  'so  preserved  without  taint  all  the  year  round.  Exca- 
vations are  made  in  the  earth  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three 
feet,  where  it  is  usually  frozen,  and  the  contents  are  thus  pro- 
tected from  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

Towards  evening  Francis  and  the  sleds  returned  with  heavy 
loads  of  goods  from  the  other  village. 

Thursday,  i^tJi. —  It  being  my  turn  to  take  charge  of  the  bri- 
gade, I  started  with  the  dogs  and  men  about  half  past  ten,  with 
empty  sleds.  Reached  Iktigalik  about  two  o'clock,  and  by  means 
of  a  little  diplomacy  induced  Ingechuk  and  Ami'lka  to  lend  me 
their  dogs,  and  also  got  hold  of  another  sled. 

Friday,  \6th.  —  Rose  early,  and  after  chy  peet,  as  the  Russians 
call  a  meal  of  bread  and  tea,  harnessed  up  the  dogs,  and,  taking 
all  the  remaining  goods,  except  some  dog  feed,  started  about  half 
past  eight  and  arrived  at  Ulukuk  about  noon.  Cached  the  goods 
and  repaired  sleds  and  harness. 

News  arrived  from  Ketchum  in  the  afternoon,  by  an  Indian  who 
brought  a  sled  and  a  worn-out  dog  from  a  point  called  Vesolia 
Sopka,  or  Cheerful  Mountain.  He  said  that  Ketchum  had  passed 
that  point  with  three  sleds  en  route  for  Nulato,  but  that  the  roads 
were  very  bad,  the  snow  being  deep  and  soft.  One  of  our  party 
had  been  trading  with  Lof  ka,  who,  having  an  ear  for  music,  bought 
an  accordeon,  giving  in  exchange  two  dogs,  one  of  which  was  sup- 
posed to  be  running  wild  in  the  woods.  Lofka  knew  nothing  of 
the  use  of  the  instrument,  and  it  was  a  moot  question  which  had 
the  best  of  the  bargain.  The  instrument  having  been  used  to 
play  "  Tramp,  tramp,  the  boys  are  marching "  for  some  four 
months,  about  twenty-four  times  a  day,  was,  to  say  the  least,  not 
in  a  condition  to  be  much  injured  by  Indian  fingering. 

After  waiting  a  day  for  the  return  of  the  Nulato  brigade  which 
was  due,  Dyer  returned  to  Unalakli'k,  leaving  Francis  and  myself 


38  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

with  nothing  to  do  but  eat,  drink,  and  sleep,  which  was  extreme- 
ly tedious,  as  the  days  were  very  short.  We  finally  determined,  if 
the  brigade  did  not  arrive  the  next  day,  we  would  get  a  few  dogs 
together  and  carry  a  load  to  Vesolia  Sopka.  If  it  were  a  small  one 
it  would  be  of  assistance,  and  anything  would  be  better  than  con- 
tinued idleness.  A  large  number  of  Indians  arrived  from  dif- 
ferent quarters,  and  I  improved  the  opportunity  to  enlarge  my 
Ingalik  vocabularies.  One  of  them  went  out,  and  returned  with 
three  brace  of  beautiful  ruifed  grouse  {Boiiasa  7tmbdlus)  I  also 
purchased  some  small  fish,  which  were  devoted  to  the  interests  of 
science. 

Wednesday,  21st.  —  Heard  a  howling  early  in  the  morning 
and  an  outcry  among  the  Indians,  and  jumped  into  my  clothes 
just  in  time  to  catch  a  sight  of  Mike's  pleasant  face  coming 
up  the  bank,  with  two  Russians,  six  sleds,  and  nearly  forty 
dogs  behind  him.  A  rapid  interchange  of  news  ensued,  while 
unharnessing  the  dogs  and  putting  the  sleds  up  on  the  stages 
provided  for  the  purpose.  Mike  was  delighted  to  find  that  the 
work  of  carrying  the  goods  from  Unalakli'k  to  Ulukuk  had  been 
taken  off  his  hands.  The  Russians  were  to  go  on  to  Unalakli'k, 
and  we  should  immediately  proceed  to  Nulato.  Ketchum  sent 
word  to  me  to  come  up  immediately,  as  my  services  were  likely 
to  be  needed  ;  but  unfortunately  he  was  obliged  to  ask  Francis  to 
wait  for  the  next  brigade,  as  the  supply  of  provisions  at  Nulato 
was  exceedingly  small.  Nulato,  as  the  natives  say,  is  emphati- 
cally a  "  hungry  "  place.  We  all  regretted  the  provoking  neces- 
sity which  deprived  us  for  a  time  of  the  society  of  our  lively  and 
energetic  companion.  He  therefore  made  arrangements  for 
returning  a  third  time  to  Unalakli'k  with  the  Russians. 

TJmrsday,  22d.  —  Rising  early,  the  sleds  were  soon  in  readi- 
ness, and,  buying  a  lot  of  fresh  trout,  for  our  own  use  and  to  send 
by  the  Russians  to  Unalakli'k,  we  started  about  noon  for  Vesolia 
Sopka  ;  our  party  consisting  of  six  Indians,  one  man  to  each 
sled,  besides  Mike  and  myself.  The  road  was  excellent,  and  we 
did  not  require  snow-shoes;  the  dogs  were  in  good  condition,  and 
we  progressed  very  well. 

After  leaving  Ulukuk,  crossing  the  river  and  a  belt  of  spruce 
timber  of  small  size  and  about  a  mile  in  breadth,  we  came  to 
open  rolling  land,  between  the  river  and  the  base  of  the  hills. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


39 


This  country  is  almost  level,  with  hillocks  here  and  there,  and 
occasional  clumps  of  low  willows.  This  prairie-like  plain  is  called 
a  tundra  by  the  Russians. 

From  Ulukuk  to  the  river  at  the  Vesolia  Sopka  is  about  four- 
teen miles,*  the  greater  part  of  which  is  over  the  tundra,  which  is 
occasionally  intersected  by  small  streams  falling  into  the  Ulukuk 
branch  of  the  Unalakli'k  River,  and  forming  deep  gullies,  which, 
until  filled  with  snow,  are  difficult  to  pass  with  loaded  sleds.  The 
dogs  have  sometimes  to  be  unhitched  and  the  sled  carefully  eased 
over  the  ravine  and  lifted  up  the  opposite  bank,  —  a  work  fre- 
quently of  no  small  labor. 

The  Vesolia  Sopka  forms  the  termination  of  the  range  of  the 
Ulukuk  Hills,  but  is  somewhat  lower  and  detached  from  the  rest. 
It  attains  a  height  of  about  eight  hundred  feet  above  the  sur- 
rounding plain,  and  has  an  even  and  beautifully  rounded  summit. 
At  its  base,  hidden  by  large  and  very  tall  spruce  and  poplar,  runs 
the  Ulukuk  River.  We  crossed  the  stream,  which  is  about  two 
hundred  feet  wide,  and  soon  reached  a  spot  where  the  Russians 
are  accustomed  to  camp,  on  the  opposite  bank,  from  which  the 
Sopka  (Russian  for  cone  or  peak,  particularly  a  volcanic  one) 
probably  derived  its  name  of  Vesolia  (cheerful).  Near  this  point 
a  small  stream,  known  to  the  inhabitants  as  Poplar  Creek,  en- 
ters the  river.  This  is  an  excellent  locality  for  trapping,  as  the 
numerous  fox  and  marten  tracks  testified.  We  boiled  the  chynik 
and  partook  of  a  cheerful  meal  of  bacon  and  biscuit,  and  then 
pushed  on  by  moonlight,  over  wooded  hills,  to  an  Indian  summer 
lodge,  or  barrdbora,  built  of  spruce  poles  and  birch  bark.  Here 
we  camped,  and  passed  a  rather  uncomfortable  night,  as  the  frail 
walls  retained  the  smoke  and  admitted  the  cold  wind.  This  point 
is  about  eight  miles  from  the  Sopka. 

Friday,  2id.  —  Rose  early,  and  after  reloading  the  sleds  and 
discussing  chy,  with  accompaniments  of  bacon,  biscuit,  ukali,  and 
molasses,  we  passed  on  over  hillsides  sparsely  wooded  with  spruce 
and  alder,  through  valleys,  and  up  and  down  some  rather  bad 
hills,  occasionally  along  the  river  on  the  ice.  About  dark  we 
came  upon  some  open  tundra,  just  beyond  a  low  marsh,  known  as 
Beaver  Lake,  as  it  is  covered  with  water  in  the  spring  ;  here  a 
strong  north  wind  was  blowing  full  in  our  teeth,  carrying  the 

*  Unless  otherwise  stated,  English  statute  miles  are  meant. 


40  THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 

snow  along  the  ground  in  blinding  sleet.  The  atmosphere  was 
six  below  zero.  The  other  sleds  were  some  distance  behind,  but 
as  our  sled  carried  the  teakettle  and  axes,  we  felt  pretty  sure  the 
Indians  would  follow,  though  much  against  their  will.  We  strug- 
gled on  until  we  arrived  at  an  old  camp  of  Ketchum's,  where  one 
tree  mocked  us  with  its  inefficient  attempt  at  shelter.  We  de- 
cided to  camp  here,  no  more  suitable  locality  being  within  reach. 
By  placing  the  sleds  to  windward,  with  a  piece  of  cotton  drill 
stretched  around  them,  we  managed  to  keep  off  the  driving  snow 
a  little.  The  hot  tea  in  our  tin  cups  burned  the  hand  on  one 
side,  while  the  keen  wind  gnawed  it  on  the  other.  Smoking  was 
out  of  the  question,  and  we  lay  down,  using  the  bacon  as  pil- 
lows, and  watched  the  dogs,  who,  growling  their  disapprobation, 
sheltered  their  noses  with  their  tails,  and,  more  fortunate  than 
ourselves,  soon  sank  into  unconscious  slumber. 

Saturday,  24th. — About  four  o'clock  in  the  morning  an  old 
Indian  called  Ivan,  from  Nulato,  came  along  with  his  son.  They 
pulled  their  own  sled,  and  had  a  few  marten  skins  with  which  they 
were  going  to  Unalakli'k  to  buy  oil  for  winter  use.  Shortly  after, 
we  broke  camp  and  proceeded.  About  nine  o'clock  the  sun  rose, 
attended  by  three  beautiful  mock  suns,  or  parhelia.  One  was 
nearly  thirty  degrees  above  the  real  sun,  and  there  was  one  on 
each  side,  similar,  but  more  brilliant.  All  were  connected  by  an 
arch  resembling  a  rainbow,  except  that  it  was  of  an  orange  color 
with  a  dark  reddish  band  on  the  inner  side,  and  threw  out  rays 
of  light  from  the  outer  edge.  About  a  quarter  of  another  similar 
arch  was  reversed,  touching  the  lower  arch  at  the  point  where  the 
upper  mock  sun  was  seen,  and  a  cross  of  brilliant  light  was  noticed 
at  each  junction  of  the  arch  with  the  mock  suns.  This  beautiful 
exhibition  continued  for  six  hours,  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  and 
Mike  tells  me  they  are  not  uncommon  here  in  winter. 

Shot  a  Canada  jay,  or  whiskey  jack  {Perisoreiis  canadensis),  with 
a  dark  brown  "woolly  bear"  caterpillar  in  his  mouth,  just  killed. 
Where  it  had  come  from  was  a  mystery  I  do  not  pretend  to  solve, 
probably  from  beneath  the  snow. 

We  decided  to  camp  early,  as  we  were  all  very  tired,  and  after 
descending  a  deep  declivity  called  by  the  Russians  Perivdlli,  we 
stopped  on  the  bank  of  a  small  stream,  made  a  good  camp,  en- 
joyed our  supper,  tea,  and  pipes,  and  slept  soundly. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  4 1 

26th. — Off  at  six.  Passed  over  the  flanks  of  some  high 
hih  me  of  which  I  caught  my  first  glimpse  of  the  great 

rive.  broad,  smooth,  and  ice-bound.     A  natural  impatience 

urgec  -ward,  and  after  a  smart  tramp  of  several  miles  we 

arrive  steep  bank  of  the  river.     It  was  with  a  feeling  akin 

to  thai  wuich  urged  Balboa  forward  into  the  very  waves  of  a 
newly  discovered  ocean,  that  I  rushed  by  the  dogs  and  down  the 
steep  declivity,  forgetting  everything  else  in  the  desire  to  be  first 
on  the  ice,  and  to  enjoy  the  magnificent  prospect  before  me. 

There  lay  a  stretch  of  forty  miles  of  this  great,  broad,  snow- 
covered  river,  with  broken  fragments  of  ice-cakes  glowing  in  the 
ruddy  light  of  the  setting  sun  ;  the  low  opposite  shore,  three  miles 
away,  seemed  a  mere  black  streak  on  the  horizon.  A  few  islands 
covered  with  dark  evergreens  were  in  sight  above.  Below,  a  faint 
purple  tinged  the  snowy  crests  of  far-off  mountains,  whose  height, 
though  not  extreme,  seemed  greater  from  the  low  banks  near  me 
and  the  clear  sky  beyond.  This  was  the  river  I  had  read  and 
dreamed  of,  which  had  seemed  as  if  shrouded  in  mystery,  in  spite 
of  the  tales  of  those  who  had  seen  it.  On  its  banks  live  thousands 
who  know  neither  its  outlet  nor  its  source,  who  look  to  it  for  food 
and  even  for  clothing,  and,  recognizing  its  magnificence,  call  them- 
selves proudly  men  of  the  Yukon. 

Stolid  indeed  must  he  be,  who  surveys  the  broad  expanse  of  the 
Missouri  of  the  North  for  the  first  time  without  emotion.  A  little 
Innuit  lad,  who  ran  before  the  dogs  and  saw  it  for  the  first 
time,  shouted  at  the  sight,  saying,  amidst  his  expressions  of 
astonishment,  "  It  is  not  a  river,  it  is  a  sea !  "  and  even  the  Indians 
had  no  word  of  ridicule  for  him,  often  as  they  had  seen  it. 

A  half-mile  above  the  point  where  we  struck  the  river  bank 
is  a  cluster  of  winter  houses  and  caches,  which  goes  by  the 
name  of  Kaltag.  Thither  we  turned  our  steps,  a  piercing 
northwester  sweeping  down  the  river  being  an  effectual  argument 
against  further  progress.  We  entered  one  of  the  houses,  a  large, 
clean,  and  well-constructed  building,  where  we  found  a  very  old 
man  known  as  Kaltag  Stareik  by  the  Russians  {stareek  meaning 
old  man),  and  his  wife,  with  another  woman,  busily  at  work  on 
some  winter  clothing.  They  made  room  for  us,  spread  some  clean 
mats,  and  Mike,  who  was  a  general  favorite,  especially  among  the 
indigenous  female  population,  by  a  present  of  a  pair  of  scissors 


42  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

induced  the  old  woman  to  give  us  three  or  four  ptarmigan,  vith  a 
promise  of  six  more  on  his  next  visit.  He  then  proceeded  with 
the  aid  of  some  rice  to  concoct  a  stew  which  did  great  credit  to 
his  culinary  abilities. 

We  went  out  together  to  feed  the  dogs,  and  returning  unex- 
pectedly, I  found  one  of  the  Indians  investigating  with  his  fingers 
the  recesses  of  a  spare  chynik  which  contained  our  molasses. 
Such  incidents  are  not  uncommon,  when  travelling  with  the  na- 
tives. 

After  discussing  our  supper  and  congratulating  ourselves  on 
the  accomplishment  of  the  portage  without  storm  or  accident,  we 
turned  in  early,  to  enjoy  a  good  night's  rest  and  thereby  prepare 
for  an  early  start  the  next  day. 

Monday,  26th.  —  Pushed  off  quite  early,  travelling  on  the  middle 
of  the  river,  finding  the  ice,  which  seemed  so  even  and  smooth 
from  the  bank,  to  be  broken,  strewed  with  numerous  cakes, 
and  diversified  by  hummocks,  over  which  about  eighteen  inches 
of  snow  had  already  collected.  Here  and  there  were  patches 
of  smooth  ice,  evidently  of  recent  formation,  and  once  or  twice 
a  light  cloud  over  an  opening  indicated  that  the  surface  was 
not  entirely  frozen.  Numerous  long  islands,  covered  with 
spruce,  poplar,  and  willow,  obstructed  the  view  of  the  opposite 
shore,  which  is  quite  low,  while  here  and  there  we  could  catch 
glimpses  of  the  summits  of  the  Kaiyuh  Mountains,  a  range  of 
high  hills  to  the  eastward.  The  right  bank  consists  of  rounded 
bluffs  following  each  other  like  waves,  reaching  a  height  of 
fifty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  caused  by  the  bending  of 
the  strata,  which  are  composed  of  layers  of  brown  tertiary 
sandstones  of  Miocene  age.  The  sides  of  these  bluffs,  with  the 
ravines  between  them,  are  well  wooded  with  spruce  and  birch, 
which  often  attain  a  considerable  height.  The  left  bank  is  uni- 
formly low  and  densely  wooded.  The  thermometer  to-day  fell  to 
thirty-two  below  zero,  but  the  air  was  still,  and  travelling  was  not 
uncomfortable.  About  six  o'clock  we  reached  a  broad  ravine, 
through  which  a  small  brook  ran,  and  where  an  Ingalik  named 
Alikoff  had  built  a  small  house,  known  as  Alikoft's  barrabora. 
This  is  about  twenty  miles  from  Kaltag,  which,  I  forgot  to  state, 
is  about  twenty-five  miles  from  Ivan's  barrabora  and  thirty-six 
from   Nulato,  perhaps  a  few  miles  more   by  the  road  we  took. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


43 


I  decided   to  camp  for  the  night,  and  found   the  house, 

wi  empty,  rather  smoky  and  uncomfortable. 

2'jtJi.  —  Making  an  early  start  for  Nulato,  we  proceeded 
up  liver,  the  temperature   being   about   twenty-eight  below- 

zero.  About  eleven  o'clock,  arrived  at  an  open  space  nearly  two 
miles  long,  bounded  on  the  south  by  a  sharp  bluff  known  as  the 
Shaman  Mountain.  Here  a  seam  of  coal  had  been  reported,  and, 
stopping  for  a  moment,  I  ascertained  that  the  report  was  correct. 
Reserving  a  careful  examination  for  some  other  occasion,  I  started 
ahead  of  the  dogs,  following  the  old  tracks  on  the  snow,  and  soon 
left  the  brigade  behind  me.  In  half  an  hour  I  reached  a  point  on 
the  river  where  a  party  of  three  Russians  were  engaged  in  setting 
fish-weirs  under  the  ice.  An  old  fellow,  whose  head  shook  like  that 
of  a  Chinese  mandarin,  informed  me  that  the  post  of  Nulato  was 
only  a  mile  beyond.  A  steady  walk  of  nearly  an  hour  convinced 
me  that  it  was  nearer  three  miles,  but  I  soon  espied  the  stockade 
and  two  turrets  at  no  great  distance.  Ascending  the  bank,  I 
went  into  the  enclosure,  and,  inquiring  for  the  Americans,  was 
directed  to  a  low  building  on  one  side.  On  entering  I  was 
soon  shaking  hands  with  Ketchum,  and  with  Whymper,  who 
was  already  engaged  in  sketching. 

We  were  congratulated  on  our  quick  trip  from  Uliikuk,  and 
exchanged  items  of  news.  The  noise  of  the  dogs  was  soon  heard, 
and  we  were  busily  engaged  in  unloading  and  storing  the  goods, 
as  well  as  unharnessing  the  dogs,  who  seemed  as  glad  as  anybody 
that  their  journey  had  come  to  a  satisfactory  conclusion. 


CHAPTER     II. 

Arrival  at  Xulato,  and  introduction  to  the  Creole  bidarshik.  —  Description  of  the  post 
and  its  inhabitants.  —  Adjacent  points.  —  History.  —  The  Nulato  massacre  and  its 
cause.  —  Barnard's  grave.  —  Daily  life  at  Nulato.  —  Larriown.  —  Koyukun  Indians. 

—  Ingaliks.  —  Kurilla.  —  Plans  for  the  coming  season.  —  Examination  of  a  coal- 
seam.  —  Nuklukahyet  chief.  —  Christmas  festivities.  —  New  Year's  and  erection  of 
the  first  telegraph  pole.  —  Aurora.  —  Return  of  Ketchum.  — Collections  in  Natural 
History.  —  Indian  rumor.  —  Cannibalism.  —  Russian  ingenuity.  —  Founding  of  Fort 
Rennicott.  —  Departure  of  Retchum  and  Mike  on  their  \\  inter  journey  to  Fort 
Yukon.  —  Arrival  of  our  bidarra.  —  Trip  to  Wolasatu.x'  barrabora.  —  Scarcity  of 
food.  —  First  signs  of  spring.  —  Robbing  a  grave.  —  First  goose.  —  Indian  children. 

—  Rescue  of  the  bidarshik.  —  Anecdote  of  Major  Rennicott  and  erection  of  a  mon- 
ument to  his  memory.  —  Formation  of  alluvium.  —  Preparations  for  our  journey.  — 
Breaking  up  of  the  ice  on  the  Yukon. 

HAVING  finally  arrived  at  Nulato,  which  I  proposed  to 
make  my  head-quarters,  and  having  rested  from  the  fa- 
tigue of  the  journey,  I  was  introduced  to  Ivan  Pavlofif,  the  bidar- 
shik or  commander  of  the  trading-post.  He  was  a  short,  thick- 
set, swarthy,  low-browed  man,  a  half-breed  between  a  Russian 
and  a  native  of  Kenai,  and  was  legally  married  to  a  full-blooded 
Indian  woman,  named  Marina,  the  widow  of  a  previous  bidarshik, 
by  whom  he  had  a  large  family  of  children.  He  appeared  to  be 
a  good-humored  fellow,  though  the  Indian  clearly  predominated 
in  him.  While  evidently  understanding  nothing  of  the  object  of 
the  collections  and  observations  which  I  proposed  to  make,  he  yet 
assured  me  that  I  should  be  welcome  to  any  information  or  assist- 
ance I  might  need.  A  disagreeable  servility  marked  his  inter- 
course with  the  Americans  and  full-blooded  Russians,  the  latter 
regarding  him  with  unconcealed  contempt  on  account  of  his 
Indian  blood,  notwithstanding  his  responsible  position.  This 
accounted  for  the  expression  which  might  often  be  observed 
on  his  face  while  conversing  with  him.  It  seemed  a  mixture 
of  stupidity  and  low  cunning,  as  if  he  were  apprehensive  that 
some  covert  ridicule,  or  attempt  at  overreaching,  lay  hidden  in 
the  conversation  addressed  to  him.     He  was  an  insatiable  drinker, 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


45 


ai  vernable   as  a  mad  bull  when  drunk,  though  at  other 

til  t  and  unexcitable.      He  was  continually  pestering  us 

wit  ^ts  for  liquor,  until  I  was    obliged    to   poison   all  the 

alec  >nded   for  collecting  purposes.     Notwithstanding   his 

fault  of  which  were   hereditary,   he  brought  up  his  chil- 

dren ited   his   wife  as  well  as  his    light    allowed  him  to 

do.     1  a  large    proportion    of  generosity  and    hospitality 

in    his  .er,   was    unusually   free    from    any    disposition    to 

immorahty,  and  was  never  known  to  sell  any  furs,  purchased 
by  him  and  belonging  to  the  Russian  American  Company,  to 
any  of  our  party,  as  he  might  easily  have  done.  He  could  not 
read  or  write,  and  the  accounts  were  kept  by  an  assistant  called 
Yagor  Ivanovich.  He  cherished  in  his  heart  a  dislike  to  the 
Americans  on  account  of  their  superior  energy  and  intelligence, 
which  led  them  to  regard  him  with  no  very  respectful  eye.  When 
he  was  drunk,  the  bitter  and  unfounded  prejudices  which  he  cher- 
ished came  to  the  surface  ;  otherwise  we  should  hardly  have  sus- 
pected them.  I  have  been  thus  careful  in  drawing  his  portrait, 
not  because  the  individual  is  of  any  particular  consequence,  but 
because  he  is  in  many  respects  a  type  of  the  largest  class  of 
the  civilized  inhabitants  of  Russian  America.  They  are  known 
among  the  Russians  as  Creoles.  The  other  inhabitants  of  the 
post  of  Nulato  were  two  Russians,  the  only  whites  beside  our- 
selves, named  Karpofif  and  Paspilkoff  (the  Pomoghnik,  or  assist- 
ant, who  kept  the  accounts,  was  a  Creole,  like  the  bidarshik) ; 
an  old  Yakut,  named  Yagorsha,  who  was  a  curiosity  in  himself; 
two  half-breeds  ;  and  a  few  Indians  ;  while  a  nearly  equal  number 
of  Indian  women  were  employed  in  and  about  the  post. 

The  fort  was  a  large  one,  two  sides  and  a  part  of  the  third 
formed  by  buildings,  the  remainder  a  stockade,  thus  enclosing 
a  large  yard.  On  one  side  was  a  long  structure,  containing  two 
rooms,  which  served  for  the  bidarshik  and  his  assistant  and  their 
families.  These  rooms  were  separated  by  a  covered  space  from 
the  rest  of  the  building,  which  contained  a  magazine  for  trading- 
goods  and  furs,  a  store-room  where  fish  were  kept,  and  another, 
which  was  principally  occupied  by  our  goods.  Opposite  to  this  was 
another  building  of  the  same  size,  containing  one  large  room,  sepa- 
rated in  the  same  way  from  a  small  one,  in  both  of  which  workmen 
and  their  families  lived.     Each  of  them  was  surmounted  with  a 


46 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


turret  pierced  for  guns,  and  in  one  of  these  were  two  antique, :  usty, 
and  almost  useless  six-pounders.  The  third  side  was  occupied 
by  a  low-studded  building,  about  twenty  feet  long  and  ^  tn  wide, 
which  we  occupied  ;  a  shed,  where  fuel  might  be  kept  dry  ;  the 
bath-house,  and  a  shed  used  to  cook  in,  and  called  by  courtesy 
the  J)ovdruia,  or  kitchen.  The  front  of  the  yard  was  closed  in  by 
a  stockade  about  sixteen  feet  high,  of  pointed  logs  set  upright  in 
the  ground,  and  was  provided  with  a  large  gate.  The  houses 
were  of  round  logs  ;  the  roofs,  nearly  flat  and  covered  with  earth, 
could  be  reached  by  means  of  steps  provided  for  the  purpose. 
The  windows  were  all  of  the  parchment,  or  seal  intestines,  before 
mentioned,  and  the  buildings  were  warmed  by  the  universal 
peechkas,  the  seams  of  the  walls  being  calked  with  dry  moss. 


Interior  of  Fort  Derabin,  from  above. 


Directly  across  from  the  fort,  which  faces  the  river,  is  a  low 
island,  less  than  a  mile  long.  The  river  is  narrow  here,  being 
by  exact  measurement  only  a  mile  and  a  half  wide.  The  lati- 
tude of  the  fort  is  nearly  64°  42'  north,  and  the  longitude  157°  54' 
west.  The  variation  of  the  compass  is  nearly  thirty-two  degrees 
to  the  eastward. 

A  mile  and  a  furlong  east-northeast  is  a  small  creek,  a  raging 
torrent  in  the  spring,  called  Klat-kakhdtiic  by  the  Indians,  literally 
"  Stop-a-bit  River."     Half  a  mile  west-southwest  is  the  mouth  of 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


47 


the  Nulato  River,  from  which  the  post  takes  its  name,  though  it 
was  originally  called  Fort  Derabin,  from  its  builder  and  first 
bidarshik.  Between  these  two  streams  the  land  is  low,  gradually 
rising  from  the  riv^er  into  low  hills,  and  for  the  most  part  densely 
wooded.     A   short   distance    from    its  mouth   the   Nulato  River 


.^^- 


ti^j^^ 


Nulato  and  the  Yukon  from  the  Bluffs. 


receives  two  streams  of  no  great  size.  Its  total  length  is  about 
twenty  miles,  inclusive  of  windings.  The  opposite  bank  of 
the  Klat-kakhdtne  rises  abruptly  into  a  rocky,  precipitous  bluff, 
affording  a  fine  view  down  the  river.  Not  far  below  the  mouth 
of  the  Nulato  the  river-bank  rises,  but  not  so  abruptly,  into  bluffs 


40  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

about  one  hundred  feet  high,  with  higher  hills  behind  them. 
Neither  deer  nor  moose  are  often  found  in  this  vicinity. 

In  1838,  Malakoff,  a  Creole,  explored  the  Yukon  as  far  north  as 
Nulato.  Here  he  built  a  small  trading-post,  without  a  stockade, 
consisting  of  several  small  houses.  This  was  occupied  during 
the  summer  and  fall,  but  in  consequence  of  the  scarcity  of  pro- 
visions, at  the  approach  of  winter  the  Russians,  under  Notarmi 
the  bidarshik,  left  it  and  returned  to  the  Redoubt.  On  their 
return,  in  the  spring,  it  was  found  that  the  Indians,  jealous  of  the 
permanent  settlement  of  the  whites  in  their  immediate  vicinity, 
had  destroyed  it  by  fire.  The  same  thing  was  repeated  in  1839, 
the  buildings  being  burned  and  contents  carried  off. 

In  1 84 1,  according  to  Tikhmenief,  the  historian  of  the  Russian 
American  Company,  Derabin  was  sent  to  Nulato  and  rebuilt  the 
fort,  after  arranging  the  difficulty  with  the  natives  by  means  of 
numerous  presents  given  to  the  most  influential  chiefs.  Yet,  not 
having  benefited  by  previous  experience,  the  post  was  composed  of 
several  detached  log-houses,  strongly  built,  but  several  hundred 
yards  apart,  and  without  a  stockade  or  other  efficient  means  of  de- 
fence. Other  buildings  were  added  as  necessity  called  for  them, 
and  in  1842,  Lieutenant  Zagoskin,  I.  R.  N.,  a  special  explorer  of  the 
Company,  arrived,  and  assisted  at  the  erection  of  some  of  these. 

For  ten  years,  though  frequently  threatened,  the  little  settle- 
ment escaped  injury,  Derabin  meanwhile  carrying  on  a  lucrative 
traffic  with  the  natives  for  furs.  In  the  spring  of  185 1,  Lieutenant 
Barnard,  of  H.  M.  S.  Enterprise,  arrived  at  Nulato  with  the  bidar- 
shik, in  search  of  information  in  regard  to  the  fate  of  Sir  John 
Franklin.  He  was  a  member  of  Captain  Collinson's  Expedition, 
and,  with  Mr.  Adams  a  surgeon,  and  one  man,  had  been  left  by 
the  Enterprise  at  St.  Michael's  the  preceding  fall  Being  prob- 
ably a  blunt,  straightforward  Englishman,  with  no  knowledge 
of  Indian  character  and  suspicion,  he  made  the  remark,  in  the 
presence  of  others,  that  he  intended  to  "  send  "  for  the  principal 
chief  of  the  Koyukun  tribe  of  Indians,  whose  head-quarters  were 
on  the  Koyiikuk  and  Kotelkakat  Rivers,  and  who  were  then  hold- 
ing one  of  their  annual  festivals,  about  twenty-five  miles  from 
Nulato.  This  unfortunately-worded  remark  was  conveyed  to  the 
chief  in  question,  through  some  of  the  Indians  at  the  post,  by  a 
passing  native. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


49 


This  chief  was  the  most  wealthy  and  influential  in  that  part  of 
the  country,  widely  known  and  distinguished  by  a  remarkably 
large  and  prominent  Roman  nose,  from  which  he  had  received 
a  name  which,  literally  translated,  means  "  humpbacked  nose." 

He  was  not  accustomed  to  be  "sent"  for.  When  the  Russians 
desired  to  see  him  they  respectfully  requested  the  honor  of  his 
presence.  His  Indian  pride  rose  at  the  insult,  and  he  immediately 
called  a  council  to  discuss  the  rumor.  The  shamans  were  of 
course  first  consulted,  and  they  unanimously  declared  that  it 
boded  no  good  to  the  chief  in  question.  The  council  then  de- 
cided that,  if  the  report  proved  true,  they  would,  with  all  the 
Indiaits  there  assembled,  go  together  to  the  fort  and  demand 
satisfaction.  They  waited  some  time,  and  finally  were  about  to 
disperse  to  their  homes,  when  a  single  dog-sled  appeared  on  the 
river. 

This  sled  was  accompanied  by  Ivan  Bulegin,  a  Russian,  and  an 
Indian  workman  of  the  Nulato  tribe,  who  had  been  sent  up  to  see 
if  any  information  were  attainable,  and  if  so,  to  bring  down  the 
Tyone  of  Koyukuk. 

The  ill-fated  Bulegin  drew  his  sled  up  on  the  bank,  sending  the 
Indian  who  accompanied  him  for  water  to  boil  the  chynik.  Sit- 
ting down  on  his  sled  to  rest  himself,  he  was  approached  stealth- 
ily from  behind  and,  being  struck  on  the  head  with  an  axe  or 
club,  was  instantly  killed. 

The  sled  was  dragged  away  and  plundered  ;  when  the  Nulato 
Indian  returned  and  saw  what  had  been  done,  he  turned  to  run, 
but  the  Koyukuns  called  to  him,  saying,  "  Are  you  not  one  of  us .'' 
We  will  not  hurt  you."  Overcome  by  fear,  he  returned  and  un- 
willingly assisted  in  the  atrocity  which  followed.  Bulegin's  body 
was  stripped,  the  flesh  cut  in  slices  from  the  bones,  and  the  sav- 
ages, infuriated  like  wild  animals  by  the  sight  of  blood,  roasted 
these  remains  and  devoured  them.  An  Indian,  who  noticed  the 
reluctance  with  which  Bulegin's  companion  joined  in  the  horrid 
feast,  crept  up  behind  him  and  drove  his  knife  up  to  the  hilt  in 
his  neck.  The  fighting  men  present  then  stripped  themselves 
of  all  incumbrances  except  their  bows  and  arrows,  and,  putting 
on  their  snowshoes,  set  out  at  once  for  Nulato.  Less  than  a 
half-mile  below  the  trading-post  were  three  large  winter  houses, 
crowded  with  Ingaliks  of  the  Nulato  tribe,  — in  all,  about  a  hun- 
4 


50  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

dred  men,  women,  and  children.  These  houses  were  situated  near 
the  river-bank,  a  few  rods  northeast  of  the  mouth  of  the  Nulato 
River.  It  being  in  the  month  of  February,  and  an  unusually- 
warm  spring,  the  Nulato  Indians  had  taken  the  precaution  to  clear 
away  the  snow  from  above  their  birch-bark  canoes,  forty  or  fifty  of 
which  were  lying  about.  Intending  to  forestall  retaliation  for  the 
death  of  Biilegin's  companion,  the  Koyiikuns  approached  with  the 
greatest  quietness,  not  to  disturb  the  sleeping  inmates.  The  canoes 
were  seized,  broken  up,  thrust  into  the  apertures  in  the  roofs  and 
the  narrow  underground  entrances  of  the  houses,  and  fired.  The 
frightened  inhabitants,  wakened  by  the  noise  and  crackling  of  the 
flames,  endeavored  vainly  to  force  a  passage  through  the  fire. 
Some  of  the  men,  seizing  axes,  cut  their  way  out  through  the 
wooden  walls,  but  were  mercilessly  shot  down  by  the  arrows  of 
the  Koyiikuns.  Many  were  suffocated  in  the  smoke.  A  few 
women  were  taken  by  the  victors,  and  one  or  two  children  were 
able  to  save  themselves  in  the  woods,  through  the  negligence  or 
pity  of  the  conquerors. 

A  young  man  called  Wolasatux,  renowned  for  his  skill  with  the 
bow,  escaped  to  the  mountains,  eluding  the  vigilance  of  the  pur- 
suers by  his  swiftness  of  foot.  All  the  rest  were  smothered  or  fell 
beneath  the  knives  and  arrows  of  the  assailants.  But  little  noise 
was  made,  except  by  the  screams  of  the  women  and  the  shouts  of 
the  destroyers,  for  at  that  time  the  Indians  had  no  guns.  The 
slumbers  of  the  Russians  were  not  disturbed. 

It  is  said  that  two  Indian  women  who  were  employed  at  the 
fort,  having  risen  early  to  boil  the  chyniks  for  the  morning  meal, 
heard  and  understood  the  cries  of  the  victims,  but,  overcome  by 
fear  and  anguish  at  the  death  of  their  kindred,  stupidly  shut 
themselves  into  the  cook-house,  and  did  not  alarm  the  Russians. 

The  Koyiikuns  next  made  for  the  trading-post,  and  found  the 
bidarshik,  just  risen,  sitting  behind  one  of  the  houses.  Saying 
to  Ivan,  one  of  their  tribe  who  had  been  employed  at  the  fort 
as  interpreter,  "  If  you  do  not  kill  the  bidarshik,  we  will  kill 
you,"  they  forced  him  to  consent.  He  approached  Derabin  and 
stabbed  him  in  the  back  repeatedly,  so  that  he  fell  to  rise  no 
more.  The  Russian  interpreter,  a  man  said  to  have  understood 
seven  languages,  happening  to  come  out,  saw  the  act,  and  turning 
unarmed  to  the  Indians,  upbraided  them  for  the  murder,  but  fell 


THE    YUKOxN    TERRITORY.  5 1 

in  the  doorway,  pierced  with  seven  arrows.  Rushing  over  his 
prostrate  body,  they  entered  the  house.  Barnard  was  lying  on 
his  bed  reading ;  at  the  sight  of  the  hostile  Indians  he  raised  him- 
self up  to  reach  his  gun,  which  hung  above  his  head.  Twice  he 
fired,  and  twice  the  barrel  was  struck  upwards,  the  balls  taking 
eftect  in  the  ceiling.  An  Indian  shaman  —  christened  Larriown  by 
the  Russians  —and  his  brother  seized  the  arms,  and  one  plunged 
his  knife  into  the  Englishman's  abdomen,  so  that  virhen  it  was 
withdrawn  the  intestines  followed  it,  and  he  fell  back  mortally 
wounded.  Several  shots  were  fired,  and  one  struck  Larriown  in 
the  groin.  Three  children  and  their  mother  were  killed;  their 
father,  Teleezhik,  being  absent  in  the  Kaviak  peninsula,  as  inter- 
preter, with  Captain  Bedford  Pim. 

Leaving  the  bidarshik's  house,  the  Indians  next  attacked  the 
casdniicr,  or  room  where  the  workmen  lived,  where  there  were 
two  Russians  and  several  Creoles.  They  had  barricaded  the  door, 
and  being  at  some  distance  from  the  other  house,  knew  nothing 
that  had  happened.  One  of  them  aimed  through  the  window  at 
the  crowd  of  Indians  ;  when  the  other,  hoping  to  avoid  blood- 
shed, advised  him  to  fire  above  their  heads,  in  hope  that  they 
would  disperse.  The  crowd  separated,  but  did  not  retreat,  and 
only  answered  by  a  shower  of  arrows.  The  next  shot,  better 
aimed,  killed  one  of  the  Indians,  when  a  panic  seemed  to  seize 
them,  and  they  immediately  retreated  with  their  booty  and  pris- 
oners to  Koyukuk.  Larriown  sat  in  great  agony  in  the  outer 
room  of  the  bidarshik's  house.  A  Russian  lay  in  the  inner  room, 
helpless  from  fever,  who  had  been  overlooked  by  the  Indians  in  the 
excitement.  His  wife,  an  Indian  woman  named  Maria,  brought 
him  a  loaded  pistol,  and  held  him  up  while  he  fired  at  the  sha- 
man. His  trembling  hands  could  not  direct  the  ball,  and  Lar- 
riown dragged  himself  out  to  the  river-bank.  Here  he  found  a 
Koyiikun  woman,  who  had  been  staying  at  the  fort,  with  her 
baby  on  a  little  sled,  which  she  was  drawing  by  a  band  over  her 
forehead.  He  threw  the  child  into  the  snow,  and  ordered  her  to 
draw  him  to  Koyukuk.  She  refused,  and  he  stabbed  her  to  the 
heart  !  How  he  finally  got  away,  no  one  knows.  Thus  ended 
the  Nulato  massacre. 

An  Ingalik,  named  Lofka,  was  sent  by  the  Russians  with  a 
letter  to  the  Redoubt.     He  placed  it  in  his  boot,  fortunately,  for 


52  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

he  was  stopped  on  the  river  and  searched  by  two  Koyukuns,  who 
suspected  his  errand.     Finding  nothing,  they  let  him  go. 

Mr.  Adams,  the  surgeon,  immediately  started,  with  Teleezhik 
and  a  party  of  Russians,  for  Nulato.  Captain  Pirn,  having  re- 
turned from  his  adventurous  journey  frost-bitten,  could  not  ac- 
company him,  and  remained  at  Unalakli'k. 

The  Russians  had  sewed  up  the  wounds  ;  but,  before  Mr. 
Adams  arrived.  Lieutenant  Barnard  was  dead.  It  only  remained 
for  him  to  perform  the  last  sad  offices  and  to  erect  a  cross  over 
his  grave,  with  the  following  inscription  :  — 

LIEUTENANT  J.   J.   BARNARD, 

Of  H.  M.  Enterprise, 

Killed  Feb    i6,  185 1, 

BY    THE    KOUKUK.   INDIANS. 

F.  A. 

The  Russian  American  Company,  as  is  the  wont  of  trading 
companies,  never  took  any  measures  of  retaliation  for  this  mas- 
sacre. Larriown,  and  Ivan,  the  murderer  of  the  bidarshik,  are 
frequent  visitors  at  the  fort.  Presents  were  sent  to  the  Koyukun 
chiefs,  and  there  the  matter  ended.  A  stockaded  fort  was  soon 
built  on  the  present  site,  and  the  graves  of  Barnard  and  Dera- 
bin  lie  a  stone's  throw  behind  it.  The  excavations  where  the 
Indian  houses  stood  are  still  to  be  seen,  and  form  the  graves  of 
those  natives  who  perished  by  the  massacre. 

On  the  29th  of  November  the  indefatigable  Mike  started 
again  for  Uliikuk.  I  occupied  myself  with  putting  my  instru- 
ments in  order  for  meteorological  observations.  The  thermome- 
ter, a  standard  one,  registered  thirty-six  below  zero.  Our  cook 
and  principal  assistant  about  the  house,  in  the  absence  of  the 
fairer  sex,  was  Peetka,  the  son  of  Ivdn,  previously  mentioned  as 
the  murderer  of  Derabin.  His  father  was  acting  as  an  inter- 
preter for  the  Russians.  In  an  Indian  house,  outside  the  stock- 
ade, Larriown  was  domiciled  with  his  wife  and  child.  The  appear- 
ance of  this  man  was  remarkable.  A  small  round  head  and  face, 
piercing  eyes,  thin  scattered  hair,  a  short  pug  nose  (unusual  in  an 
Indian),  a  tremendous  development  of  the  muscles  of  the  jaw, 
a  very  dark  complexion,  and  a  fiendish  expression  of  countenance 
combined  to  make  his  appearance  the  reverse  of  attractive,  even 
when  in  srood  humor. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  53 

His  wife  possessed  some  of  these  characteristics  in  a  lesser 
degree,  but  was  equally  repulsive.  Both  of  them  had  gained, 
by  a  long  list  of  evil  deeds,  a  reputation  as  sorcerers  or  shamans, 
which  made  their  influence  among  the  Indians  immense.  Both 
of  them  were  well  acquainted  with  the  uses  of  intoxicating  liquors, 
which  for  some  years  the  Koyiikuns  have  obtained  from  traders 
at  Kotzebue  Sound.  This  circumstance  has  done  much  to  ren- 
der the  tribe,  naturally  cruel  and  turbulent,  one  of  the  worst  in 
the  territory.  Fortunately,  disease  and  the  scarcity  of  food,  annu- 
ally increased  by  the  use  of  firearms  in  killing  reindeer,  have 
reduced  their  numbers,  and  at  present  they  can  hardly  muster 
over  two  hundred  families.  From  increased  immorality,  due  to 
the  introduction  of  liquor,  the  births  are  few,  and  hardly  replace 
the  deaths.  Few  women  have  more  than  two  children,  while 
many  have  only  one,  a  large  proportion  being  barren.  The 
tribe,  therefore,   may  be  regarded   as  on  its  way  to  extinction. 

They  are  of  the  family  of  Ti'nneh,  belonging,  with  the  Ingaliks 
and  Nowikakat  Indians,  to  the  division  of  Eastern  Ti'nneh. 
Their  dialect  is  closely  allied  to  the  Ingalik,  hardly  differing 
more  from  it  than  the  widely  separated  local  dialects  of  Ingalik 
differ  from  one  another.  Their  principal  villages  are  on  the 
Kotelkakat  and  Kotelno  Rivers,  the  largest  being  known  as 
Kotelkakat. 

The  Indians  living  on  the  Yukon  between  Koyukuk  and 
Nuklukahyet  are  known  to  the  Ingahks  as  Unakatana,  or 
"far-off  people,"  and  call  themselves,  with  most  other  Indians 
living  on  the  river,  Yukonikatana,  or  "  men  of  the  Yukon." 

The  Nulato  Ingaliks  are  nearly  extinct.  The  Ingaliks  liv- 
ing on  the  other  side  of  the  Yukon,  between  it  and  the  Kaiyuh 
Mountains  (known  as  Takai'tsky  to  the  Russians),  bear  the  name 
of  Kaiyuhkatana,  or  "  lowland  people,"  and  the  other  branches  of 
Ingaliks  have  similar  names,  while  preserving  their  general  tribal 
name. 

The  Ingaliks  are,  as  a  rule,  tall,  well-made,  but  slender.  They 
have  very  long,  squarely  oval  faces,  high  prominent  cheek-bones, 
large  ears,  small  mouths,  noses,  and  eyes,  and  an  unusually  large 
lower  jaw.  The  nose  is  well  formed  and  aquiline,  but  small  in 
proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  face.  The  hair  is  long,  coarse,  and 
black,  and  generally   parted   in   the  middle.     But  few  of  them 


54  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

shave  the  crown,  as  is  the  custom  among  the  Eskimo.  Their 
complexion  is  an  ashy  brown,  perhaps  from  dirt  in  many  cases, 
and  they  seldom  have  much  color.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Koyukuns,  with  the  same  high  cheek-bones  and  piercing  eyes, 
have  much  shorter  faces,  more  roundly  oval,  of  a  pale  olive  hue, 
and  frequently  arched  eyebrows  and  a  fine  color.  They  are  the 
most  attractive  in  appearance  of  the  Indians  in  this  part  of  the 
territory,  as  they  are  the  most  untamable.  The  women  espe- 
cially are  more  attractive  than  those  among  the  Ingaliks,  whose 
square  faces  and  ashy  complexion  render  the  latter  very  plain, 
not  to  say  repulsive.  The  women  do  up  their  hair  in  two  braids, 
one  on  each  side  ;  but  among  the  Koyukuns  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  see  the  hair  cut  short,  especially  after  a  death  in  the  family. 
The  detached  hair  is  tied  up  in  a  little  bundle  and  placed  in  the 
crotch  of  a  tree,  or  anywhere  where  it  will  not  be  disturbed  by 
animals.  Parings  from  the  nails  are  treated  in  the  same  way,  as 
they  have  a  superstition  that  disease  will  follow  the  disturbance 
of  such  remains  by  wild  animals. 

The  original  dress  of  the  male  Koyukuns  consists  of  a  pair 
of  breeches  of  deerskin,  with  the  moccasins,  or  coverings  for  the 
feet,  attached,  and  a  deerskin  parka  without  any  hood,  long 
and  pointed  before  and  behind.  At  present  they  buy  many 
articles  of  clothing  from  the  Eskimo  and  from  the  Russians, 
especially  for  winter  wear.  They  are  fond  of  ornaments  and  gay 
colors,  while  the  Ingaliks,  who  wear  clothing  much  like  that 
adopted  by  the  Eskimo,  care  little  for  ornaments  or  beads. 
Both  build  houses  similar  to  those  already  described,  while  the 
other  tribes  of  the  same  family,  to  the  eastward,  build  only  tem- 
porary lodges  of  skins  and  poles,  which  they  transport  from  place 
to  place.  The  habits,  utensils,  and  mode  of  life  of  the  Ingaliks 
and  Koyukuns  are  very  similar,  and  will  be  more  fully  described 
hereafter. 

They  depend  for  food  upon  the  reindeer  and  moose,  salmon 
and  other  fish,  and  small  game,  more  or  less,  according  to  the  re- 
sources of  the  locality  in  which  they  live.  At  Nulato  the  only 
dependence  is  fish,  and  some  small  game,  such  as  grouse  and 
water-fowl  in  their  seasons.  There  are  no  deer  or  moose  at 
Nulato,  and  food  is  often  very  scarce. 

I  found  a  constant  current  of  cold  air,  with  a  temperature  from 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


55 


—  32'  to  —  55°  Fall.,  entering  our  room  by  means  of  the  cracks 
in  the  floor,  which  was  composed  of  logs  squared  on  the  upper 
side.  Needles,  forks,  spoons,  and  other  articles  of  use  and  orna- 
ment followed  each  other  into  the  abyss.  The  matter,  though 
laughable,  was  also  serious,  as  our  stock  of  the  last-named 
articles  amounted  to  only  one  apiece.  After  consultation  we 
employed  Kuri'lla,  one  of  the  few  surviving  Nulato  Indians, 
to  calk  the  seams  with  moss.  Our  stock  of  this  was  soon  ex- 
hausted, following  the  spoons,  and  we  made  the  best  of  a  bad 
job  by  covering  the  floor  thickly  with  straw,  that  again  with 
mats,  and  over  all  nailing  some  old  blankets.  By  placing  a  few 
reindeer-skins  about  for  rugs,  we  managed  to  improve  matters  a 
good  deal.  Previously,  one  day  when  the  freshly  heated  peechka 
was  pouring  out  a  generous  supply  of  hot  air,  I  tried  the  ther- 
mometer at  the  eaves,  where  it  stood  at  ninety  ;  four  feet  above  the 
floor  gave  a  temperature  of  forty-five,  while  on  the  floor  the  mer- 
cury indicated  several  degrees  below  freezing.  The  walls  were 
anything  but  tight,  and  the  warm  air  of  the  room  deposited  its 
extra  moisture  in  hoar-frost,  like  feathers,  near  the  fissures. 

Peetka  proved  very  unreliable,  disappearing  and  staying  so, 
just  when  we  wanted  him,  and  Kuri'lla,  the  Indian  before  men- 
tioned, was  secured  as  a  substitute.  His  history  was  romantic. 
Son  of  a  wealthy  and  influential  chief  and  shaman,  at  the  time 
of  the  Nulato  massacre  he  was  but  three  or  four  years  old  ;  in  it 
his  father,  mother,  and  all  their  family  perished.  The  boy  and 
his  sister,  a  year  older,  were  in  the  trading-post  at  the  time,  and 
escaped  unharmed,  from  their  extreme  youth.  Some  of  the  Rus- 
sians had  taken  pity  on  them  and  brought  them  up,  until,  as  they 
grew  older,  they  were  able  to  earn  their  own  living. 

His  sister,  christened  Anna,  was  one  of  the  most  comely  Inga- 
liks  who  came  under  our  notice.  Both  of  them  were  unusu- 
ally tall  ;  both  had  acquired  habits  of  neatness  and  an  excel- 
lent knowledge  of  the  Russian  language,  from  their  residence  in 
the  trading-post.  Anna  was  married  to  a  very  good  kind  of 
fellow,  an  Ingalik,  who  had  accompanied  us  in  our  journey  from 
Ulukuk  and  who  was  named  Little  Sidorka,  to  distinguish  him 
from  another  of  the  same  name  but  of  greater  longitude. 

Kuri'lla  proved  to  be  a  faithful  and  intelligent  fellow,  and  having 
had  some  experience  in  cooking  for  our  parties  during  the  previ- 


56  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

ous  year,  was  well  qualified  to  assist  in  the  culinary  department. 
To  be  sure,  our  style  of  living  was  simple  and  unostentatious, 
consisting  principally  of  fried  white-fish  three  times  a  day,  varied 
by  bacon,  of  which  we  were  very  sparing  when  fish  was  obtain- 
able. 

Finding  a  blanket  on  the  bare  boards,  even  alleviated  by  a 
deerskin,  rather  uncomfortable  sleeping  arrangements,  we  pur- 
chased several  large  feather-beds,  filled  with  spoils  from  the  wild 
geese  and  ducks,  and  had  a  small  mattress  made  from  them  for 
each  one  of  the  party.  With  the  addition  of  a  pillow  from  the 
same  source,  we  felt  as  if  we  could  enjoy  the  sleep  of  the  just, 
without  danger  of  rheumatism. 

Our  plans  for  the  commg  season  were  now  discussed  and 
approximately  settled.  Whymper  and  myself  decided  to  ascend 
the  Yukon  together,  as  far  as  Fort  Yukon,  by  water  in  the  spring. 
Ketchum  proposed,  in  company  with  Mike  Lebarge,  to  make  the 
same  journey  over  the  ice,  with  dogs  and  sleds,  in  February. 
Dyer  was  to  descend  the  Yukon  and  investigate  the  delta.  On 
the  4th  of  December  the  temperature  was  fifty-six  below  zero. 
Faint  parhelia  appeared.  In  a  short  walk  I  observed  that  the 
atmosphere  seemed  filled  with  an  icy  mist,  small  acicular  crystals 
of  ice  suspended  in  the  air.  On  the  7th,  the  weather  being 
milder  (twenty-two  below  zero),  I  decided  to  visit  the  coal  scam 
below  Nulato  before  the  snow  should  cover  it.  Only  one  dog  was 
available ;  so,  getting  a  small  sled,  and  packing  our  blankets, 
chynik,  and  mess-pan  upon  it,  with  a  bag  for  bringing  some  coal 
from  the  vein  for  trial,  I  started  ahead,  while  Kun'lla  followed 
with  the  sled.  We  met  Yagorsha  on  the  way,  who  with  many 
gesticulations  declared  that  we  were  going  to  have  a  severe  snow- 
storm, and  that  we  had  better  turn  back.  I  concluded  to  risk  it, 
however,  and  we  finally  arrived  at  the  Shaman  Bluff,  where  we 
soon  found  a  sheltered  ravine  with  plenty  of  dry  wood  ;  spread- 
ing a  blanket  as  an  awning  to  keep  off  the  snow,  which  came 
thick  and  fast,  we  built  a  cheerful  fire  and  enjoyed  our  tea. 
After  a  good  night's  rest  and  a  hearty  breakfast  of  bacon,  biscuit, 
and  tea,  I  went  to  the  end  of  the  bluff,  where  the  coal  was  situ- 
ated. A  thorough  examination  of  it  showed  that  the  seam  was 
much  contorted,  running  out  at  each  end  completely  ;  that  the 
only  mass  of  coal  was  in  a  large  pocket  or  elbow  of  the  contorted 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  57 

seam  ;  and  that  the  whole  deposit  contained  less  than  a  ton. 
What  there  was  of  it  was  of  excellent  quality,  hardened  by 
heat  and  compression ;  it  was  enclosed  on  each  side  by  thin 
layers  of  shale  and  the  brown  Miocene  sandstone  previously 
alluded  to. 

Filling  a  bag  with  fragments  of  coal  and  geological  specimens 
as  trophies,  we  started  homeward.  The  poor. dog,  I  am  afraid, 
had  a  hard  time  of  it,  what  with  the  soft  new  snow  and  the 
weight  of  the  bag,  but  we  arrived  without  detention  or  accident, 
though  rather  tired. 

Kuri'Ua,  who  was  an  excellent  shot  and  an  enthusiastic  sports- 
man, liked  nothing  better  than  to  spend  an  hour  every  day  shoot- 
ing specimens  for  our  collection.  I  obtained  many  more  than 
I  had  dared  to  hope  for  in  this  way, — redpolls,  downy  and 
three-toed  woodpeckers,  pine  grosbeaks,  titmice,  hawk-owls,  and 
(strange  to  say)  a  bullfinch  {PyrvJmla),  the  first  ever  shot  on  the 
American  continent.  On  the  nth,  Mike  returned  from  Uliikuk 
with  Francis,  and  this  event,  with  the  news  that  our  friends 
brought  from  below,  was  quite  a  relief  to  the  monotony  of  our 
daily  life. 

On  the  1 2th,  a  chief  arrived  at  the  fort  from  Nukliikahyet, 
where  the  Tananah  River  joins  the  Yukon.  He  greeted  Ketchum 
as  an  old  acquaintance,  and  promised  to  have  plenty  of  moose 
meat  for  us  when  we  should  come  that  way  in  the  spring.  He 
remained  several  days  at  the  fort,  and  on  one  of  them  assembled 
a  number  of  Indians  in  our  room  and  discoursed  to  them  at  the 
top  of  his  lungs  for  nearly  two  hours.  I  expected  to  see  him 
drop  from  exhaustion,  every  minute  of  the  last  half-hour,  but  long 
practice  had  doubtless  inured  him  to  it,  and  I  resigned  myself, 
while  one  of  the  party  took  up  a  concertina  and  played  "  Tramp, 
tramp  "  by  way  of  diversity. 

The  return  brigade  was  intrusted  to  Scratchett,  who  left, 
with  Francis,  for  Unalakli'k  on  the  17th,  while  Mike  rested  his 
weary  bones  for  a  season. 

I  continued  adding  to  my  collections  and  vocabularies,  and 
setting  traps  for  foxes,  who  had  a  fashion  of  carrying  off  the  bait 
without  disturbing  the  trap.  Ivan  Pavlofif,  however,  succeeded  in 
trapping  several,  of  which  I  secured  the  skeletons.  Whymper 
was  busily  at  work  on  his  sketches,  while  Mike  and    Ketchum 


58  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

were  getting  ready  for  their  proposed  journey.  Altogether,  time 
did  not  hang  very  heavily  on  our  hands. 

We  found  the  Indians  to  be  a  great  nuisance  in  one  way. 
They  had  a  habit  of  coming  in  and  sitting  down,  doing  and 
saying  nothing,  but  watching  everything.  At  meal-times  they 
seemed  to  count  and  weigh  every  morsel  we  ate,  and  were  never 
backward  in  assisting  to  dispose  of  the  remains  of  the  meal. 
Occasionally  we  would  get  desperate  and  clean  them  all  out; 
but  they  would  drop  in  again,  and  we  could  do  nothing  but 
resign  ourselves  to  the  annoyance,  as  we  did  not  wish  to  offend 
them.  They  intended  no  offence,  doubtless,  but  wanted  an  oppor- 
tunity of  studying  the  Anglo-Sa.xon  species  of  the  genus  Jionio  in 
its  lair. 

Fish  growing  scarce,  Karpoff  was  fitted  out  with  some  trading- 
goods,  and  sent  to  Koyukuk  in  hope  that  he  might  obtain  some 
grouse  or  rabbits  from  the  Indians  of  that  locality. 

Christmas  time  approaching,  we  joined  in  endeavoring  to  cele- 
brate the  day  appropriately.  Our  knowledge  of  chemistry  and 
the  domestic  arts  was  taxed  to  the  utmost  in  the  production 
of  pies,  gingerbread,  and  cranberry  dumplings  ;  while  a  piece 
of  Ulukuk  reindeer  meat,  which  had  been  kept  frozen  ever 
since  our  journey  across  the  portage,  performed  the  office  of 
the  customary  "  roast  beef  of  old  England,"  and  a  brace  of 
roasted  ptarmigan  represented  the  Yankee  turkeys.  Green  peas, 
tomatoes,  and  other  preserved  vegetables  were  produced  for  the 
occasion;  and,  with  the  company  of  the  bidatshik  and  his  assist- 
ant, we  sat  down  to  the  best  dinner  ever  eaten  in  that  part  of  the 
continent.  The  day  was  enlivened  by  the  reading  of  several 
original  literary  productions,  and  the  brewing  of  a  mild  bowl 
of  punch  from  a  supply  of  old  Jamaica,  which  we  owed  to  the 
kind  thoughtfulness  of  Mrs.  Scammon.  Altogether  the  occasion 
was  one  which  will  long  be  remembered  with  pleasure  b\-  those 
who  took  part  in  it. 

The  27th  of  December  an  observation  was  made,  which 
showed  the  day  to  be  just  three  hours  long.  As  nearly  as 
our  watches  could  determine,  the  sun  rose  at  a  quarter  before 
eleven,  and  set  at  a  quarter  of  two.  Proposing  on  New- Year's 
day  to  raise  the  first  telegraph  pole  in  the  division  of  the  Yu- 
kon,   Mike    went    out    with    Kurilla.  and    returned    with    a    fine 


THE    YUKOxN    TERRITORY.  59 

spruce,  of  the  orthodox  dimensions,  for  the  purpose.  An  In- 
dian, with  the  euphonious  Russian  name  of  Squirtzoft',  was  em- 
ployed to  peel  and  trim  it. 

On  the  31st  we  sat  the  Old  Year  out,  and  hailed  the  New 
with  its  prospect  of  successful  explorations.  We  had  hoped 
that  our  party  might  all  be  present  on  New-Year's  day ;  but 
there  was  no  sign  of  the  expected  arrival  of  Mr.  Dyer.  After 
breakfast  we  went  out  in  a  body  and  raised  the  first  telegraph 
pole,  ornamented  with  the  flags  of  the  United  States,  the  Tele- 
graph Expedition,  the  Masonic  fraternity,  and  the  Scientific 
Corps.  A  salute  of  thirty-six  guns  was  fired, — one  for  each 
State  ;  and  the  enthusiastic  Kun'lla  was  brought  to  the  ground 
by  the  recoil  of  a  great  Russian  blunderbuss,  which  he  had 
undertaken  to  discharge. 

A  few  days  after,  Ivan  Pavloft'  returned  from  a  journey  of 
several  hundred  miles  with  dog-sleds,  bringing  about  five  hundred 
marten  or  American  sable  skins. 

The  Russians  throughout  this  territory  compute  their  time 
according  to  Old  Style,  and  hence  are  always  eleven  days  behind 
time.  They  celebrated  Christmas  and  New-Year's  day  on  the  5  th 
and  1 2th  of  January,  respectively. 

Dyer  arrived  on  the  3d,  and  on  the  5th  Captain  Ketchum 
started  on  a  last  visit  to  the  Redoubt. 

Strong  endeavors  were  made  to  construct  some  sleds  for 
Ketchum's  trip,  after  the  style  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  ;  but, 
having  no  patterns,  much  good  birch  was  spoiled  without  satis- 
factory results. 

We  had  entertained  great  expectations  of  seeing  exhibitions 
of  the  Aurora  Borealis  of  unusual  beauty  ;  but  they  were  not 
realized.  The  few  displays  which  were  observed  were  of  an 
insignificant  character.  No  colored  lights  were  noticed,  and  the 
brilliancy  of  the  fight  was  far  below  what  we  had  anticipated. 
Several  of  these  displays,  however,  presented  phenomena  which 
may  not  be  uninteresting  to  the  general  reader,  as  showing  dis- 
tinctly some  points  not  previously  established  in  regard  to  the 
mode  of  appearance  of  the  aurora  under  some  circumstances. 
February  nth,  1867,  an  aurora  was  observed  under  the  following 
conditions.  From  a  gap  in  the  hills  north  of  Nulato,  a  white 
light   was   seen  to  issue,    early   in  the   evening.     The    sky   was 


60  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

much  overcast  with  cirro-stratus  clouds,  which  were  rapidly  pass- 
ing in  a  difterent  direction  from  the  wind  at  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  which  last  was  from  the  north.  The  light  before  alluded 
to  approached  with  the  wind,  at  about  half  the  pace  of  the  wind, 
in  a  cloudlike  shape  or  condition,  not  far  from  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  The  form  of  this  luminous  cloud  was  in  successive  waves, 
or  ripples,  and  resembled  the  rings  of  smoke  rising  from  a  pipe, 
one  within  another,  gradually  expanding.  The  inner  or  focal 
rings  were  more  intense  than  the  outer  ones,  and  the  light  was 
more  intense  in  some  parts  of  the  rings  than  in  others.  They 
advanced  as  the  ripples  do  when  a  stone  is  thrown  into  still 
water,  and  these  ripples  were  compressed  in  an  oval  form  by 
the  wind,  the  longer  diameter  being  east  and  west,  across  the 
current.  It  showed  unmistakably  that  the  shining  medium  was  in 
consistence  similar  to  cloud  or  mist.  From  the  brighter  portions 
of  the  rings,  light  streams  of  the  same  medium  occasionally 
dripped,  and  dissipated  at  some  distance  below  the  point  whence 
they  originated  ;  from  which  it  might  be  inferred  that  the  more 
intense  portion  of  this  medium  was  denser  than  the  atmosphere. 
No  rays  or  streamers  issued  upwards  from  the  upper  edges  of 
the  rings,  which  were  clearly  defined  and  below  the  real  clouds,  of 
which  the  altitude  seemed  less  than  fifteen  hundred  feet.  The 
hills  from  between  which  the  auroral  cloud  had  issued,  and  the 
tops  of  the  higher  trees  between  the  fort  and  the  hills,  were 
dimly  seen,  or  obscured  by  the  lower  portion  of  the  haze,  or  cloud, 
which  seemed  not  more  than  a  hundred  feet  above  the  earth,  as 
seen  from  the  roof  of  the  higher  building.  It  followed  the  air- 
currents  entirely;  and  all  its  motions  seemed  guided  or  controlled 
by  them.  Wavy  outlines  in  the  ripples  seemed  caused  by  the  dif- 
fering velocity  of  the  air  in  different  parts  of  the  current.  It  cov- 
ered the  whole  sky  in  about  two  hours  from  the  time  of  its  first 
appearance.  As  it  spread  and  enlarged,  the  light  became  fainter. 
It  did  not  give  out  a  positive  light,  but  had  a  mildly  luminous 
appearance,  like  phosphorescence.* 

Captain  Ketchum  and  Mike  had  returned  February  ist,  bring- 
ing  with    them   Captain    Everett   Smith,    of  the  Wilder,  and  a 

*  These  remarkable  phenomena  were  observed,  in  a  greater  or  lesser  degree,  in 
.several  instances,  of  which  an  account  was  communicated  to  the  National  Academy, 
at  its  session  in  September,  1869,  by  the  writer. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  6 1 

good  budget  of  news.  Several  miles  of  poles  had  been  erected 
in  the  vicinity  of  Grantley  Harbor  and  Unalakli'k.  Provisions, 
especially  tea  and  sugar,  were  at  a  high  premium.  Our  sup- 
ply of  tea  had  been  very  small,  and  coftee  in  this  climate  is 
worthless. 

A  point  near  the  Klatkakhatne  River  was  decided  upon  for  the 
location  of  the  head-quarters  of  the  Yukon  division,  and  a  bargain 
was  made  with  Paspi'lkoff,  the  shaky-headed  Russian,  to  put  up 
the  building,  which  was  to  be  of  logs. 

I  prepared  the  specimens  of  natural  history  which  had  been 
obtained  during  the  winter,  for  transportation  to  Unalakli'k  and 
the  Redoubt.  They  filled  two  large  boxes,  many  acceptable  ad- 
ditions having  been  made  through  the  kindness  of  my  compan- 
ions. 

A  walk  with  Captain  Smith,  near  the  fort,  resulted  in  obtaining 
a  fine  specimen  of  the  Hudson  Bay  titmouse  {Parus  Hitdsoniciis), 
a  bird  which  I  had  not  previously  collected,  and  the  first  specimen 
of  which  I  owe,  with  many  other  valuable  birds,  to  his  quick  eye 
and  unerring  aim. 

About  this  time  a  little  excitement  occurred,  owing  to  a  rumor, 
started  by  one  of  the  Indian  women  in  the  fort,  to  the  effect  that 
Larridwn  had  planned  the  destruction  of  one  of  the  proposed 
parties  which  were  to  ascend  the  Yukon.  A  council  of  inquiry 
proved,  however,  that  the  rumor  had  no  more  reliable  foundation 
than  a  dream. 

The  Indians  are  exceedingly  suspicious  in  the  most  unimportant 
things,  and  the  following  incident  is  a  good  illustration  of  it.  In 
talking  over  the  scarcity  of  provisions,  some  one  had  jokingly 
remarked,  that,  if  we  were  driven  to  the  wall,  we  should  have  to 
make  soup  of  Paspilkoff's  baby,  a  new  addition  to  our  population. 
This  was  repeated  by  one  of  the  women,  and  very  soon  old  Ivan 
the  interpreter  made  his  appearance,  saying  that  the  Indians 
wished  to  know  if  we  were  cannibals.  He  added  that,  since  the 
time  of  Bulegin's  murder  at  Koyiikuk,  there  was  no  instance 
known  where  the  Indians  had  eaten  human  flesh.  After  indulg- 
ing in  a  hearty  laugh,  we  relieved  his  apprehensions,  which  seemed 
to  be  serious,  and  thereafter  were  more  guarded  in  our  remarks. 

Peetka,  his  son,  had  been  very  active  in  procuring  birds  for 
my  collection,  and  much  to  my  regret   appeared  one  day  with 


62  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

three  fingers  of  his  left  hand  nearly  blown  oft~,  by  carelessly  pull- 
ing his  gun  through  the  bushes  by  the  muzzle.  The  injury  was 
so  serious  that  amputation  seemed  necessary,  but  by  careful  ap- 
plication of  water  dressings  twice  daily,  I  was  enabled  to  preserv^e 
them,  though  in  a  stiff  and  useless  condition.  Sometime  after, 
the  little  fellow  brought  me  in  a  marten,  one  of  his  own  trapping, 
the  only  fee  for  medical  services  I  received  in  Russian  America 
during  two  years'  practice. 

The  details  of  our  Yukon  trip  were  settled,  and  the  boatmen 
engaged,  so  that  we  felt  a  reasonable  confidence  in  the  suc- 
cessful result  of  our  proposed  explorations.  In  the  mean  time  I 
occupied  myself  taking  angles  and  measurements  for  a  chart  of 
the  Yukon  and  the  small  rivers  near  Nulato,  in  the  constant  ad- 
dition of  specimens  to  the  collection,  with  the  meteorological  rec- 
ords, and  the  enlargement  of  my  vocabularies. 

One  of  the  Russians  took  occasion  one  evening  to  express  his 
dislike  of  the  Americans  by  beating  and  abusing,  without  cause, 
a  boy  in  our  employ  called  Antoshka.  Without  recourse  to  the 
bidarshik,  Ketchum  treated  him  to  his  deserts,  —  a  well  merited 
thrashing.  This  timely  protection  to  our  Indian  servants  much 
increased  our  popularity  among  the  Indians,  and  enforced  re- 
spect from  the  Russian  convicts  employed  by  the  Russian  Ameri- 
can Company,  in  a  salutary  manner. 

Breaking  the  minute-hand  of  my  watch  one  day,  I  repaired  the 
damage  by  unwinding  the  silver  thread  from  a  violin-string  and 
twisting  a  portion  of  it  around  the  barrel  of  the  broken  hand. 
Opportunities  for  the  exercise  of  ingenuity  of  this  kind  are  fre- 
quent in  this  country,  where  few  mechanics  of  any  kind  are  to 
be  found.  The  remarkable  facility  with  which  the  Russian  peas- 
ant can  turn  his  hand  to  anything  was  well  exemplified  among 
the  men  in  the  fort.  All  of  them,  with  the  tapor,  or  short-handled 
Russian  broad-axe,  could  accomplish  almost  any  piece  of  carpen- 
tering, from  squaring  a  log  to  building  a  boat  or  a  house.  Many 
of  them  could  handle  blacksmiths'  tools,  and  even  manufacture, 
from  sheet  copper  (provided  by  the  Russian  Company),  chy- 
niks,  kettles,  and  lamps  for  burning  the  seal  oil  used  in  winter. 
There  are  several  good  blacksmiths  in  the  country,  and  Aleuts, 
Creoles,  and  even  Indians  learn  the  use  of  their  tools  with  re- 
markable ease. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  63 

On  the  6th  of  March  the  plans  for  our  proposed  new  station 
were  decided  upon,  and  the  exact  location  selected.  The  en- 
closure was  to  be  one  hundred  feet  by  sixty-five,  and  to  con- 
tain a  barrack,  officers'  quarters,  bath-house,  cook-house,  and 
several  store-houses.  Paspi'lkoff  promised  to  set  about  the  work 
at  once,  and  it  was  agreed  that  the  members  of  the  party  would 
assist  him  in  bringing  and  raising  the  heavy  timbers. 

On  the  nth  of  March,  having  completed  his  preparations,  Cap- 
tain Ketchum  set  out  on  his  adventurous  journey  with  Mike  over 
the  ice  to  Fort  Yukon.  It  was  undertaken  under  the  most  dis- 
couraging circumstances.  Neither  his  provisions  nor  his  dog- 
feed  were  sufficient  to  last  during  the  journey  of  over  six  hun- 
dred miles.  Russians  and  Indians  alike  shook  their  heads  and 
declared  their  disbelief  in  his  prospects  of  success.  The  snow 
would  be  soft  and  impassable.  The  dogs  would  run  away,  or 
give  out  for  want  of  food,  and  die.  He  could  not  feed  himself 
or  his  Indians,  and  all  would  perish  of  starvation.  The  Ulukuk 
Indians  who  had  engaged  to  go  backed  out  at  the  last  mo- 
ment, and  there  was  extreme  difficulty  in  obtaining  two  men  and 
two  boys  to  take  their  place.  This  was  finally  done  through 
the  intervention  of  old  Ivan,  who  sent  his  own  son  Peetka,  and 
induced  the  others  to  go.  The  very  day  was  dull  and  cloudy, 
with  indications  of  snow.  For  two  white  men  to  undertake  such 
a  journey,  in  the  face  of  all  this  discouragement,  through  a  coun- 
try of  which  the  resources  were  known  to  be  very  precarious, 
with  the  prospect  of  certain  starvation  if  their  guns  did  not  sup- 
ply them  with  sufficient  game  to  feed  the  dogs  and  party,  was 
resolute  and  courageous  in  the  extreme.  From  this  point  of  view 
the  journey  was  unquestionably  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
undertaken  by  modern  explorers. 

As  their  heavily  laden  sleds  moved  slowly  away  over  the  soft 
snow,  we  hoisted  the  stars  and  stripes,  gave  them  three  volleys 
from  the  big  gun,  a  hearty  cheer,  and  any  number  of  salutes  from 
guns  and  pistols.  As  they  passed  out  of  sight,  the  chances  of 
success  and  failure  seemed  so  unevenly  balanced  that  we  hardly 
dared  to  anticipate  the  realization  of  the  plans  which  they  were 
so  bravely  and  energetically  endeavoring  to  carry  out. 

Our  party  now  consisted  only  of  Messrs.  Dyer,  Whymper,  and 
myself,  with  Scratchett  the  constructor,  and  two  Indians. 


64  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

On  the  1 8th  our  eyes  were  gladdened  by  the  appearance  of  old 
Yagorsha,  with  the  little  skin  boat,  purchased  at  Uliikuk  last  fall, 
for  which  he  had  been  sent.  It  came  up  from  Uliikuk  entire,  on 
a  sled  drawn  by  five  dogs,  and  had  sustamed  some  slight  injuries. 
In  this  boat,  Mr.  Whymper  and  myself  were  to  ascend  the  Yu- 
kon after  the  spring  freshet.  Antoshka  and  another  Indian  were 
sent  by  Dyer  down  the  Yukon  to  a  place  called  Yakuts-kaldteiiik, 
where  a  three-holed  bidarka  was  supposed  to  lie,  which  he  pro- 
posed to  use  in  descending  the  Yukon  and  pursuing  his  examina- 
tion of  the  delta. 

We  determined,  although  it  was  not  strictly  in  the  line  of 
our  duty,  to  cut  and  erect  the  poles  necessary  to  bear  the  line  be- 
tween the  Nulato  post  and  the  proposed  site  of  our  new  Fort 
Kennicott.  The  distance  was  a  few  rods  over  a  mile,  and  re- 
quired about  thirty  poles.  The  work  was  done  entirely  by  the 
four  members  of  our  party,  except  clearing  away  the  brush  and 
trees  for  twelve  feet  on  each  side,  which  we  intrusted  to  one  of 
the  Russian  workmen. 

Dog-feed  and  fresh  provisions  giving  out,  I  proposed  to  make 
a  trip  to  the  Kaiyuh  villages,  and  endeavor  to  purchase  any  sup- 
plies which  the  Indians  might  be  able  to  spare.  I  arrived  with 
Kun'lla  and  the  dogs  at  a  small  village  of  two  houses,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river,  nearly  opposite  Alikoff's  barrabora,  and  being 
the  residence  of  the  old  veteran  Wolasatux.  The  village  is  known 
by  his  name.  I  found  all  the  Indians  away,  and  was  obliged  to 
take  some  fish  out  of  his  cache  to  feed  the  dogs  with. 

Wolasatux'  barrabora  is  a  well  built  Indian  winter  house,  and 
stands  near  another  smaller  one,  with  two  or  three  caches  about 
it,  on  a  small  clearing  in  a  dense  growth  of  poplars  and  willows. 
These  trees  grow  so  close  together,  that  they  have  reached  the 
height  of  some  thirty  or  forty  feet,  almost  without  branches,  and 
so  slender  that  it  gives  one  a  feeling  as  of  standing  on  a  flat  pin- 
cushion beset  with  enormous  needles  and  pins.  An  old  man 
finally  appeared,  who  sold  us  a  few  ukali  and  some  grouse.  The 
next  morning,  Kun'lla  went  out,  and  in  the  course  of  his  hunting 
met  some  Indians,  who  informed  him  that  Antoshka  had  not  been 
able  to  obtain  any  dog-feed  here  or  at  Kaltag,  and  that  it  was  not 
improbable  his  dogs  might  be  starving.  Also,  that  all  the  Indians 
were  away  after  deer,  and  that  it  was  uncertain  when  they  would 


THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 


65 


return.  This  determined  me  to  return  to  Nuhito,  so  that  Dyer 
might  send  some  fish  from  our  slender  store  to  Antoshka,  and 
thus  prevent  his  journey  from  coming  to  an  unfortunate  con- 
clusion. There  was  no  prospect  of  buying  anything  where  we 
were. 

The  next  morning  we  set  out  for  Nulato,  and  found  that  the 
moist  snow  rendered  the  travelling  very  hard.  The  weather  was 
so  warm  that  the  snow  adhered  in  large  lumps  to  the  snowshoes, 
adding  a  weight  of  ten  or  twelve  pounds  to  the  foot  at  each  step, 


Wolasatux'  barrabora  in  winter. 


until  the  masses  would  break  off  by  their  own  weight,  the  same 

We  were    exceedingly  fa- 


send   Scratchett    down   to 
Our  prospects  of  food  at 


process  being  repeated  indefinitely, 
tigued  upon  our  arrival,  near  dusk. 
It  was  immediately  determined  to 
Kaltag  with  some  fish  for  Antoshka. 
this  time  were  anything  but  encouraging.  Wherever  the  blame 
should  have  fallen,  the  fact  remained,  that  if  it  had  not  been  for 
the  flour  and  fish  we  obtained  from  the  Russians,  we  should  have 
been  in  a  starving  condition  ;  while  it  was  said,  and  never  denied, 
so  far  as  I  know,  that  the  Nightingale,  on  her  return,  carried  with 
5 


66  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

her  ten  thousand  rations.  The  preposterous  folly  of  issuing-  food 
by  ordinary  rations  to  men  in  an  arctic,  or  nearly  arctic  climate, 
was  never  more  fully  demonstrated.  On  the  resources  of  the 
country  as  developed  by  the  natives,  who  have  all  they  can  do  to 
feed  themselves,  a  large  body  of  men  cannot  support  themselves 
in  this  part  of  the  territory,  unless  their  time  be  devoted  to  noth- 
ing else. 

On  the  8th  of  April,  Scratchett  returned  with  a  load  of  fresh 
reindeer  meat,  which  he  had  obtained  from  the  Indians,  a  number 
of  whom  accompanied  him.  Among  them  was  Wolasatux  and 
his  foster-son  Mikaishka,  and  Tekunka,  a  noted  shaman  and 
tyone  among  the  Kaiyuh  Indians.  The  latter  proved  to  be  a 
very  good  kind  of  fellow  ;  he  sold  us  a  large  amount  of  meat, 
refusing  the  offers  of  the  Russians,  who  saw  his  sled-load  taken 
into  our  store-house  with  unconcealed  disgust.  The  day  had 
gone  by  when  they  could  control  the  trade  of  that  kind,  and  force 
the  reluctant  Indian  to  sell  against  his  will  his  hard-earned  booty 
for  a  leaf  or  two  of  tobacco  and  a  few  balls. 

We  paid  liberally,  but  not  extravagantly,  for  provisions  of  all 
kinds,  and  as  the  supply  was  very  limited,  the  Russians,  un- 
willing to  raise  their  tariff  of  prices,  were  often  obliged  to  go 
without. 

The  continued  warm  weather  was  melting  the  snow  rapidly, 
and  although  we  had  cleaned  off  the  roof  as  much  as  possible, 
still  the  melting  ice  caused  a  constant  dripping  during  the  day. 
The  evening  frost  would  put  an  end  to  it  for  a  while,  but  it 
returned  with  the  heat  of  the  morning  sun. 

The  Nulato  and  other  small  rivers  had  felt  the  eftects  of 
the  melting  snow,  and  the  ice  on  the  edge  of  the  Yukon,  which 
rests  on  and  is  frozen  to  the  beach,  was  covered  with  water  from 
them. 

Flics,  to  all  appearance  the  common  universal  house-fly,  as  well 
as  the  bluebottle,  had  appeared  in  large  numbers,  and  might  be 
seen  on  the  sunny  side  of  every  wall. 

On  the  lOth  I  found  the  first  fully  expanded  willow  catkins, 
and  the  pretty  red  catkin  of  the  alder.  A  white-winged  crossbill, 
the  first  so  far  obtained,  was  shot  in  a  grove  of  poplars  not  far 
from  the  post. 

On  the  roof  of  the  house  I  obtained  a  large  number  of  small 


THE    YUKOx\    TERRITORY.  67 

musk-beetles,  of  a  steel-green  color  and  strong  odor.  Several 
other  species  were  obtained  from  the  stumps  and  mossy  hillocks 
which  began  to  project  above  the  level  of  the  snow.  The  field- 
mice  were  also  beginning  to  be  active,  and  the  children  about  the 
fort  eagerly  scanned  with  their  keen  eyes,  bow  and  arrow  in  hand, 
the  various  stumps  and  crevices  where  they  might  find  them ; 
when  successful  they  flocked  with  their  prizes  to  me,  sure  of  a 
few  beads  or  some  other  trinket  to  repay  them  for  their  labor. 

The  white  ptarmigan  began  moulting,  or  rather  brown  feathers 
began  to  appear  in  their  necks  and  on  the  edges  of  the  wings, 
where  the  first  change  may  be  looked  for. 

While  skinning  a  hawk-owl  I  discovered  in  the  ovary  an  egg, 
nearly  perfect.  Kuri'lla,  on  his  return  from  a  foraging  expedition, 
brought  fine  specimens  of  the  great  gray  owl  {Syrfiimn  cinereiun), 
which,  measured  four  feet  across  the  wings,  and  the  white  owl 
{Nyctca  nived).  The  latter  frequently  flies  by  day  without  diffi- 
culty, and  he  is  a  sharp  hunter  who  can  approach  it  within  gun- 
shot, even  at  midday. 

April  23d  being  a  good  snowy  day,  I  took  advantage  of  the 
opportunity,  to  visit  a  grave  on  the  point,  near  the  Nulato  River. 
Carefully  lifting  the  cover,  I  removed  the  cranium,  and  putting 
it  into  my  haversack,  I  returned  by  a  roundabout  way  to  the 
fort.  I  had  long  had  my  eye  upon  this  grave,  and  had  been 
waiting  for  weather  which  would  cover  up  my  tracks,  in  order 
to  secure  the  skull.  The  Indians  are  very  superstitious  in  regard 
to  touching  anything  that  has  belonged  with  a  dead  body,  and 
would  have  been  highly  incensed  had  it  become  known.  There- 
fore I  took  the  first  opportunity  of  packing  safely  away  the  only 
Ingalik  cranium  ever  collected. 

An  expedition  to  the  bluffs  above  Nulato  resulted  in  my  obtain- 
ing a  number  of  fossils,  which  probably  indicate  a  Miocene  age 
for  these  beds.  There  are  very  few  and  very  poor  fossils  in 
these  sandstones,  notwithstanding  their  wide  extent  and  great 
thickness. 

Birds  became  more  plentiful  as  spring  advanced,  many  sum- 
mer visitors  arriving  in  April  and  the  early  part  of  May.  The 
hawks  and  owls  were  already  laying  their  eggs,  and  the  young 
of  the  Canada  jay,  as  I  afterwards  learned,  were  already  hatchef' 
Scratchett  started  for  Unalakli'k  April  25th,  with  the  las^ 


68  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

and  on  the  last  trip  possible  this  season.  The  Russians  prophe- 
sied that  he  would  not  be  able  to  get  through,  and  the  weather 
gave  some  probability  to  their  croakings. 

The  25th  of  April  was  a  great  holiday,  or  frdsnik,  of  the  Rus- 
sians. It  was  their  Easter,  and  was  a  day  of  rejoicing  for  us 
also,  as  Antoshka  returned  from  a  foraging  expedition  on  the 
Kdiyuh  River  with  a  good  load  of  deer  meat  from  Tekunka. 
Out  of  our  plenty  we  sent  a  haunch  in  to  Ivan  Pavloff,  to  his 
great  satisfaction. 

The  walls  of  Fort  Kennicott  already  began  to  assume  their 
proportions,  and  we  frequently  went  up  to  assist  Paspi'lkoft^  in  the 
work  of  raising  the  logs  to  their  proper  places. 

On  the  28th  old  Maria  died.  She  was  an  Indian  woman, 
long  domiciled  with  the  Russians,  and  had  been  present  at  the 
Nulato  massacre. 

On  the  following  day  the  first  goose  was  seen,  the  solitary 
advance-guard  of  the  thousands  to  come.  Strolling  on  the 
beach,  I  obtained  a  small  hawk  and  the  first  snipe  of  the  season. 
The  weather  had  become  exceedingly  warm.  Shirt-sleeves  were 
the  rule,  and  the  little  children  enjoyed  themselves  on  the  broad 
river-beach,  building  houses  with  pebbles  and  making  mud  pies, 
much  as  their  brothers  and  sisters  do  all  over  the  world  when 
a  vacation  or  a  holiday  releases  them  from  restraint  and  the 
mother's  watchful  eye.  I  never  saw  a  young  child  punished  in 
Russian  America,  except  the  well-grown  boys  of  the  Russian 
bidarshik.  They  behave  quite  as  well  as  civilized  children,  and 
grow  up  with  quite  as  much  respect  for  their  parents.  An 
Indian  baby,  unless  sick,  never  cries ;  and  why  should  it .'  It  has 
no  one  to  rub  soap  in  its  eyes,  and  never  feels  the  weight  of  the 
parental  hand.  The  mother  makes  it  a  doll,  if  a  girl,  out  of  bits 
of  squirrel-skin  and  fur.  If  a  boy,  the  father  builds  for  him  a 
little  sable-trap,  a  miniature  cache,  in  which  to  put  his  shining 
pebbles  and  other  childish  treasures,  or  a  tiny  fish-trap,  in  which 
the  mother  takes  care  that  a  choice  bit  of  ukali,  a  rabbit's  head,  or 
a  piece  of  reindeer  fat  shall  be  caught  in  some  mysterious  way. 
As  soon  as  they  can  toddle  about  they  are  instructed  in  the 
mysteries  of  setting  snares,  and  the  pride  with  which  the  boys  or 
girls  bring  home  their  first  grouse,  or  even,  by  great  good  luck,  an 
unfortunate  rabbit,  is  fully  shared  by  the  parents.     Their  dresses 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  69 

are  ornamented  with  the  choicest  beads  ;  the  sweet  marrow  or 
tongue  of  the  fallen  reindeer  is  reserved  for  them  by  the  father 
successful  in  the  chase.  They  travel  hundreds  of  miles  with  the 
dog-sleds,  and  from  these  little  children  I  have  often  obtained 
dozens  of  mice  or  small  birds,  caught  near  some  solitary  lodge 
far  away  among  the  mountains,  which  rumor  had  informed  them 
I  would  purchase  with  beads  or  trinkets.  They  carried  these 
proudly  home  again  as  their  own  earnings  and  the  prize  of  their 
own  industry.  I  always  paid  something  for  such  specimens,  even 
if  quite  worthless,  to  encourage  them  to  perseverance,  and  in 
this  way  I  obtained  many  invaluable  specimens. 

Scratchett  arrived  from  Unalakli'k  on  the  4th  of  May,  having 
had  a  very  hard  journey,  and  getting  up  to  his  neck  in  water 
while  crossing  some  of  the  small  rivers,  swelled  with  the  melting 
snow.  The  scurvy  had  attacked  the  parties  at  Unalakli'k,  from 
the  absence  of  fresh  provisions,  but  was  fortunately  stayed  in  its 
progress  by  the  providential  advent  on  the  Unalakli'k  plains  of 
large  herds  of  deer,  of  which  many  were  killed. 

On  the  3d,  Kun'lla  killed  a  goose,  a  white-cheeked  brant  {B. 
leiicopareia),  and  two  ducks,  —  a  mallard  and  a  Golden-eye.  He 
received  the  annual  pound  of  tobacco,  the  perquisite  of  him 
who  kills  the  first  goose  in  the  spring.  From  this  time  we 
hoped  to  obtain  an  abundance  of  water-fowl,  which  are  the  only 
support  of  the  inhabitants  of  Nulato  until  the  freshets  subside 
and  the  salmon  begin  to  ascend  the  river.  Curiously  enough, 
there  are  no  fish  in  these  rivers  which  will  take  the  hook. 

On  the  7th  of  May  the  first  swans  were  seen.  They  are  the 
small  American  species,  the  trumpeter  not  being  found  in  this 
region,  and  very  rarely  visiting  Fort  Yukon.  The  geese  did  not 
arrive  in  large  numbers  until  the  9th  of  May,  ten  days  later  than 
on  the  previous  year.  The  commonest  ducks  were  the  pin-tail 
and  the  green-winged  teal. 

On  the  I2th  of  May  the  water  came  down  with  a  rush,  break- 
ing up  the  ice  on  the  Nulato  River,  and  flooding  the  ice  on  the 
Yukon.  At  the  same  time  a  torrent  poured  down  the  Klat- 
kakhatne  River.  Ivan  Pavlofif,  having  gone  shooting  over  to  the 
island,  on  his  return  was  caught  between  the  two  currents  and 
swept  into  a  hole  in  the  ice.  Paspi'lkoff  gave  the  alarm,  and, 
catching  up  two  paddles,  I  hurried  to  the  beach,  where  Scratchett 


70  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

had  already  launched  a  birch  canoe.  With  Antoshka,  he  rapidly 
made  his  way  among  the  fragments  which  threatened  to  crush 
the  frail  boat,  and  succeeded  in  extricating  the  Russian  in  safety. 
To  his  credit  be  it  said,  the  act  was  very  handsomely  done.  The 
Russians  were  shouting  and  running  wildly  about,  like  chickens 
when  a  hawk  is  preparing  for  a  swoop,  and  were  not  of  the  slight- 
est assistance. 

A  year  before,  the  ice  having  broken  up,  a  convict  named 
Tarentoft'  had  been  to  the  island  in  a  birch-bark  canoe.  Return- 
ing, he  was  nipped  between  the  ice-cakes  and  was  sinking,  when 
Major  Kennicott  saw  him  from  his  seat  on  the  roof  of  the  fort, 
and  hurried  two  men  to  his  assistance,  unquestionably  saving  his 
life.  When  the  Russian  had  changed  his  clothes,  he  came  with 
protestations  of  gratitude  to  his  preserver,  who  answered,  "  Do  not 
thank  me,  Tarentoff ;  thank  God."  The  next  day,  while  walking 
in  the  early  morning  on  the  beach  near  the  fort,  taking  the  angles 
of  the  mountains  for  his  proposed  map,  and  with  thoughts  per- 
haps intent  on  the  long  anticipated  journey,  then  only  awaiting 
the  disappearance  of  the  floating  ice,  the  Major  was  called  to  his 
eternal  home !  His  remains  were  found  where  he  fell  ;  struck 
down  by  disease  of  the  heart,  aggravated  by  exposure,  privation, 
and  anxiety.  On  the  sad  anniversary  of  his  death  we  erected,  on 
the  nearest  hillock  not  swept  by  the  spring  freshets,  a  cross,  which 
was  hewn  out  by  the  blacksmith  Paspi'lkoff,  and  which  upheld  a 
tablet  with  the  following  inscription  :  — 

In  Memory  of 
ROBERT  KENNICOTT, 

NATURALIST, 

'who  died  near  this  place, 

May  lyih,  1866,  aged  thirty. 

On  asking  Paspi'lkoff  what  he  wanted  for  his  labor  in  hewing 
out  the  arms  of  the  cross,  he  replied,  "  We  Russians  take  nothing 
for  what  we  may  do  for  the  dead  ;  we  do  not  know  when  it  may 
be  our  turn." 

On  the  1 2th  of  May  the  mosquitoes  made  their  appearance, 
though  the  snow  still  lay  on  the  ground  in  abundance.  They 
were  larger  than  our  home  mosquitoes,  and  very  bloodthirsty. 
After  a  few  days  it  was  impossible  to  sleep  without  a  net. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  71 

We  had  abundance  to  do,  getting  our  bidarra  in  order  for  the 
journey,  and  packing  our  stores  into  the  smallest  possible  space, 
knowing  by  experience  that  every  ounce  counted.  Collecting 
was  not  neglected  ;  and  many  specimens  of  birds  were  obtained 
which  are  only  summer  visitors.  A  walk  to  the  bluft^  above  the 
Klatkakhatne  River  was  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  a  few  more 
fossils,  and  some  very  minute  land-shells,  similar  to,  if  not  identi- 
cal with.  Eastern  American  and  Northern  European  species. 

I  had  at  this  time  a  good  opportunity  of  observing  the  forma- 
tion of  the  alluvial  soil  of  the  islands  and  banks  of  the  Yukon. 
Two  or  three  feet  below  the  surface,  the  ground  is  frozen,  and 
probably  always  continues  so,  as  there  are  no  roots  of  living  trees 
below  that  depth.  The  soil  is  composed  of  distinct  layers,  each 
layer  consisting  of  a  stratum  of  sand,  overlaid  by  mud,  and 
covered  with  a  thin  sheet  of  vegetable  matter.  These  layers 
evidently  mark  the  annual  inundations,  the  materials  brought 
down  settling  according  to  their  specific  gravity.  They  varied 
in  thickness  from  half  an  inch  to  three  inches,  but  averaged  about 
about  an  inch.  I  counted  one  hundred  and  eighty  of  them  in 
one  bank,  exposed  by  the  undermining  and  washing  away  of  the 
soil  by  the  river,  leaving  a  perpendicular  bank  about  ten  feet 
high.  This  action  of  deposition  and  denudation  is  constantly 
going  on  ;  and  so  great  is  the  amount  carried  out  to  sea  by  the 
Yukon  water,  that  the  water  of  Bering  Sea  is  discolored  by  it 
for  many  miles,  even  quite  out  of  sight  of  the  land. 

Occasionally  the  roots  and  stumps  of  trees  might  be  seen 
exposed,  in  their  natural  position,  but  deep  below  the  surface. 
These  had  evidently  been  broken  off  in  some  ancient  flood,  and 
finally  buried  under  new  deposits  of  alluvium.  I  even  thought 
I  detected,  in  the  lower  and  older  layers,  indications  of  carbon- 
ization, or  transformation  into  a  kind  of  lignite,  among  the  strata 
of  vegetable  matter. 

The  Russians  had  already  put  their  large  bidarra  in  order, 
and,  looking  with  contempt  upon  our  little  boat,  which  was 
shaped  like  a  dory,  about  fifteen  feet  long  and  four  and  a  half 
wide,  asserted  that  we  could  not  keep  up  with  them  ;  that  it  was 
impossible  to  row  such  a  bag-shaped  contrivance  against  the 
rapid  river  current ;  that  it  would  not  bear  a  sail  as  large  as  the 
one  we  had  had   made  ;  and,  finally,  that,  with  such  a  boat,  it 


72  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

was  useless  to  attempt  ascending  the  river,  for  we  should  cer- 
tainly fail.  We  did  not  fail  to  appreciate  the  consideration  for 
our  weakness  and  inexperience,  which  was  indicated  by  such 
comments  ;  and  it  but  strengthened  our  determination  to  reach 
Fort  Yukon  at  all  hazards,  even  if  the  boat  had  to  be  replaced  by 
a  raft. 

We  had  provided  a  mast,  and  Kurilla  exercised  his  taste  and 
ingenuity  in  carving  an  arrow,  with  a  broad  tail  to  which  some 
blue  cotton  was  attached,  to  serve  as  a  fly.  The  square  sail  was 
composed  of  stout  linen  towelling,  purchased  of  the  Russians  ; 
and  we  were  provided  with  an  A-tent,  and  a  large  piece  of 
drill,  with  which  our  Indians  might  make  a  tent  for  their  own 
shelter. 

Our  boat  was  too  small  to  admit  of  a  rudder,  and  an  enormous 
paddle  for  use  in  steering  was  made  by  Kun'lla,  and  ornamented 
with  bars  and  stripes  of  red  ochre.  We  had  provided  several 
oars  cut  out  of  seasoned  spruce,  no  harder  wood  being  attain- 
able, except  birch,  which  is  too  brittle. 

On  the  1 6th  and  i8th  of  May  we  all  united  in  erecting  the 
poles  between  the  Nulato  post  and  Fort  Kennicott.  Dyer  had 
decided  to  take  Antoshka,  and  a  Creole  called  Aloshka,  who 
understood  the  Eskimo  dialect  of  the  Innuit  of  the  Yukon- 
mouth,  serving  as  an  interpreter  as  well  as  an  assistant  in 
paddling  the  three-holed  bidarka  in  which  the  journey  was  to 
be  made.  Scratchett  was  to  remain  at  Nulato  and  secure  logs 
for  the  buildings  to  be  put  up  at  Fort  Kennicott  after  the  ice 
had  passed  out  of  the  river. 

The  ice  on  the  Yukon  was  separated  from  the  shore  by  a  wide 
belt  of  water,  and  we  hourly  looked  for  a  rise  which  should  give 
it  a  start  down  stream. 

On  the  19th  of  May,  about  one  o'clock,  as  Whymper  and  my- 
self were  sitting  on  the  roof,  we  perceived  a  slight  motion,  and 
upon  our  raising  a  shout  to  that  effect,  the  whole  population  of 
the  fort  was  soon  out  on  the  bank,  watching  the  slow  progress 
of  the  great  sheet  of  ice  between  us  and  the  island.  The  pre- 
vious year  the  ice  had  broken  up  on  the  21st.  The  water  began 
to  rise  very  rapidly,  and  soon  covered  much  of  the  beach.  We 
watched  it  with  a  great  deal  of  interest ;  but  the  sight  was  by  no 
means  as  grand  as  we  had  anticipated.     It  passed  very  quietly 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  J  T^ 

for  a  time,  and  finally  stopped,  a  jam  having  occurred  somewhere 
below,  and  the  water  being  still  too  low  to  carry  all  before  it. 

On  the  2 1  St  it  began  to  move  again  ;  and  the  water  had  risen 
to  the  foot  of  an  inclined  plane  opposite  the  fort-gate,  where  the 
bank  is  usually  ascended.  The  Russians  do  not  start  up  the 
river  until  the  ice  is  well  out  of  it,  as  the  danger  to  skin-boats 
would  be  too  great  to  risk. 

Our  necessary  trading-goods  and  provisions  amounted  to  nearly 
eight  hundred  pounds,  which,  with  the  men,  oars,  sails,  and 
other  baggage,  made  up  nearly  eighteen  hundred  pounds.  Of 
this  we  intended  to  put  a  bag  of  flour  and  one  of  bread  on  board 
the  large  Russian  boat,  making  about  sixteen  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  that  our  little  bidarra  must  carry. 

On  the  25th,  all  our  preparations  being  completed,  we  took  our 
last  night's  rest  in  the  old  Nulato  trading-post. 


CHAPTER     II  I. 

Our  departure  from  Nulato.  —  Sukaree.  —  Crossing  in  the  ice.  —  Peculation.  —  Camp. 

—  Koyukuk  Sopka.  —  Barter  on  the  Yukon.  —  Indian  grave.  —  Ooskon.  —  Indian 
pipes.  —  Tohonidola.  —  Koyukun  dress.  —  Catching  butterflies.  —  Melozikakat 
River.  —  Arrival  at  Nowikakat.  —  Trading  for  meat.  —  Shamanism.  —  Indian  theol- 
ogy.—  Treating  the  sick. — Departure  from  Xowikakat.  —  Birch  canoes.  —  Run- 
away from  Fort  Yukon.  —  Tozikakat  River.  —  Nuklukahyet  and  the  Twin  Mountains. 
— Xuklukahyet  tyone  and  other  Indians.  —  Departure  from  Nuklukahyet.  —  The 
Ramparts  and  Rapids.  —  Moose  killing.  —  Pass  the  Ramparts.  —  Mosquitoes.  — 
Plains  north  of 'the  Yukon.  —  Kutcha  Kutchin  camp.  —  Sachniti.  —  Arrival  at 
Fort  Yukon.  —  History  of  the  fort.  —  Five  years  without  bread.  —  Degradation  of 
the  servants  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  —  Intense  heat.  —  Arrival  of  the  bateau.x. 

—  The  annual  trade.  —  Tenan  Kutchin  Indians.  —  Other  tribes.  —  Drowning  of 
Cowley.  —  Red  Leggins.  —  Arrival  of  Ketchum  and  Mike.  — Missionaries  and  their 
value.  —  Course  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  with  the  Indians.  —  Massacre  at  Fort 
Nelson.  —  Indians  of  the  Western  United  States.  —  Furs  in  the  storehouse.  — 
Departure  from  Fort  Yukon.  —  Arrival  at  Nulato.  —  Unexpected  orders.  —  Start 
for  the  Yukon-mouth.  —  Seal  and  beluga  in  the  river.  —  Arrival  at  St.  Michael's. 

EARLY  in  the  morning  of  the  26th  of  May  we  helped  our 
companion,  Mr.  Dyer,  to  pack  his  baggage  into  the  bidarka, 
and  about  seven  o'clock  saw  him  fairly  started,  with  Antoshka 
and  Aloshka,  on  their  journey  to  the  Yukon-mouth.  We  gave 
them  a  parting  salute,  and  immediately  placed  our  own  boat 
in  the  water  and  proceeded  to  load  her.  The  Russians  had 
already  finished,  and  were  assembled  at  a  pseudo-religious  cere- 
monial before  their  departure.  At  eight  o'clock  we  pushed  off. 
Yagor  and  the  two  Russians  who  remained  behind  saluted  the 
flotilla  with  several  discharges  of  the  rusty  howitzer.  The  Rus- 
sian boat  took  the  lead,  with  eight  oarsmen  and  a  light  freight. 
We  followed  them  at  a  short  distance.  Our  party  was  com- 
posed of  Mr.  Frederick  Whymper  and  myself;  Kun'lla ;  a  little 
Ingalik  called  Mikaishka,  or  in  the  Indian  dialect  Menoholnoi. 
meaning  beetle,  in  allusion  to  his  diminutiveness  ;  and  lastly,  a 
Koyukun,  whose  name  was  so  remarkably  long  and  unpronounce- 
able, that  we  decided  to  call  him  Tom.  All  these  had  arrived 
early  in  the  morning  in  single  birch  canoes,  a  large  number  of 


THE    YUKOx\    TERRITORY. 


12 


which,  with  their  owners,  were  to  accompany  us  to  Nuklukah- 
yet. 

The  rain  poured  down  on  us  and  made  everything  wet  and  un- 
comfortable. I  realized,  for  the  first  time,  the  size  and  power  of 
the  logs  and  fragments  of  ice  which,  seen  from  the  banks,  seemed 
so  small  and  insignificant.  Kun'Ila,  whose  Indian  name  was 
Unookiik,  had  had  much  experience  in  this  sort  of  navigation, 
and  proved  himself  active,  energetic,  and  efficient. 

The  boat  had  been  hurriedly  loaded,  and  the  goods  were  not 
arranged  to  the  best  advantage.  It  always  takes  a  day  to  get  the 
party  and  boat  into  good  working  order.  After  pulling  about  six 
miles  we  felt  the  necessity  for  taking  some  breakfast,  and,  the 
Russians  setting  the  example,  we  hauled  close  into  the  bank  and 
boiled  the  chyniks.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  take  or  make 
soft  bread  on  such  a  journey,  as  it  would  very  soon  mould.  The 
traditional  "  damper  "  is  a  humbug.  It  is  invariably  heavy,  and  a 
fruitful  cause  of  heartburn,  indigestion,  and  consequent  ill  humor. 
Hence,  in  the  absence  of  biscuit,  a  substitute  being  necessary,  the 
Russians  are  accustomed  to  bake  a  large  quantity  of  bread  which, 
after  slicing,  they  dry  in  the  oven,  so  that,  without  browning,  it 
becomes  as  hard  as  a  rock.  This  hardness,  however,  immediately 
disappears  when  the  sukaree,  as  the  Russians  call  it,  is  immersed 
in  hot  tea  ;  and  in  this  respect  it  is  preferable  to  biscuit,  which 
takes  a  long  time  to  soak.  It  is,  however,  more  liable  to  break 
up  than  biscuit,  when  carried  in  a  bag,  and  not  unfrequently  re- 
tains dust  and  grit  from  the  mud  walls  of  the  peechka,  unless 
very  carefully  dried.  We  had  both  biscuit  and  sukaree ;  some  of 
the  latter  having  been  made  of  white  flour,  it  proved  execrable, 
the  Russian  sukaree  being  always  made  of  groats  or  Graham 
flour. 

Just  above  the  ravine  and  little  brook  where  we  took  our  tea 
was  a  rounded  rock,  boldly  jutting  out  into  the  river.  Around 
this  a  constant  stream  of  ice-cakes,  logs,  and  driftwood  was  pour- 
ing. The  Russians  first. reached  this  point,  and  after  one  or  two 
trials  turned  back  and  camped,  hoping  that  the  ice  would  cease 
running  before  the  next  morning.  Kun'Ila  saw  this  move  with 
great  disgust.  "The  Russians  retreat:  Unookuk  will  not  retreat," 
said  he,  and  struck  boldly  out  into  the  stream  of  ice  and  drift- 
wood.    P'or  ten  minutes  all  had   their  hands  full,  staving  oft"  logs 


76  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

and  ice-cakes,  and  the  danger  was  too  imminent  to  think  about. 
A  clearer  part  of  the  river  was  soon  reached  in  safety,  the  drift 
always  running  most  thickly  in  the  strongest  current.  Paddling 
up  stream  a  mile  or  two,  the  severity  of  the  rain  induced  us  to 
camp  on  an  island,  where  we  pitched  our  tent  in  a  willow  grove, 
and  endeavored  to  dry  ourselves.  The  evening  meal  consisted  of 
salted  white-fish  and  tea.  We  now  discovered  that  Scratchett 
had  availed  himself  of  the  confusion  of  our  starting  to  appropriate 
sundry  spoons,  and  other  articles  of  use  and  necessity,  to  his  own 
advantage.  Although  of  iron,  the  loss  was  as  great  as  if  they  had 
been  of  gold ;  for  who  can  eat  bread  and  tea  without  a  spoon  ? 
We  had  just  two  left,  and  our  Indians  must  take  turn  and  turn 
about  in  using  them.  Another  loss  which  we  all  regretted  was 
three  pounds  of  sugar,  which  I  had  purchased  with  a  shirt,  of  the 
individual  above  mentioned.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  he  has  duly 
repented  in  his  subsequent  retirement. 

Several  canoes  had  followed  us  through  the  ice  in  fear  and 
trembling.  Their  inmates,  camped  near  us,  presented  a  melan- 
choly spectacle.  A  woman  whose  long  upper  garment  consisted 
of  white  cotton,  with  her  hair  streaming  down  her  back,  resembled 
a  drowned  rabbit  ;  and  an  old  man  seemed  to  have  received  a 
more  thorough  washing  than  for  many  years  previous.  We  were 
all  very  wet,  but  our  clothing  repelled  the  rain  much  better  than 
deerskins  or  cotton  drill. 

Blessed  be  the  man  who  invented  rubber  blankets  !  Mine,  after 
a  season  in  the  Lake  Superior  region,  did  noble  service,  as  well  as 
Whymper's,  which  he  had  obtained  in  British  Columbia.  Laying 
them  down  on  the  mud  in  which  our  camp  was  situated,  only 
covered  by  a  iittle  willow  brush,  we  spread  out  our  blankets,  and 
were  soon  at  rest.  The  Indians,  except  Kun'lla,  who,  as  coxswain, 
slept  in  our  tent,  made  their  tent  out  of  a  great  sheet  of  drill,  after 
their  own  fashion.  Bending  down  the  tops  of  several  slender  wil- 
lows, they  crossed  them  in  different  directions,  and  spreading  the 
covering  over  that,  the  whole  was  nearly  circular.  It  was  always 
a  marvel  to  me  how  they  could  lie  down  in  it,  it  was  so  small. 
After  all  got  inside,  the  edges  were  carefully  tucked  in  and  the 
mosquitoes  effectually  excluded. 

The  rain  prevented  the  latter  from  being  very  troublesome,  and 
we  slept  comfortably. 


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THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  '^^ 

The  brown  Miocene  sandstones  before  mentioned  are  suc- 
ceeded here  by  blue  sandstones,  which  at  Nulato  He  below  them. 
The  latter  contain  few  fossils,  —  mostly  sycamore  leaves  {Pla- 
taniis),  and  other  vegetable  remains. 

Monday,  May  2'jth.  —  Starting  about  three  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing, we  soon  passed  the  Russians,  who  had  gone  a  little  farther 
in  the  night  and  camped  above  us.  We  passed  through  a  small 
slough  or  pratoka  between  some  islands.  About  ten  o'clock  we 
arrived  at  a  fine  bluff  near  the  mouth  of  the  Koyiikuk  River,  a 
landmark  in  this  part  of  the  country,  and  known  as  the  Koyii- 
kuk Sopka.  Here  is  a  small  Koyukun  village,  where  we  stopped 
and  took  tea.  I  bought  a  large  pike  {Esox  estor)  and  a  quantity 
of  dry  reindeer  meat. 

After  passing  the  Sopka  the  river  is  very  winding,  and  we 
frequently  crossed  it  in  order  to  shorten  the  distance.  When  in 
doing  so  we  came  to  the  main  channel,  it  was  a  hard  tug  to 
cross  it,  and  we  invariably  lost  ground,  sometimes  as  much  as  a 
mile. 

On  rounding  a  turn  in  the  river  we  saw  a  large  number  of 
canoes  lying  near  the  bank  and  a  crowd  of  dark  figures  on  the 
shore.  These  proved  to  be  Koyiikuns,  who  proposed  to  ac- 
company us.  Ivan  the  tyone,  Larriown,  and  a  handsome  fellow 
in  a  red  shirt,  named  "  Cousin  "  by  Ketchum  on  his  last  season's 
trip,  accosted  us  with  gesticulations  of  welcome.  As  rain  threat- 
ened, and  we  wished  to  keep  our  provisions  dry,  we  camped  in 
the  best  place  we  could  find  among  the  dense  thickets  of  willows 
which  line  the  shore  everywhere.  There  were  a  few  hills  in  the 
distance,  but  no  mountains.  The  foliage  was  not  fully  out,  but 
the  delicate  green  of  the  young  leaves  made  the  river  banks  very 
beautiful.  Close  to  the  water  grow  willows  and  alders.  A  little 
farther  back  are  belts  of  broad-leaved  poplars  {P.  balsamifera), 
and  on  the  dry  ground  spruce  {Abies  alba),  growing  to  a  very 
large  size  and  mixed  with  aspens  {Populns  tremuloidcs),  whose 
light-colored  bark  and  silvered  leaves  contrast  finely  with  the 
dark  evergreens.  On  the  rocky  bluffs  a  species  of  juniper  is 
abundant,  crawling  over  the  rocks,  but  not  rising  from  the  soil. 

On  the  left  bank,  which  is  everywhere  low,  the  willows  and 
poplars  appear  to  predominate.  The  banks  in  many  places  are 
undermined    by  the    rapid  current,  and  frequently  fall  into  the 


78  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

river  in  large  masses,  with  the  trees  and  shrubs  upon  them, 
startling  the  unaccustomed  ear  with  a  noise  like  thunder. 

The  ground  where  Ketchum  camped  the  previous  year,  accord- 
ing to  Kuri'lla,  was  under  water;  we  had  camped  on  a  low  island 
somewhat  in  advance  of  the  Russians.  The  Koyukuns  brought 
their  stores  of  dried  meat  and  fat,  and  I  purchased  about  fifty 
pounds  of  the  former.  The  tariff^  of  prices  was  high,  compared 
with  what  w^e  had  paid  for  the  same  things  on  the  coast.  We 
gave  five  loads  of  powder  for  a  duck,  seven  for  a  goose,  if  fat ; 
five  balls  or  a  small  bundle  of  leaves  of  Circassian  tobacco,  called 
by  the  Russians  a  papoosJi,  for  a  beaver-tail  ;  six  to  eight  balls  for 
the  dry  breast  of  a  deer;  four  or  five  for  a  deer's  tongue;  and 
for  fat,  especially  the  marrow  of  the  long  bones  of  the  reindeer, 
whatever  would  buy  it,  usually  a  pretty  high  price.  A  ball,  a 
charge  of  powder,  or  two  caps,  are  the  units  of  trade,  and  will 
buy  almost  anything.  Knives,  beads,  flints  and  steels,  needles, 
small  looking-glasses,  handkerchiefs  of  various  colors,  woollen 
scarfs,  and  cotton  drill  or  calico  are  all  useful,  but  tobacco  and 
ammunition  are  the  great  staples.  The  Circassian  or  Cherkatsky 
tobacco,  imported  only  by  the  Russians,  and  exceedingly  strong, 
is  the  prime  favorite  where  the  Russians  trade ;  but  those  who 
deal  more  with  the  English  at  Fort  Yukon  like  the  long  natural 
Kentucky  leaf  best.  The  latter  we  used  for  our  own  smoking, 
obtaining  an  excellent  article  from  the  Russians  for  thirty  cents  a 
pound. 

Swans,  brant,  and  sandhill  cranes  were  seen,  the  former  abun- 
dantly. Ivan  Pavlcff  sent  me  two  eggs  of  the  white-cheeked 
goose  {B.  leiicopai'dd),  which  were  found  on  a  bit  of  sand)'  beach 
near  the  camp,  and  every  step  added  some  new  plant,  insect,  or 
bird  to  our  collections.  The  Koyukuk  Sopka  is  composed  of  a 
soft  crystalline  rock  apparently  unstratified. 

In  this  kind  of  journey,  sluggards  are  out  of  place.  We 
allowed  ourselves  but  four  or  five  hours  for  sleep,  and  after  a  cup 
of  tea  continued  on  our  way. 

Tuesday,  2W1.  —  Ivan  the  tyone,  and  old  Wolasatux  came  along 
in  their  little  canoes  with  some  half-dried  fish  for  sale,  which 
we  purchased  for  our  Indians.  Passing  through  a  narrow^  pra- 
toka  between  two  islands  and  the  shore,  we  came  to  a  solitary 
Indian    house,    quite    empty.     On    the    hillside    near    it    stood   a 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  79 

solitary  grave.  A  little  fence  of  white  spruce  stakes  was  built 
around  it,  and  from  several  long  poles  streamers  of  white  cotton 
were  floating.  Kun'lla  said  that  it  was  the  grave  of  an  Indian 
who  had  died  in  the  previous  fall,  and  that  the  house  was  occu- 
pied by  his  wife,  who  spent  all  her  time  (except  when  procuring 
food)  in  watching  the  grave,  and  devoting  all  her  property  to  the 
purpose  of  adorning  it.  The  house  looked  neat  and  clean,  the 
hillside  was  green,  and  the  sun  shone  brightly  on  the  lonely 
grave,  as  we  passed  by  on  the  other  side  of  the  pratoka.  Just  be- 
yond, a  perpendicular  and  solitary  bluff  fronted  the  river.  Close 
to  its  face  rushed  the  swift  current,  with  its  burden  of  driftwood, 
at  the  rate  of  seven  knots  an  hour.  There  was  no  backing  out : 
we  had  to  cross  here.  The  swift  part  of  the  current  appeared  to 
be  narrow.  The  canoes  first  essayed  it,  and  were  swept  like 
straws  a  mile  down  stream  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye. 

This  made  us  careful.  We  kept  close  to  the  rock,  where  there 
was  a  little  slack  water,  and  then,  driving  our  paddles  into  the 
water  with  a  will,  we  passed  the  current,  and  reached  the  op- 
posite bank,  not  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  below.  Waiting 
to  rest,  we  saw  the  Russians  kill  a  beaver  in  the  water,  and  then 
cross  the  stream  with  about  the  same  success  as  ourselves.  Con- 
tinuing on  our  way,  about  six  o'clock  we  stopped  to  boil  the 
chynik  and  to  rest.  Ivan  Pavlofif  was  invited  to  take  tea  with  us. 
Sugar  being  a  very  scarce  article  in  this  country,  it  is  usually 
boiled  with  water  into  hard  cakes,  which,  when  properly  done, 
are  not  affected  by  the  weather.  Soft  sugar  will  waste  away 
imperceptibly  with  the  dampness.  The  orthodox  way  is  to  take 
a  fragment  of  this  hard  sugar,  bite  off  a  small  piece  of  it,  and 
drink  your  tea  without  putting  any  into  it.  This  is  much  more 
economical,  and  is  hereby  recommended  to  boarding-house  keep- 
ers. I  was  much  amused  by  observing  Pavloff,  who  after  finish- 
ing his  tea  replaced  the  lump  from  which  he  had  been  biting  in 
the  common  sugar-box. 

About  ten  o'clock  we  came  to  a  very  wide  part  of  the  river, 
where  the  Russians  lay  to  for  a  while,  and  fired  a  small  boat-gun 
which  they  carried  in  their  bidarra.  This  was  to  notify  the  In- 
dians, if  any  were  in  the  vicinity,  that  the  Russians  were  ready  to 
trade  ;  but  none  made  their  appearance,  and  the  bidarra  soon  con- 
tinued  on  its   way.     On  a  low  sand-bar,  where  the   sun   poured 


So  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

down  with  double  force,  and  mosquitoes  hummed  in  myriads,  we 
also  found  an  old  man  and  his  old  wife.  I  afterwards  heard  that  he 
had  a  young  one.  His  hair  stood  out  in  every  direction  where  it 
was  not  matted  down  by  dirt.  His  clothing  hung  in  the  filthiest 
rags,  and  his  voice  sounded  like  that  of  a  fishhawk  with  a  cold. 
His  name  was  Ooskon,  or  Rabbit,  and  it  was  stated  by  Kun'lla 
that  he  was  noted  for  his  good-humor  and  generosity.  He  might 
have  given  away  all  his  clothes,  which  would  account  for  his  ap- 
pearance. His  wife  was  his  duplicate,  except  that  she  was  silent, 
which  is  an  excellent  thing  in  women.  The  old  fellow  brought 
me  a  gulFs  egg,  which  I  gratefully  accepted,  wished  to  sell  me 
some  fish,  which  I  respectfully  declined,  and  finally  brought  out 
two  stuffed  skins  of  the  beautiful  northern  phalarope,  which  I 
purchased,  as  they  were  in  very  fair  condition.  I  afterwards 
discovered  they  were  stuffed  with  a  very  sw^eet-scented  grass. 
On  pointing  this  out  to  Wolasatux,  he  shook  his  head  gravely, 
and  said,  "  They  are  rotten  !  "  These  Indians  have  no  apprecia- 
tion of  sweet  odors.  The  wild  rose  {Rosa  cinnamomea),  which  is 
one  of  the  few  fragrant  flowers  to  be  found  on  the  Yukon,  is 
called  among  them  by  an  untranslatable  name,  on  account  of  its 
perfume.  The  only  odor  they  appreciate  lies  hidden  in  the  steam 
arising  from  the  soup-kettle. 

Rain  coming  on,  we  camped  on  a  steep  bank,  and  the  Russians 
followed  our  example. 

I  afterwards  added  a  green-winged  teal  and  hooded  grebe 
{Podiccps  cormitus)  to  our  collection.  A  high  sandy  bluff  near 
our  camp  was  full  of  the  nests  of  the  bank  swallow.  It  seemed 
like  a  gigantic  honeycomb  swarming  with  bees,  as  the  light- 
winged  swallows  darted  about.  The  eggs  are  white,  and  are 
laid  on  a  few  very  fine  twigs,  which  keep  them  off  the  sand. 
I  counted  nearly  eight  hundred  holes,  all  of  which  seemed  to  be 
occupied.  I  obtained  from  the  Indians  quite  a  number  of  ducks 
and  geese  for  our  kettle. 

Wednesday,  2()th.  —  We  broke  camp  about  five  o'clock  in 
the  morning.  Nothing  occurred  to  break  the  monotony  of  con- 
stant steady  paddling.  Two  Indians  in  the  bow  of  the  boat 
would  row  until  tired,  and  then  we  would  stop  for  a  few  minutes 
to  rest,  and  let  them  smoke.  The  last  operation  takes  less  than  a 
minute  :  their  pipes  are  so  constructed  as  to  hold  but  a  very 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  Si 

small  pinch  of  tobacco.  The  bowl,  with  ears  for  tying  it  to 
the  stem,  is  generally  cast  out  of  lead.  Sometimes  it  is  made  of 
soft  stone,  bone,  or  even  hard  wood.  The  stem  is  made  of  two 
pieces  of  wood,  hollowed  on  one 
side,  and  bound  to  the  bowl  and 
to   each   other  by  a  narrow  strip 

of    deerskin.       In     smoking,    the  ^'*^^^^ 

economical  Indian  generally  cuts 
up  a  little  birch  wood,  or  the  in- 
ner bark  of  the  poplar,  and  mixes 
it  with  his  tobacco.  A  few  rein- 
deer hairs,  pulled  from  his  parka,  A.-Ku.ch>n.  '"^c.-Koyukun. 
are   rolled   into  a  little    ball,  and        B.-imu,it.  d,  e. - chukchee. 

placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  bowl  to  prevent  the  contents  from 
being  drawn  into  the  stem.  A  pinch  of  tobacco,  cut  as  fine 
as  snuff,  is  inserted,  and  two  or  three  whiffs  are  afforded  by  it. 
The  smoke  is  inhaled  into  the  lungs,  producing  a  momentary 
stupefaction,  and  the  operation  is  over.  A  fungus  which  grows 
on  decayed  birch  trees,  or  tinder  manufactured  from  the  down 
of  the  poplar  rubbed  up  with  charcoal,  is  used  with  flint  and 
steel  for  obtaining  a  light.  Matches  are  highly  valued,  and 
readily  purchased.  The  effect  of  the  Circassian  tobacco  on  the 
lungs  is  extremely  bad,  and  among  those  tribes  who  use  it  many 
die  from  asthma  and  congestion  of  the  lungs.  This  is  principally 
due  to  the  saltpetre  with  which  it  is  impregnated.  The  Indian 
pipe  is  copied  from  the  Eskimo,  as  the  latter  were  the  first  to 
obtain  and  use  tobacco.  Many  of  the  tribes  call  it  by  the  Eskimo 
name.  The  Kutchin  and  Eastern  Tinneh  use  one  modelled  after 
the  clay  pipes  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  but  they  also  carve 
very  pretty  ones  out  of  birch  knots  and  the  root  of  the  wild  rose- 
bush. The  Chukchees  use  a  pipe  similar  to  those  of  the  Es- 
kimo, but  with  a  much  larger  and  shorter  stem.  This  stem  is 
hollow,  and  is  filled  with  fine  birch  shavings.  After  smoking  for 
some  months  these  shavings,  impregnated  with  the  oil  of  tobacco, 
are  taken  out  through  an  opening  in  the  lower  part  of  the  stem, 
and  smoked  over.  The  Hudson  Bay  men  make  passable  pipe- 
stems  by  taking  a  straight-grained  piece  of  willow  or  spruce, 
without  knots,  and  cutting  through  the  outer  layers  of  bark  and 
wood.     This   stick  is  heated   in  the  ashes,  and  by  twisting  the 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


ends  in  contrary  directions,  the  heart-wood  may  be  gradually 
drawn  out,  leaving  a  wooden  tube.  The  Kutchin  make  pretty 
pipe-stems  out  of  goose-quills  wound  about  with  colored  porcu- 
pine quills.  It  is  the  custom  in  the  English  forts  to  make  every 
Indian  who  comes  to  trade,  a  present  of  a  clay  pipe  filled  with 
tobacco.  We  were  provided  with  cheap  brown  ones,  with  wooden 
stems,  which  were  much  liked  by  the  natives,  and  it  is  probable 
that  small  brier-wood  pipes,  which  are  not  liable  to  break,  would 
form  an  acceptable  addition  to  any  stock  of  trading-goods. 

For  the  first  time  we  were  able  to  use  our  sail,  as  a  fair  wind 
sprang  up  in  the  afternoon,  and  for  a  short  time  we  made  excel- 
lent progress. 

About  five  o'clock  we  camped  at  a  place  where  in  summer  the 
Indians  have  a  fishery,  and  which  is  called  Kanicn-sikhicr. 

Thursday,  2,ot/i.  —  The  sealskin  of  which  the  bidarnis  are  made, 
by  long  continuance  in  the  water  becomes  soft  and  unsound. 
Hence,  as  the  weather  continued  rainy,  we  decided  to  lay  over 
a  day,  take  the  boat  out  of  the  water,  dry  and  oil  it  ;  the  Rus- 
sians doing  the  same  with  their  bidarra.     During  the  interval, 

many  additions  were  made 
to  our  collections.     I  ob- 
served a  fine-looking  Ko- 
yukun,  called  ToJio-nidola, 
who  wore  a  mantle  made 
of  a  dressed  deerskin.     It 
was  cut  to  a  point  behind, 
and    into    fringes    around 
the    edge.      It    was   orna- 
^-^     mented  with  a  few  beads, 
^       hanging  in    short  strings, 
*        and   was    colored    on    the 
.,,  ,    . ,  ,  inside     with    red     ochre ; 

making  a  very  graceful  ar- 
ticle of  apparel.  The  breeches  had  the  moccasins  continuous 
with  the  leg,  and  were  heavily  embroidered  with  large  black  and 
white  beads.  The  pattern  universal  among  the  Koyukun  men 
consists  of  a  band  of  beads  in  front,  from  the  thigh  to  the  ankle, 
a  short  one  crossing  it  at  the  knee.  At  the  ankle  the  long  band 
bifurcates,  and  the  two  ends,  after  reaching  the  sides  of  the  foot, 


:s.^. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  83 

continue  all  around  its  edge,  except  over  the  heel.  The  pattern 
for  females  is  similar,  but  the  perpendicular  band  on  the  leg  is 
omitted.  The  Koyukun  male  parka  has  been  described.  The 
pattern  of  ornamentation  is  a  broad  band  of  beadwork  across  the 
breast  and  back,  and  over  the  shoulders,  with  fringes  on  the 
pointed  ends,  and  a  few  short  tails  of  beadwork  in  front  and  on 
the  sleeves.  The  female  parka  comes  below  the  knee,  and  is  cut 
round  like  an  ordinary  dress,-  but  a  little  shorter  in  front  than 
behind.  They  are  ornamented  with  a  similar  band  around  the 
shoulders,  sometimes  one  around  the  wrist,  and  one  around  the 
edge  of  the  skirt  in  lieu  of  fringes.  Before  the  introduction  of 
beads  by  the  Russians,  this  work  was  done  in  porcupine  quills, 
often  in  very  tasteful  patterns,  and  among  the  Tendn  Kutchin,  or 
Tananah  River  Indians,  this  practice  still  obtains  White  and 
black  or  brick  red  are  the  only  colors  I  have  seen  used  on  cloth- 
ing, and  they  are  always  embroidered  in  alternate  bands.  Other 
beads,  of  various  colors,  in  strings  seven  feet  long,  are  valued 
by  the  natives  as  property,  having  a  fixed  value  of  two  marten- 
skins  a  string.  They  pass  from  hand  to  hand,  much  as  we  use 
money.  Small  beads,  of  various  kinds,  are  much  in  demand 
among  the  women,  who  use  them  as  ornaments  for  their  children. 
Strong  beads,  over  which  the  hand  passes  smoothly,  are  the  only 
kind  suited  for  fur-trading.  Red,  black,  white,  dark  blue,  and 
amber  are  the  desirable  colors. 

Friday,  31^-/. —  Making  an  early  start,  we  passed  a  point 
known  as  Sakatalontau,  about  half  past  three  in  the  morning. 
Large  stacks  of  driftwood,  as  big  as  houses,  came  floating  down 
in  the  current,  and  great  care  was  necessary  to  avoid  collision. 
These  were  piles  of  logs  thrown  upon  sandbars  by  previous 
freshets,  which  the  unusually  high  water  had  floated  off  entire. 
We  passed  many  low  blufls  of  blue  sandstone  and  a  few  gravel- 
banks.  Tom  found  a  mallard's  nest  on  the  bank,  with  nine  eggs 
in  it,  which  were  devoted  to  an  omelet,  after  carefully  emptying 
the  shells  with  a  small  blowpipe.  We  camped  on  a  high  bank 
without  taking  the  tent  out  of  the  boat,  as  the  night  was  remark- 
ably pleasant  and  the  mosquitoes  unusually  quiet. 

Saturday,  Jjinc  \st.  —  The  next  morning  at  one  o'clock  we 
were  on  our  way  again,  working  hard  against  a  strong  current. 
The  sandstones  were  now  succeeded  by  conglomerate  and  meta- 


84 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY 


morphous  quartzose  rocks.  Many  butterflies,  including  the  fa- 
miliar swallow-tail  {Papilio  Turnus),  and  another  species  some- 
what similar  {P.  Aliaska),  were  hovering  over  the  surface.  Upon 
mentioning  that  I  would  give  a  needle  apiece  for  good  speci- 
mens, a  commotion  was  aroused  amongst  the  little  fleet  of  birch 
canoes  which  accompanied  us.  All  was  excitement,  paddles  were 
flourished  in  the  air,  the  light  canoes  darted  about  after  the 
slowly  sailing,  unsuspecting  butterflies,  and  the  result  was  a 
considerable  number  of  passable  specimens.  I  saw,  also,  several 
wax-wings  {Avipdis  garruhis)  in  the  bushes  along  shore,  and 
obtained  a  sandhill  crane.     A  fair  wind  sprang  up  and  sent  the 


[t.  Hohonila  from  the  Melozikakat. 


Russians  scudding  around  a  six-mile  bend  under  their  large  sail. 
Our  boat  proved  a  very  slow  sailei,  the  wind  soon  dropped,  and 
we  had  to  pull  all  tlie  way  around  the  bend. 

After  camping  we  employed  Larriown's  wife  to  sew  up  some 
cuts  in  the  sealskin  of  our  bidarra.  These  were  made  by  the 
constant  stream  of  driftwood  ;  but  when  sewed  up  and  the  seam 
well  rubbed  with  tallow,  the  boat  was  as  tight  as  ever.  The 
skin  was  old  and  very  rotten,  so  that  we  had  to  exercise  the 
utmost  precaution  in  landing  and  in  avoiding  driftwood  or  rocks. 

Sujiday,  2d.  —  About  ten  o'clock  the  next  day  we  took  our 
tea  at  the  mouth  of  the  Melozikakat  or  Clear  River.     From  this 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  85 

point  a  fine  view  may  be  had  of  a  mountain  which  rises  per- 
haps two  thousand  feet  above  the  river,  and  is  known  to  the  In- 
dians as  Hoho-nila.  The  upper  portion  still  retained  snow  in 
many  ravines,  though  later  in  the  season  it  disappears  entirely. 
The  mosquitoes  were  exceedingly  troublesome.  The  night  had 
ceased  to  be  dark,  as  the  sun  remained  only  about  two  hours 
behind  the  high  hills  which  shut  out  the  horizon. 

Monday,  3^'.  —  Passed  the  Uka-wiitne'  or  "  Look-and-see-it " 
River.  It  is  a  small  stream.  Near  its  mouth  the  Yukon  is  very 
broad  and  full  of  islands.  About  noon  the  sun  was  so  scorching 
(90°  in  the  shade)  that  we  pulled  into  the  bank  and  rested  for  a 
couple  of  hours.  We  then  proceeded  to  the  point  on  the  right 
bank  where  the  Russians  had  camped,  waiting  the  report  of  a 
messenger  who  had  been  sent  to  the  village  of  Nowikakat  on  the 
left  bank  a  few  miles  above.  As  he  did  not  appear  I  turned  in, 
and  had  hardly  got  under  the  blankets,  when  I  heard  the  well- 
known  voice  of  Larriown,  who  poked  his  ugly  head  into  the  tent, 
saying  there  was  plenty  of  dry  meat  and  many  Indians  at  Nowi- 
kakat, and  begging  a  little  tobacco  for  his  information. 

I  put  on  my  boots  and  stepped  out  of  the  tent,  around  which 
a  number  of  Indians  had  gathered.  The  old  Nowikakat  tyone 
was  there,  and  one  of  the  men  who  had  gone  up  with  Ketchum 
suddenly  appeared.  He  gave  us  the  welcome  information  tl>at 
Ketchum  and  the  party  had  reached  Fort  Yukon  in  safety,  and 
had  started  with  open  water  for  Fort  Selkirk,  having  sent  the  In^ 
dians  and  six  remaining  dogs  down  the  river  in  a  bidarra  made  of 
moose-hide. 

Tuesday,  4///.  —  We  struck  our  tent,  broke  camp,  and  started 
for  Nowikakat,  in  company  with  the  Russians  and  Indians.  We 
hoisted  the  American  flag  over  the  blue  cross  and  scallop- 
shell  of  the  Scientific  Corps,  and  came  into  Nowikakat  Harbor 
with  colors  flying.  We  received  and  returned  a  salute  of  mus- 
ketry, and,  finding  with  difficulty  a  place  among  the  myriads  of 
birch  canoes  where  we  could  moor  our  boat,  we  pitched  our  tent 
in  the  middle  of  the  village.  We  informed  the  tyone,  or  chief, 
that  we  were  exceedingly  tired,  and  must  sleep  before  any  trading 
could  be  done.  This  was  quite  true,  as  I,  for  one,  had  slept  but 
about  two  hours  out  of  the  last  forty-eight.  We  tied  the  flaps  of 
the  tent  closely,  but  even  this  did  not  prevent  the  Indians  from 


86  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

raising  the  edge  of  the  canvas  and  peering  in  upon  us  with  as 
much  curiosity  and  pertinacity  as  country  boys  at  a  circus  After 
a  few  hours'  rest  we  rose  and  dressed.  We  could  not  keep  out 
the  Indians,  until  we  admitted  the  tyone,  whose  repeated  orders 
kept  them  outside  for  a  time.  He  watched  the  process  of  washing 
with  great  interest,  from  which  I  inferred  that  he  did  not  indulge 
in  that  luxury.  He  was  very  anxious  that  we  should  present  him 
with  our  brushes,  combs,  soap,  and  other  articles  for  the  toilet, 
which  we  were  obliged  to  refuse  him  ;  but  we  made  up  to  him  for 
the  disappointment  by  presents  of  tobacco,  powder,  and  ball.  We 
heard  that  Antoine  Houle,  the  Fort  Yukon  interpreter,  was  at 
Nuklukahyet  with  a  trading  party,  and  we  desired  to  send  a  letter 
to  him  ;  but  old  Ivan,  the  tyone,  prevented  our  doing  so,  by  fright- 
ening our  messenger  with  an  account  of  the  danger  of  making 
such  a  journey  alone.  For  this  piece  of  mischief  he  got  a  scold- 
ing, which  astonished  him  and  made  him  less  officious  in  future. 

After  breakfast,  which  we  shared  with  the  Nowikakat  tyone, 
we  proceeded  to  business.  Whymper  was  busy  with  his  sketch- 
book, and  left  the  trading  to  me. 

All  accounts  of  the  country  between  Nowikakat  and  Fort 
Yukon  agreed  in  representing  it  as  a  district  where  provisions 
were  very  scarce,  and  so  we  had  determined  to  provide  them  in 
advance.  I  purchased,  for  seven  fathoms  of  drill,  three  papooshes 
of  tobacco,  and  five  balls,  a  birch  canoe  of  the  largest  size,  with  its 
paddles.  From  the  abundant  stores  of  dried  meat  and  fat  which 
the  Indians  had  laid  in,  I  obtained  about  three  hundred  pounds 
of  dry  deer  and  moose  meat,  clear  moose  fat  in  birch  dishes,  and 
dried  entrails  of  the  deer,  which  were  filled  with  fat  of  the  best 
kind.  I  was  able  to  secure,  besides,  a  large  number  of  moose 
and  deer  tongues,  and  dried  moose  noses,  the  latter  making  a 
delicious  dish  when  thoroughly  boiled.  We  also  succeeded  in 
engaging  two  more  men  to  take  this  canoe-load  of  meat  at  least 
as  far  as  Nuklukahyet.  A  large  number  of  birds'-nests,  mouse- 
skins,  and  other  specimens  of  natural  history,  were  also  secured. 
I  had  then  an  opportunity  to  make  a  few  observations  on  the 
place  and  its  inhabitants. 

Nowikakat  Village  is  situated  on  a  beautiful  little  enclosed  bay, 
into  which  the  river  of  the  same  name  enters,  with  several  smaller 
streams.     This  river  is  about  one  hundred   miles  long,  and  its 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


87 


month  is  about  one  hundred  and  thh-ty  miles  from  Nulato  in 
a  direct  hne.  By  the  Yukon  the  distance  is  considerably  greater. 
The  head-waters  are  on  the  southeast  side  of  the  Novvikakat  and 
Kdiyuh  Mountains,  and,  according  to  Indian  accounts,  a  short 
portage  can  be  made  to  the  head-waters  of  the  Slidgduk  or 
so-called  Innoko  River,  or,  by  crossing  the  mountains,  to  the 
Kaiyuh  River.  These  portages  are  frequently  made  by  the 
Indians  who  trade  with  the   Ingaliks. 

A    narrow    entrance    connects    the     basin    with     the     Yukon. 
Through  this  a  beautiful  view  is  obtained,  across  the  river  and 


Looking  out  of  Nowikakat  Harbor. 

through  the  numerous  islands,  of  the  opposite  shore  and  the 
Yukon  Mountains  in  the  distance.  The  feathery  willows  and 
light  poplars  bend  over  and  are  reflected  in  the  dark  water, 
unmixed  as  yet  with  Yukon  mud  ;  every  island  and  hillside  is 
clothed  in  the  delicate  green  of  spring,  and  luxuriates  in  a  density 
of  foliage  remarkable  in  such  a  latitude. 

The  village  appeared  to  be  a  mere  collection  of  huts,  temporary 
lodges,  and  tents  ;  one  or  two  winter  houses  seemed  as  if  long 
deserted  and  rapidly  going  to  decay.  All  these  were  crowded 
together  on  a  low  bank,  from  which  the  willows  seemed  to  have 
been  recently  cut  away.     The  shore  was  absolutely  covered  with 


88  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

birch  canoes.  The  dress  of  the  Indians  was  similar  to  the 
Koyiikun,  already  described ;  but  a  few  specimens  of  fine  bead- 
work  and  fringed  hunting-shirts  showed  the  effect  of  English 
intercourse.  The  guns  were  all  English  single-barrelled  flint- 
locks, while  the  Koyukuns  are  provided  with  double  percussion 
guns  from  the  traders  in  Kotzebue  Sound,  through  the  Eskimo. 
The  principal  supply  of  food  seemed  to  be  moose  meat.  Fish 
was  evidently  scarce,  and  deer  less  abundant  than  near  the  coast. 
As  evening  approached,  Larriown  the  shaman,  and  his  wife,  were 
called  upon  to  exercise  their  art  for  the  relief  of  a  sick  man  who 
apparently  had  not  long  to  live. 

The  beUef  in  shamanism  is  universal  among  the  natives  of 
Alaska,  Eskimo  as  well  as  Indians.  Even  the  Aleuts,  long 
nominally  converted  to  Christianity,  still  retain  superstitious 
feelings  in  regard  to  it.  It  is  essentially  a  belief  in  spirits  who 
are  controlled  by  the  shaman  ;  who  come  at  his  call,  impart  to 
him  the  secrets  of  the  future  and  the  past,  afflict  or  cease 
afflicting  men  by  sickness  at  his  behest,  and  enable  him  to 
advise  others  as  to  seasons  and  places  of  hunting,  good  or  evil 
omens,  and  the  death  or  recovery  of  the  sick.  These  however 
are  not  spirits  who  were  once  men. 

Many  Indians  —  in  fact,  all  the  Tinneh  that  I  have  conversed 
with,  who  have  not  been  taught  by  the  English  or  Russian  mis- 
sionaries —  do  not  believe  in  the  immortality  of  man.  Of  those 
who  have  a  dim  notion  of  the  kind  none  have  any  idea  whatever 
of  future  reward  and  punishment,  of  any  Supreme  Power  or  Deity, 
of  good  and  evil  in  a  moral  sense,  or  of  anything  which  can  be 
called  a  religion.  Assertions  to  the  contrary  proceed  from  the 
ignorance  or  poetical  license  of  the  author,  or  from  an  intercourse 
with  tribes  who  have  derived  their  ideas  from  missionaries. 

The  support  which  the  spiritual  instincts  of  human  nature 
demand  is  met  among  the  Indians  by  a  belief  in  shamanism. 
All  animals,  woods,  waters,  and  natural  phenomena  such  as  the 
aurora  borealis  or  thunder  and  lightning,  are  supposed  to  be 
either  the  abodes  or  the  means  of  manifestation  of  spirits.  The 
latter  have  power  and  knowledge  limited  by  their  respective 
spheres.  The  most  powerful  and  beneficent  of  all  are  the  ob- 
jects of  ridicule  and  contempt,  as  often  as  of  fear  or  reverence, 
in  the  Indian  legends  which  relate  to  them.     The  whole  relation, 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  8g 

between  the  Indians  and  these  spirits  as  they  beheve  in  them, 
is  one  of  self-interest  and  fear.  They  preserve  all  bones  out  of 
reach  of  the  dogs  for  a  year,  when  they  are  careiully  buried,  lest 
the  spirits  who  look  after  the  beavers  and  sables  should  consider 
that  they  are  regarded  with  contempt,  and  hence  no  more  should 
be  killed  or  trapped.  Other  singular  superstitions,  the  result  of 
accident,  some  local  incident,  or  unexplained  coincidence,  are 
found  to  be  peculiar  to  each  narrow  territory  or  small   tribe. 

The  younger  Indians  look  on  these  things  with  contempt  and 
ridicule  ;  it  is  only  when  starvation  or  sickness  impends,  or  the 
continued  threats  of  some  greedy  shaman  create  alarm,  that  they 
pay  any  heed  to  them.  It  is  with  age  alone  that  these  super- 
stitions become  firmly  implanted  in  their  minds.  The  strange 
effects  which  firm  belief  and  vivid  imagination  have  frequently 
produced  among  civilized  and  intelligent  human  beings  are  too 
well  known  to  require  further  confirmation.  Hence  it  is  not  to 
be  wondered  at  among  ignorant  Indians,  whose  imagination  is 
untrammelled  by  knowledge  of  the  simplest  natural  laws,  that  the 
self-deluding  frenzy  of  the  shaman  should,  as  it  frequently  does, 
produce  seemingly  supernatural  effects,  which  confirm  his  in- 
fluence. 

Among  the  Indians  who  frequent  the  trading-posts  manv  may 
be  found  who  have  imbibed  a  few  indistinct  ideas  from  Christian 
theology,  without  renouncing  their  native  superstitions,  or  gaining 
any  comprehension  of  the  cardinal  principles  of  morality  or  re- 
ligion. It  is  from  intercourse  with  such,  that  many  of  the  popular 
delusions  about  the  "  Great  Spirit "  of  the  Indians  have  arisen. 

In  the  present  instance,  the  Indians  formed  a  circle  around 
a  fire,  near  which  lay  the  sick  man  wrapped  in  a  dressed  deerskin. 
Larriown  had  donned  a  suit  of  civilized  clothing,  which  he  had 
obtained  from  some  trader.  He  wore  a  very  large  black  felt  hat 
with  a  broad  brim,  and  his  wife  had  a  similar  equipment,  so  that 
it  was  difficult  to  distinguish  them.  They  walked  in  contrary 
directions  around  the  fire,  gazing  at  it  or  into  vacancy.  At  inter- 
vals he  uttered  a  deep  bass  sound  between  a  shout  and  a  groan, 
which  she  answered  in  a  higher  key,  both  quickening  their  pace 
and  occasionally  stopping  short  and  shuddering  convulsively  from 
head  to  foot.  At  last  the  responses  were  more  rapid  and  assumed 
a  kind  of  rhythm  ;  the  whole  circle  of  Indians  acted  as  chorus  in 


90  •  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

the  intervals.  In  the  midnight  dusk  the  circle  of  tall  swarthy- 
forms  in  strange  apparel,  the  fitful  gleams  of  firelight,  the  groans 
of  the  sick  man,  and  the  mysterious  writhing  forms  before  him,  all 
united  to  give  to  the  strange  chorus  an  intensely  dramatic  efiect. 

Contortions  which  were  almost  convulsions  shook  those  two 
black  forms,  while  the  fiendish  eyes  of  Larriown  rolled  until  the 
whites  alone  were  visible.  Between  the  spasms  both  made  mes- 
meric passes  over  the  sick  man,  keeping  time  with  the  deep 
monotonous  chorus,  which  might  well  have  been  the  despairing 
wail  of  a  lost  spirit.  The. muscular  contortions  gradually  grew 
less  violent,  from  sheer  weakness.  The  ring  of  Indians  gradually 
broke  up,  the  chorus  ceased,  and  the  ceremony  was  over. 

Wednesday,  '^tJi.  — We  rose  at  five,  and  putting  our  meat  into 
the  canoe  and  our  baggage  into  the  boat,  we  followed  the  Rus- 
sians out  of  the  basin.  This  is  the  only  place  on  the  Yukon 
which  appears  to  me  safe  for  wintering  a  steamer,  unless  she  were 
beached.  The  ice  descending  in  the  freshets  would  at  any  other 
point  carry  her  away  or  crush  her.  The  heat  of  the  sun  was  so 
great  that  we  lay  over  from  eleven  until  two,  and  rested  in  the 
shade  of  some  magnificent  birches.  Nowikakat  is  noted  for  the 
beauty  and  good  workmanship  of  the  birch  canoes  made  there. 
The  single  canoes  are  easily  carried  in  one  hand.  They^  are  about 
twelve  feet  long,  just  wide  enough  to  sit  down  in,  and  have  the 
forward  end  covered  for  three  or  four  feet  with  a  piece  of  bark,  to 
keep  water  out.  They  are  exceedingly  frail.  The  frame  is  made  of 
birch  wood  steamed,  bent,  and  dried.  They  are  sewed  with  the 
long  slender  roots  of  the  spruce,  and  calked  with  spruce  gum.  The 
bark  is  put  on  inside  out,  shaped,  and  sewed  over  a  clay  model  just 
the  shape  and  size  of  the  proposed  canoe.  The  regular  price  for  a 
single  canoe  is  a  shirt,  or  five  marten  skins.  The  paddles  are  of 
the  usual  lance-head  shape,  with  a  ridge  in  the  middle  on  each 
side,  running  down  to  the  point  and  strengthening  the  blade. 
They  are  four  or  five  feet  long,  with  a  cross-piece  at  the  end  of 
the  handle,  and  gayly  colored  with  red  ochre,  blue  carbonate  of 
copper,  or  a  green  fungus  which  is  found  in  decayed  willow  wood. 
The  single  canoe  will  carry  a  man  and  a  bag  of  flour. 

The  large  canoes  are  of  the  same  shape,  but  will  carry  three 
men  and  their  baggage,  in  all  about  six  or  eight  hundred  pounds. 
They  are  sometimes  sixteen  feet  long,  and  do  not  turn  up  at  the 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  9 1 

ends,  as  the  canoes  of  the  Lake  Superior  Indians  do,  but  are 
straight,  and  furnished  with  a  Y-shaped  prow  above  the  cut- 
water. Each  carries  a  dish  of  spruce  gum,  some  extra  pieces 
of  bark,  and  a  bundle  of  spruce  roots,  to  repair  damages,  which 
frequently  occur  ;  and  a  small  framework  of  slats  for  the  occupants 
to  sit  on. 

In  the  afternoon  we  were  surprised  to  see  a  wreath  of  smoke 
curling  over  the  trees  beyond  a  point  on  the  river.  The  small 
canoes  immediately  fell  back;  and  Ivan,  with -his  usual  cow- 
ardice, called  out  to  us  to  stop,  for  fear  of  hostile  Indians.  Dis- 
regarding his  warning,  we  took  the  lead,  and  saw  a  white  man 
and  two  Indians  standing  by  a  large  fire.  We  supposed  it  was  a 
guide,  or  Antoine  Houle  himself,  whom  we  had  expected  to  join  t 
at  Nuklukahyet.  It  turned  out  to  be  a  man  from  Fort  Yukon,  \ 
who  stated  that  he  had  left  the  fort  on  account  of  long-continued 
ill-treatment,  and  that  he  had  trusted  to  fortune  to  enable  him  to 
escape  from  a  tyranny  which  he  had  resolved  to  bear  no  longer. 
He  had  started  from  the  fort,  with  a  little  powder,  a  gun,  and  a 
few  bullets,  in  a  small  canoe,  and  had  supported  himself  by  kill- 
ing game ;  cutting  up  his  bullets  into  shot,  and  when  these 
failed  using  gravel  from  the  beach.  He  had  just  been  upset, 
lost  his  gun  and  everything  except  what  he  had  on  his  person. 
He  had  passed  Antoine  at  Nuklukahyet.  telling  the  latter  that  he 
had  been  sent  down  with  letters  for  us,  as  he  knew  from  Ketchum 
that  we  were  coming  up.  Antoine  had  given  him  a  letter  which 
Ketchum  left  for  us,  and  was  now  on  his  way  back  to  Fort 
Yukon  with  the  furs  he  had  bought.  The  man  gave  his  name  as 
Peter  McLeod,  and  stated  that  he  had  been  fourteen  years  in  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company's  service.  We  called  upon  him  and  Ivan 
Pavlofif  to  join  us  at  our  noon-day  meal,  and  treated  them  to 
bacon,  biscuit,  and  tea.  He  assured  us  that  he  had  not  tasted 
bread  for  four  years. 

Assuming  his  story  to  be  true,  we  could  not  advise  him  to 
return.  I  furnished  him  with  trading-goods  sufficient  to  purchase 
provisions  until  he  should  arrive  at  Nulato.  Pavloft;  with  his 
habitual  generosity,  insisted  on  furnishing  him  with  a  blanket, 
to  replace  that  which  he  had  lost,  a  flint  and'  steel  to  obtain  fire, 
and  an  order  to  Yagor  to  feed  hinvuntil  his  return.  We  all 
united  in  wishing  him  a  safe  arrival,  and  in  supplying  him  with 


92  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

such  necessaries  as  we  could  spare,  and  then  continued  on  our 
^va)^ 

Thursday,  6th.  —  We  passed  through  an  exceedingly  long  pra- 
toka,  which  was  so  winding  and  narrow  that  I  suspected  we 
had  got  into  a  small  river  instead  of  a  slough  of  the  Yukon.  We 
had  intended  to  travel  by  night  and  take  our  rest  in  the  hot  noon- 
time ;  but  the  sight  of  some  fresh  deer  meat  in  the  camp  of  the 
Indians  who  had  preceded  us  induced  my  companion  to  defer 
this  arrangement  until  we  should  leave  the  Russians  at  Nuklu- 
kahyet.  W^e  therefore  camped,  and  indulged  in  the  luxury  of 
some  hot  venison  steaks. 

Friday,  "jth.  —  We  had  hitherto  been  unable  to  use  the  track- 
ing-line, except  at  short  intervals  ;  but  the  slight  fall  in  the  water 
had  left  a  narrow  beach,  which  we  now  availed  ourselves  of 

The  little  river  tern,  whose  bright  colors  and  graceful  motions 
cannot  fail  to  attract  the  traveller's  eye,  was  very  common  in  this 
part  of  the  river.  One  of  our  men  in  tracking  passed  near  one  of 
their  nests,  and  the  parents  immediately  attacked  him.  Swoop- 
ing and  returning,  in  long  curves,  they  almost  brushed  his  cap, 
uttering  loud  cries,  and  keeping  it  up  for  several  hundred  yards. 
At  last,  annoyed  by  their  conduct,  which  he  did  not  comprehend, 
he  brandished  a  large  stick  in  the  air.  Even  then  they  did  not 
rest  until  we  were  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  their  breeding-place. 
I  obtained  a  fine  piece  of  black  obsidian  on  the  beach,  and 
noticed  syenitic  rocks  for  the  first  time  in  the  Yukon  territory. 

Saturday,  %th.  —  About  eleven  o'clock  the  next  day  we  reached 
the  mouth  of  the  Tozikakat,  which  empties  into  the  Yukon  some 
fifteen  miles  from  Nuklukahyet.  Here  we  boiled  the  chynik 
and  rested  for  a  while.  We  usually  sent  one  of  the  small  canoes 
up  a  little  distance  when  we  camped  near  a  small  river,  in  order 
that  we  might  obtain  clear  water  for  making  our  tea.  The  Yukon 
water  is  full  of  sediment.  The  mosquitoes  were  exceedingly  trouble- 
some ;  without  gloves  and  a  net  nothing  could  be  done.  The 
Indians  always  placed  a  dish  of  wet  moss  with  a  few  coals  in  it 
on  the  bows  of  their  canoes  ;  this  produced  a  smoke  which  kept 
the  insects  away  from  the  canoe  when  in  motion.  We  smoked 
them  out  of  our  tent,  when  camping,  in  the  same  way. 

The  mouth  of  the  Tozikakat  is  obstructed  by  a  bar,  on  which 
lay  piled  hundreds  of  cords  of  driftwood. 


A' 


m 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  93 

To  the  east  the  broad  mouth  of  the  Tananah  River  was  seen, 
where  it  joins  the  Yukon.  The  latter  curves  abruptly  to  the  left, 
and  between  them  lies  the  low  land,  forming  a  point  or  island. 
This  is  Nuklukahyet,  the  neutral  ground  where  all  the  tribes  meet 
in  spring  to  trade.  Behind  it  rose  the  mountains.  Two  summits 
rose  above  the  others,  known  by  the  Indian  names  of  Alo-k/dii-o- 
klikh  and  Mont-klag-at-lin .  The  latter  is  really  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Yukon,  and  the  former  on  the  left,  but  from  our  point  of 
view  this  was  not  perceptible.  At  the  junction  the  Tananah  is 
much  broader  than  the  Yukon,  yet  into  this  noble  river  no  white 
man  has  dipped  his  paddle. 

Below  the  junction  the  Yukon  attains  a  width  of  five  miles  at 
least.  A  fair  wind  sprang  up,  and,  as  usual,  the  Russians  left  us 
far  behind.  By  dint  of  hard  paddling,  about  half  past  five  in  the 
afternoon  we  rounded  the  bluff  opposite  Nuklukahyet.  Here  we 
found  Pavlofi",  who,  with  unexpected  consideration,  was  waiting  for 
us.  We  crossed  together,  with  our  flags  flying.  The  Nuklukahyet 
tyone,  who  had  been  at  Nulato  during  the  winter,  hailed  us  from 
the  beach.  Pavlofif  answered  him,  and  we  landed,  drew  up  our 
boats,  and  prepared  to  go  through  the  ceremony  for  such  cases 
made  and  provided.  We  formed  in  line,  with  blank  charges  in 
our  guns.  The  Indians  did  the  same.  They  advanced  on  us 
shouting,  and  discharged  their  guns  in  the  air.  We  returned  the 
compliment,  and  they  retreated  to  repeat  the  performance.  After 
ten  minutes  of  this  mock  fight  the  tyone  appeared  between  us. 
He  harangued  the  Indians,  who  answered  by  a  shout.  Turning 
to  us,  he  informed  us  that  we  were  now  at  liberty  to  transact 
our  business. 

Antoine  and  his  Indians  had  left  for  Fort  Yukon  two  days  be- 
fore. There  was  little  or  nothing  to  eat  at  Nuklukahyet.  Some 
men  had  been  sent  by  the  tyone  after  moose,  and  meanwhile  the 
annual  dances  which  take  place  here  were  performed  on  empty 
stomachs. 

The  tyone  came  in  with  a  little  dish  of  «at  as  a  present.  He 
regretted  that  there  was  nothing  better  to  offer  us,  and  gave  us  a 
note  which  Ketchum  had  written  during  the  winter;  in  it  he  re- 
quested that  we  would  give  the  tyone,  who  had  materially  assisted 
him,  any  powder  and  ball  we  could  spare.  The  powder  and  ball 
furnished  by  the  Company  was  exhausted  at  Nowikakat,  but  I 


94 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


made  him  a  present  of  a  can  of  powder  and  forty  balls  from  my 
own  private  supplies,  and  asked  him  to  keep  a  little  meat  for  us 
when  we  should  return,  which  he  promised  to  do.  He  was  a 
rather  good-looking  Indian,  possessed  a  good  deal  of  intelligence, 
and  was  younger  than  any  other  tyone  we  had  seen.  He  wore  an 
English  hunting-shirt  of  red  flannel,  ornamented  on  the  shoulders 
with  large  pearl  buttons,  and  fringes  of  mooseskin.  Around  his 
waist  was  a  long  Hudson  Bay  sash.  He  wore  moccasins,  and 
mooseskin  trousers  cut  in  the  English  fashion,  with  fringes  down 


Young  Nukliikahyet  tyone. 


the  outside  of  the  leg,  and  blue  leggins  tied  with  a  band  of  bead- 
work  below  the  knee.  His  black  glos.sy  hair  was  cut  straight 
around  the  neck,  and  parted  a  little  on  one  side.  Altogether, 
he  appeared  much  cleaner  and  more  attentive  to  dress  than 
any  of  the  Indians  of  the   Lower  Yukon. 

All  these  Indians  paint  their  faces.  Black  is  obtained  by  rub- 
bing charcoal  and  fat  together.  Vermilion  is  purchased  of  the 
traders,  and  supplies  the  place  of  the  red  oxide  of  iron  which  they 
formerly  used.  I  saw  one  who  appeared  to  have  used  graphite, 
or  plumbago,  on  his  face,  but  on  examining  the  article  itself  it 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  95 

proved  to  be  micaceous  oxide  of  iron,  and  was  said  to  be  obtained 
on  the  banks  of  the  Tananah . 

They  wear  an  ornament  made  of  dentalium,  the  sookli  of  the 
Russians,  and  "money-shell"  of  American    traders.     It  is  here 


Nose  ornament  of  the  Yukon   Indians. 

represented  of  natural  size.  A  hole  is  pierced  through  the  skin 
of  the  nose,  below  the  cartilage,  when  very  young.  Women 
and  men  alike  wore  it  ;  while  at  Koyiikuk  we  noticed  it  only 
among  the  women. 

These  Indians  are  fond  of  ornaments,  and  among  other  things  I 
noticed  in  use  as  such  were  necklaces  of  bears'  claws  and  teeth, 
sable  tails,  wolf  ears,  bands  of  beads  and  dentalia,  embroidery  of 
dyed  porcupine  quills,  small  ermine  skins,  hawk  and  eagle  feath- 
ers, beavers'  teeth  (with  which  they  whet  their  knives),  and  the 
bright  green  scalps  of  the  mallard.  Some  wore  hoops  of  birch 
wood  around  the  neck  and  wrists,  with  various  patterns  and  fig- 
ures cut  on  them.  These  were  said  to  be  emblems  of  mourn- 
ing for  the  dead. 

I  noticed  several  graves  in  which  the  dead  were  enclosed,  in  a 
standing  posture,  in  a  circle  of  sticks  squared  on  four  sides  and 
secured  by  hoops  of  green  wood,  thus  looking  much  like  a  cask. 
From  the  sticks  hung  strips  of  cloth  and  fur. 

In  the  afternoon  we  witnessed  one  of  their  dances.  The  spec- 
tators formed  a  circle  around  two  men  who  were  the  performers, 
and  joined  in  the  usual  monotonous  chorus  of"  Ho,  ho,  ha,  ha,"  &c. 
The  dancers  were  stripped  to  the  waist,  and  held  in  each  hand 
eagles'  feathers  tipped  with  bits  of  swan's-down.  Their  heads 
were  shaved,  and  bound  with  fillets  of  feathers.  The  dance  con- 
sisted in  motions  of  the  head,  arms,  legs,  and  every  muscle  of 
the  body  in  succession  ;  putting  themselves  in  every  imaginable 
posture,  joining  in  the  chorus,  and  keeping  exact  time  with  it  and 
with  each  other.     I  could  not  find  out  its  emblematic  meaning. 

We  engaged  two  Indians  to  take  the  canoe  of  meat  to  Fort 
Yukon.  One  of  them,  whom  we  had  called  Bidarshik,  had  come 
with  us  from  Nowikakat.  The  other  was  a  wild  specimen  of  the 
Nuklukahyet  tribe,  whom  we  decided  to  name  Dick.     A  number 


96 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY 


of  Others  indicated  their  intention  to  travel  with  us  to  Fort 
Yukon  and  trade  there.  One  of  them  had  been  employed  by 
Ketch um  the  previous  summer.  About  three  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon  we  left  Nuklukahyet  and  the  Russians  behind  us, 
receiving  a  salute  from  them,  which  we  duly  returned. 

The  river  was  becoming  deeper  and  narrower,  and  the  hills 
were  rising  and  approaching  more  closely  to  the  Yukon,  as  we 
ascended.     Late  in  the  afternoon  a  sunken  rock  cut  a  hole  in  the 


jiiilili 


bidarra,  and  we  halted  for  repairs.  On  account  of  the  extreme 
heat  we  now  decided  to  travel  by  night  and  camp  in  the  hottest 
part  of  the  day. 

Monday,  \oth.  —  We  entered,  about  three  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon, between  high  bluffs  and  hills  rising  perhaps  fifteen  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  river,  which  here  was  exceedingly  deep 
and  rapid  and  not  more  than  half  a  mile  wide.  The  bends 
were  abrupt,  and  the  absence  of  sunlight  and  the  extreme  quiet 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


97 


produced  a  feeling  as  if  we  had  been  travelling  underground. 
The  appropriate  and  expressive  English  name  for  these  blufts  is 
"  the  Ramparts.'' 

We  were  approaching  the  so-called  Rapids  of  the  Yukon,  of 
which  we  had  heard  so  many  stories.  The  Russians  had  pre- 
dicted that  we  should  not  be  able  to  ascend  them.  The  Indians 
joined  in  this  expression  of  opinion,  and  had  no  end  of  stories 
about  the  velocity  of  the  current  and  the  difficulty  experienced  in 


Looking  back  at  the  Rapids. 


ascending  them.  We  all  felt  a  little  anxious,  but  were  confident 
of  overcoming  the  supposed  difficulty  in  some  way.  We  met 
some  Indians  and  obtained  a  little  fresh  meat.  About  midnight 
we  arrived  at  the  Rapids.  The  river  is  very  narrow  here,  and 
the  rocky  hills  rise  sharply  from  the  water.  The  rocks  are 
metamorphic  quartzites,  and  a  dike  or  belt  of  hard  granitic  rock 
crosses  the  river.  The  fall  is  about  twelve  feet  in  half  a  mile. 
The  rapid  current  has  worn  the  granite  away  on  either  side, 
7 


gS  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

forming  two  good  channels,  but  in  the  middle  is  an  island  of 
granite,  over  which  the  river  rushes  in  a  sheet  of  foam  during 
high  water.  There  are  several  smaller  "  rips  "  along  the  shore, 
especially  near  the  left  bank,  but  nothing  to  interrupt  steamer 
navigation,  except  the  very  rapid  current. 

Several  Indians  attempted  to  ascend  in  their  small  canoes. 
We  saw  them  reach  a  point  just  below  the  island,  and  by  dint 
of  the  hardest  paddling  keep  stationary  there  a  few  minutes  ; 
when,  their  strength  being  exhausted,  away  went  the  canoes 
down   stream  like  arrows. 

We  joined  our  tracking-line  with  several  rawhide  lines  belong- 
ing to  the  Indians,  and  by  keeping  close  to  the  rocks  succeeded 
in  tracking  over  the  worst  part  without  much  difficulty.  Taking 
our  seats  again,  we  had  a  hard  pull  to  pass  one  jutting  rock,  and 
our  troubles  were  over.  We  then  enjoyed  a  well-earned  cup  of 
tea,  and  took  a  parting  glance  at  the  Rapids  from  above.  From 
this  point  only  a  broad  patch  of  foam  in  the  middle  of  the  river 
indicated  their  existence. 

Ttiesday,  wtJi. —  Coal  has  been  said  to  exist  in  this  vicinity, 
but  erroneously.  There  are  no  sandstones  or  other  fossiliferous 
rocks,  and  the  granite  is  immediately  succeeded  by  quartzites. 
I  found  plenty  of  wild  garlic  on  the  rocks,  and  currant  and  goose- 
berry vines  in  blossom.  The  Indians  were  attended  by  numerous 
little  dogs,  which  ran  along  the  shore,  following  the  canoes,  and 
sometimes  swam  across  the  Yukon  two  or  three  times  in  a  day. 
These  were  excellent  hunters,  but  too  small  to  use  with  sleds. 
During  the  day  they  dislodged  a  porcupine,  of  which  I  secured 
the  skull. 

Several  women  were  with  their  husbands,  who  intended  to 
leave  them  somewhere  on  the  road  until  their  return  from  trad- 
ing. They  were  hideously  ugly  and  dirty,  —  far  worse  than  the 
Koyukuns  or  Ingaliks  whom  I  had  seen.  They  took  charge  of 
the  large  canoes  with  the  baggage,  while  the  husband  carried  the 
furs  in  his  small  canoe.  There  were  several  babies,  all  very  dirty, 
but  otherwise  like  most  Indian  babies.  During  the  day  they 
were  tied  into  a  kind  of  chair  made  of  birch  bark  and  packed 
with  clean  dry  moss,  which  was  changed  when  occasion  required. 
The  object  itself  looked  much  like  an  ordinary  willow  baby-chair, 
but  had  a  projection  in  front  between  the  child's  legs,  which  came 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


99 


up   as   far  as   its  breast,  and   prevented  its   tumbling   out   when 
untied. 

It  is  remarkable  that  there  are  no  terraces  along  the  river,  and 
the  flinty  rocks  show  ice-markings  only  for  a  foot  or  two  along 
high-water  mark. 

]]\'diicsday,  \2tJi.  —  The  water,  which  had  fallen  some  two 
feet,  rose  about  six  inches  during  the  day.  The  Indians  assert 
that  this  second  rise  always  takes  place,  and  precedes  the  starting 
of  the  salmon  up  stream.  We  passed  a  dead  moose  in  the  water, 
and  shortly  after  the  Indians  killed  another,  some  of  the  meat 
of  which  we  purchased.  Passed  a  wrecked  canoe  on  some  shoals. 
The  next  day  we  passed  the  Yukutzcharkat  River,  which  Cap- 
tain Ketchum  had  called,  on  his  sketch-map,  the  Whymper 
River,  in  compliment  to  our  friend  and  companion,  Mr.  Frederick 
Whymper. 

Tluirsday,  i  yh.  —  The  long  handle  of  our  frying-pan  having 
broken  off,  as  they  invariably  do  in  travelling,  it  had  been  bent, 
so  that  it  might  be  used  to  catch  hold  of  the  pan,  put  it  on  and 
off  the  fire  when  hot,  &c.  We  were  much  annoyed  at  finding 
that  our  Indians  had  left  it  behind  at  the  last  camp.  This  may 
seem  trivial ;  but  it  is  no  small  undertaking  to  use  a  frying-pan 
without  a  handle  on  an  open  wood-fire.  Such  accidents  in  an  un- 
inhabited country  bring  forcibly  before  the  mind  the  great  value 
of  many  small  conveniences  which  we  never  think  of  at  home. 
The  night  was  spent  in  tracking  around  a  very  long  bend,  which 
left  us  in  the  morning  only  a  few  miles  in  a  direct  line  from  the 
point  which  we  had  left  in  the  afternoon.  We  cut  the  skin  of  our 
bidarra  again,  but  pushed  on,  keeping  her  dry  by  bailing. 

Bidarshik  and  Mikaishka,  who  kept  in  advance  of  us,  killed  a 
large  moose,  and  we  were  well  supplied  with  fresh  meat. 

Friday,  i^th.  —  Passed  a  very  small  stream  called  by  the  In- 
dians Tdtsnn-ikJitnii,  or  "  Caught-in-the-rocks."  I  found  a  fos- 
sil skull  of  the  musk  ox  {Ovibos  vioschatus)  on  the  beach.  Wild 
roses,  snowballs,  and  gold-thread  were  in  blossom  on  the  hillsides, 
and  the  fragrant  juniper  scented  the  air.  A  fine  bluff,  with  a 
rocky  face  like  a  great  staircase,  marked  the  mouth  of  the  Tsee- 
toht  River  on  the  right  bank.  After  this  the  river  begins  to 
widen,  and  numerous  small  islands  occur. 

Saturday,   i^h.  —  The    next  day  we    left   the    mountains    be- 


lOO  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

hind  us.  Just  beyond  them  the  Xotokakat,  or  Dall  River  of 
Ketchum,  enters  the  Yukon  from  the  north.  The  latter  river  is 
very  broad  at  this  point.  We  passed  through  some  very  strong 
water.  Not  the  least  annoyance  in  this  kind  of  travel  is  the  con- 
stant complaining  of  the  Indians,  unused  to  steady  hard  work 
and  ever  ready  to  shirk,  doing  on  principle  the  least  they  can. 

Monday,  ijth.  —  We  enjoyed  from  our  camp  a  fine  view  of  the 
end  of  the  Ramparts  and  the  intervening  islands.  Passed  by 
several  deserted  houses  formerly  inhabited  by  some  Indians  of 
the  Kutchin  tribes,  who  all  died  five  years  ago  of  the  scarlet  fever. 
This  fever  was  introduced  by  a  trading-vessel  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Chilkaht  River.  From  the  Chilkaht  Indians  it  spread  to  those 
of  the  Upper  Yukon,  and  down  the  river  to  this  point,  where  all 
died  and  the  disease  spent  itself.  These  are  known  to  the  Eng- 
lish as  the  Small  Houses,  and  the  locality  is  an  excellent  one  for 
game  and  fish  of  all  kinds.  The  women  were  left  behind  on  an 
island  in  the  morning,  and  the  Indians,  relieved  of  the  heavy 
canoes,  were  already  far  in  advance  of  us. 

Tuesday,  i^th.  —  One  of  the  few  who  accompanied  us  fol- 
lowed a  cow-moose  in  the  water  until  tired  out,  when  he  killed 
her  with  his  knife,  and  with  some  difificulty  we  towed  her  ashore. 
We  occasionally  saw  a  black  bear  or  a  Canada  lynx  on  the 
bank.  For  several  days  we  kept  steadily  on,  little  of  interest 
occurring.  It  was  noticed  that  the  trees  began  to  grow  smaller 
and  more  sparse  as  we  ascended  the  river.  The  sun  hardly 
dipped  below  the  horizon  at  midnight,  and  his  noontide  rays 
scorched  like  a  furnace.  The  mosquitoes  were  like  smoke  in  the 
air.  Through  constant  and  enforced  observation,  I  came  to  dis- 
tinguish four  kinds,  —  a  large  gray  one,  and  another  wdth  white 
leg-joints,  a  very  small  dust-colored  one  which  held  its  probos- 
cis horizontally  in  advance,  and  another  small  one  which  carried 
its  probe  in  the  orthodox  manner.  All  were  distinguished  from 
the  civilized  species  by  the  reckless  daring  of  their  attack. 
Thousands  might  be  killed  before  their  eyes,  yet  the  survivors 
sounded  their  trumpets  and  carried  on  the  war.  A  blanket  of- 
fered them  no  impediment  ;  buckskin  alone  defied  their  art.  At 
meal-times,  forced  to  remove  our  nets,  we  sat  until  nearly  stifled 
in  the  smoke,  and,  emerging  for  a  breath  of  air,  received  no 
mercy.       My    companion's    hands,    between    sunburn    and    mos- 


Aj'fi: 


lti|ii;,|;;^^ 


it 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  lOI 

quitoes,  were  nearly  raw,  and  I  can  well  conceive  that  a  man 
without  a  net,  in  one  of  these  marshes,  would  soon  die  from 
nervous  exhaustion.  The  mosquitoes  drive  the  moose,  deer,  and 
bear  into  the  river,  and  all  nature  rejoices  when  the  end  of  July 
comes,  and  their  reign  is  at  an  end. 

Both  banks  had  become  very  low  and  flat ;  the  region  had  a 
dreary  appearance.  Only  five  snow-covered  peaks,  supposed  to  be 
part  of  the  Romantzoff  range,  rose  above  the  level  of  the  plains. 
These  are  the  only  mountains  near  the  Yukon,  in  Russian 
America  north  of  the  Alaskan  range,  which  bear  snow  through- 
out the  year. 

The  plain  here  described  reaches  to  the  shores  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  broken  only  by  a  few  ranges  of  low  mountains  near  the 
coast,  of  which  the  Romantzoff  are  the  highest.  To  the  eastward 
it  rises  almost  imperceptibly,  attaining  its  highest  elevation  be- 
tween the  head-waters  of  the  Porcupine  and  the  left  bank  of  the 
Mackenzie.  This  table-land,  somewhat  broken  and  rocky,  as  seen 
abutting  on  the  Mackenzie  River  has  the  appearance  of  high 
hills.  These  are  the  "mountains"  of  Richardson.  There  are 
no  true  mountains  north  of  the  Yukon,  except  the  Romantzoft'. 
Nothing  of  less  than  five  thousand  feet  in  height  has  a  right  to 
the  title  of  mountain;  but  in  the  careless  speech  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  trappers  and  traders  anything  more  than  two  hundred  feet 
high  is  a  "  mountain.'" 

Saturday,  22d.  —  After  passing  the  Birch  River  of  the  Eng- 
lish, called  by  the  Indians  ToJnunn-nukdkat,  we  came  upon  a 
camp  of  the  Kutcha  Kutchin'.  Camping  here,  I  purchased  a 
number  of  fish,  which  they  were  catching  and  drying.  There 
were  four  or  five  men,  a  boy  or  two,  and  five  women.  All  were 
much  finer-looking  than  the  Unakhatana  we  had  left  behind  us 
at  Nuklukahyet.  All  wore  many  articles  of  English  make  ;  one 
of  the  women  had  a  calico  dress  on.  They  had  many  dogs,  all 
of  the  black,  short-haired,  long-legged  English  breed. 

The  men  wore  the  Hudson  Bay  moccasins,  leggins,  and  fringed 
hunting-shirts  of  buckskin,  originally  introduced  by  the  English 
traders,  who  obtained  them  from  the  tribes  to  the  southeast. 
They  had  abundance  of  the  fine  bead-work  in  which  the  French 
Canadians  delight,  and  which  those  women  who  frequent  the  forts 
learn  to  excel  in. 


IO>  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY, 

The  next  afternoon,  when  we  awoke  we  found  the  old  chief 
from  Fort  Yukon  waiting  to  see  us.  After  a  hberal  present  of 
tobacco  and  a  tin  cup,  he  returned  the  compliment  by  a  small 
piece  of  very  fat  moose  meat.  The  old  fellow's  name  was  Sakh- 
Jii-ti,  which  the  traders  have  corrupted  into  Senatee.  The  heat 
was  so  extreme  that  we  deferred  our  start  until  half  past  eight 
in  the  evening. 

Sunday,  2id.  —  We  stopped  for  tea  and  rest  twice  ;  and  when 
opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Porcupine  River  we  delayed  a  few  mo- 
ments, to  set  the  colors  and  load  our  fire-arms.  Rounding  a  bend 
of  the  river,  about  noon  we  saw  the  white  buildings  of  the  fort  on 
the  right  bank,  about  a  mile  above  the  mouth  of  the  Porcupine. 
We  gave  them  a  hearty  salute,  which  was  returned  by  a  fusillade 
from  a  large  crowd  of  Indians  who  had  collected  on  the  bank. 
Landing,  we  received  a  cordial  greeting  from  an  old  French  Cana- 
dian and  two  Scotchmen,  who  were  the  only  occupants.  The 
commander  and  Antoine  Houle  were  daily  expected,  with  the 
remainder  of  the  men  and  the  annual  supply  of  goods  from  La 
Pierre's  house,  by  way  of  the  Porcupine  River. 

We  were  shown  to  a  room  in  the  commander's  house,  where 
we  deposited  our  baggage ;  and,  after  putting  our  boat  and 
equipment  in  safety,  we  turned  in  for  a  good  nap. 

The  journey,  exclusive  of  the  time  spent  at  Nowikakat  and 
Kamensikhter,  had  occupied  less  than  twenty-seven  days,  and 
the  distance  travelled  we  estimated  as  about  six  hundred  and 
thirty  miles.  In  a  straight  line  the  distance  from  Nulato  to  Fort 
Yukon  is  over  four  hundred  and  eighty  miles. 

We  were  much  elated  at  the  successful  issue  of  our  journey, 
and  I  confess  to  having  felt  a  pardonable  pride  in  being  the  first 
American  to  reach  Fort  Yukon  from  the  sea. 

This  trading-post  was  founded  by  McMurray  in  the  season  of 
1846-47,  and  the  original  fort  was  a  mile  or  more  farther  up  the 
river.  The  present  fort  was  commenced  in  1864,  and  at  the 
time  of  our  visit  needed  only  the  erection  of  a  stockade  to  com- 
plete it.  The  cause  of  the  change  of  location  was  the  undermin- 
ing and  washing  away  by  the  river  of  the  steep  bank  on  which 
the  old  fort  was  built.  At  this  period,  the  old  houses  had  been 
removed,  and  some  of  the  remaining  foundation-timbers  projected 
far  over  the  water. 


II; 


ii 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  IO3 

The  present  buildings  consist  of  a  large  house,  containing  six 
rooms,  for  the  commander  ;  a  block  of  three  houses,  of  one  room 
each,  for  the  workmen  ;  a  large  storehouse ;  a  kitchen  ;  and  four 
block-houses,  or  bastions  pierced  for  musketry,  at  the  corners  of 
the  proposed  stockade.  Outside  of  the  fort  is  a  small  house  of 
two  rooms,  belonging  to  Antoine  Houle  the  interpreter. 

All  the  houses  were  strongly  built,  roofed  with  sheets  of  spruce 
bark  pinned  and  fastened  down  by  long  poles.  The  sides  were 
plastered  with  a  white  mortar  made  from  shell-marl,  obtainable  in 
the  vicinity.  Most  of  the  windows  were  of  parchment,  but  those 
of  the  commander's  house  were  of  glass.  The  latter  was  provided 
with  good  plank  floors,  and  the  doors  and  sashes  were  painted 
red  with  ochre.  The  yard  was  free  from  dirt,  and  the  houses, 
with  their  white  walls  and  red  trimmings,  made  a  very  favorable 
comparison  with  any  of  those  in  the  Russian  posts. 

The  fort  is  situated  about  two  hundred  miles  from  La  Pierre's 
House,  by  the  Porcupine  River,  the  journey  there  and  back  being 
performed  in  about  twenty  days.  Further  particulars  in  regard 
to  its  geographical  position  will  be  found  elsewhere.  The  inhab- 
itants are  all  employes  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  Most  of 
them  are  from  the  Orkney  Islands  and  the  north  of  Scotland, 
while  a  few  are  French  Canadians,  with  a  mixture  of  Indian  blood. 
At  this  time  the  garrison  consisted  of  Mr.  J.  McDougal  the  com- 
mander, and  six  men,  of  whom  four  were  Scotchmen.  The  Rev. 
Mr.  McDonald,  a  missionary  of  the  Established  Church,  was  also 
expected  with  the  boats. 

The  next  day  we  got  up  a  good  breakfast,  and  invited  the  three 
men  who  had  received  us.  The  repast  consisted  of  flapjacks, 
bacon,  tea  with  sugar,  and  moose  meat.  As  several  of  them  had 
been  some  years  without  tasting  bread,  it  may  be  imagined  this 
was  a  rare  treat  to  them.  The  fare  for  men  and  dogs  at  this  place 
is  the  same,  i.  e.  dry  moose  meat  alternating  with  dry  deer  meat, 
occasionally  varied  by  fresh  meat  of  the  same  kind,  and  the  slight 
supply  of  game  and  fish  which  is  now  and  then  obtainable.  The 
trading-goods  which  are  designed  for  this  point  take  two  years 
in  transportation  from  York  P'actory  on  Hudson  Bay.  One 
portage  of  over  fifty  miles  has  to  be  made,  between  Fort  Mc- 
Pherson,  on  Peel  River,  to  La  Pierre's  House  on  the  Upper  Por- 
cupine.    Here   the   goods  are  carried  on  sleds  in  winter,  across 


104 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY, 


the  high,  rough,  and  broken  table-land  between  the  two  rivers. 
On  account  of  these  difficulties  in  transportation,  few  provisions 
are  ever  sent  to  this  isolated  post.  These  few  find  their  way  to 
the  table  of  the  commander,  or  to  the  Indian  tyones  who  bring 
large  quantities  of  furs  to  the  annual  trade.  The  men  should  re- 
ceive three  pounds  of  tea  and  six  of  sugar,  annually,  to  flavor 
their  diet  of  dry  meat ;  but  I  was  informed  that  this  supply  was 
exceedingly  irregular,  and  often  failed  entirely. 

The  Indian  chiefs  often  obtain  a  small  present  of  tea,  sugar,  or 
flour,  but  the  latter  is  quite  inaccessible  to  the  men,  except  through 
the  favor  of  the  commander.  These  men  are  allowed  two  suits 
of  clothes  annually,  if  the  supply  holds  out ;  but  for  anything  else 
they  must  wait  until  the  furs  are  all  purchased,  and  then,  if  any- 
thing remain  after  the  Indians  are  satisfied,  the  men  are  allowed 
to  purchase.  Even  if  by  their  own  skill  they  trap  furs  enough  to 
buy  articles  of  clothing,  the  Indians  still  take  the  precedence. 
They  are  allowed  to  purchase  what  they  can  from  the  Indians, 
but  must  turn  it  all  in  to  the  Company,  and,  if  they  need  it,  must 
buy  it  at  Company's  prices.  The  standard  of  value  is  the  beaver- 
skin.  One  "  made  beaver,"  as  they  express  it,  is  worth  two  shil- 
lings, or  two  marten  skins.  A  man  buys  a  dressed  mooseskin, 
to  make  moccasins  of,  at  its  regular  value  of  two  "  made  beaver," 
or  four  shillings.  He  cannot  set  his  wife  at  work  making  mocca- 
sins, but  must  sell  it  to  the  Company  for  what  he  paid  the  In- 
dians, and  buy  it  back  for  tzvejity  shillings,  which  is  the  Company's 
selling-price.  If  he  does  not  do  this  he  is  liable  to  lose  all  his 
past  earnings  which  happen  to  be  in  the  Company's  hands,  and 
take  a  flogging  beside  from  the  commander.  Every  effort  is 
made,  to  make  these  men  marry  Indian  wives  ;  thus  forcing  them 
to  remain  in  the  country  by  burdening  them  with  females  whom 
they  are  ashamed  to  take  back  to  civilization,  and  cannot  desert. 
They  perform  a  larger  amount  of  manual  labor  for  smaller  pay 
than  any  other  civilized  people  on  the  globe. 

The  hardships  and  exposures  to  which  they  are  subjected  are 
beyond  belief.  In  fact,  the  whole  system  is  one  of  the  most  exact- 
ing tyranny  ;  and  only  in  the  north  of  Scotland  could  men  of 
intelligence  be  found  who  would  submit  to  it.  The  systematic 
way  in  which  the  white  "  servant  of  the  Company "  is  ground 
down  below  the   level   of  the  Indians  about   him,  is  a   degrada- 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


105 


tion  few  could  bear.  They  are  not  even  furnished  with  good 
tools.  The  Hudson  Bay  axe  is  a  narrow  wedge,  which  an 
American  lumberman  would  reject  with  contempt.  The  Hud- 
son Bay  knives  —  at  least  such  as  I  saw  at  Fort  Yukon  — 
are  so  worthless  that  even  the  Indians  prefer  to  buy  files,  and 


Knife  of  Kutchin  manufacture. 

manufacture  their  own  knives  from  them.  The  guns  are  all 
flint-locks  of  the  most  miserable  description  ;  and  this  rubbish 
must  be  bought  at  treble  its  value  by  the  Hudson  Bay  voy- 
ageur,  in  a  country  where  the  axe  and  gun  are  a  man's  right  and 
left  hands  !  There  is  some  comfort  in  reflecting  that  a  few  years 
will  put  an  end  to  this.  Free  traders  already  pass  through  the 
greater  part  of  the  Hudson  Bay  territory  without  restraint,  and 
they  will  not  be  long  in  reaching  a  district  so  rich  in  valuable 
furs  as  that  of  Fort  Yukon. 

The  sun  was  so  intensely  hot  that  in  the  middle  of  the  day  we 
could  do  nothing,  but  during  the  cooler  hours  much  of  interest 
was  added  to  my  collection  and  my  companion's  portfolio.  At 
noon,  out  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  one  of  Greene's  standard 
thermometers  stood  at  112°  Fahrenheit.  The  men  informed  me 
that  on  several  occasions  spirit  thermometers  had  burst  with  the 
heat.  In  the  depth  of  winter  the  spirit  falls  sometimes  as  low  as 
sixty-eight  and  sixty-nine  below  zero,  making  a  range  for  the 
year  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  degrees  Fahrenheit !  Neverthe- 
less, potatoes,  turnips,  lettuce,  and  other  hardy  garden  vegetables 
mature  during  the  short  hot  summer,  and  barley  was  said  to  have 
succeeded  once,  but  only  reached  a  few  inches  in  height. 

We  were  very  well  pleased  to  hear  from  an  Indian  runner 
that  the  boats  were  not  far  off.  On  the  26th  of  June,  Messrs. 
McDougal,  McDonald,  and  Sibbeston  arrived  with  the  bateaux. 
The  latter  were  about  forty  feet  long,  nine  feet  beam,  and  drew 
two  and  a  half  feet  of  water.  They  are  well  adapted  to  the 
navigation  of  the  Porcupine,  which  is  full  of  shoals  and  sand- 
bars, and  they  brought  a  load  of  nine  thousand  pounds  each  from 
La  Pierre's  House. 


I06  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

We  invited  the  commander  and  Mr.  ^McDonald  to  be  our 
guests  for  the  day,  and  did  our  best  to  provide  a  good  dinner. 
We  found  them  to  be  typical  Scots, —  quiet,  reserved,  cautious,  but 
hospitably  inclined.  Antoine  Houle  the  interpreter,  who  arrived 
with  them,  was  of  mixed  French  and  Indian  blood,  and  was  a  thor- 
ough voyageur.  More  independent  than  most  of  the  Company's 
servants,  he  had  his  house  to  himself  outside  of  the  fort  ;  and 
like  many  of  his  Indian  cousins,  deaf  to  the  remonstrances  of  the 
missionaries,  had  provided  himself  with  one  more  wife  than  is 
usual  in  civilized  countries.  This  was  the  more  excusable,  as  the 
poor  fellow  suffered  from  ossification  of  the  knee-joint,  and  could 
do  but  little  to  help  himself  His  house  was  always  open  to 
every  one,  and  was  a  noted  resort  of  the  Indians,  with  whom  he 
was  a  great  favorite.  With  them  he  could  talk  in  their  own 
dialects,  while  the  usual  mode  of  communication  between  the 
whites  and  Indians  in  this  locality  is  a  jargon  somewhat  like 
Chinook,  known  by  the  name  of  "  Broken  Slave."  The  basis  of 
this  jargon,  which  includes  many  modified  French  and  English 
words,  is  the  dialect  of  Liard  River.  The  native  name  of  the 
tribe  called  Slave  is  AchetO'tinncJi,  or  "  People  living  out  of  the 
wind." 

The  next  business  for  Mr.  McDougal,  after  storing  his  goods, 
was  the  annual  trade.  Every  spring  the  Yukon,  and  other  In- 
dians who  do  not  trade  with  the  Russians,  assemble  at  Fort  Yukon, 
there  await  the  arrival  of  the  boats  with  the  new  supply  of  tobacco 
and  goods,  and  then  do  their  trading.  After  this  is  over,  the  furs 
are  put  into  a  large  press,  which  is  a  conspicuous  object  in  the 
yard,  and  pressed  into  bundles  weighing  about  ninety  pounds 
each.  These  bundles  are  covered  with  beaver-skins  of  the  poorest 
class,  and  are  pressed  so  solid  by  means  of  wedges  that,  even  if 
dropped  into  the  river,  the  water  will  not  penetrate  them.  Each 
bundle  contains  a  certain  number  of  marten  or  fox  skins  packed  in 
beaver ;  they  are  bound  with  rawhide  cut  in  strips  known  as 
"  babiche,"  and  each  bundle  is  called  a  "  piece." 

After  the  trade  is  over  and  the  furs  are  packed,  they  are  taken 
in  the  boats  to  La  Pierre's  House,  and  the  boats  return  empty. 
Any  remaining  goods  are  laid  aside,  and  sent  down  the  river  in 
the  following  spring  to  Nuklukahyet.  During  the  remainder  of 
the  year  but  little  trading  is  done,  and  months  pass   without  an 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


107 


Indian  visiting  the  fort.  A  certain  amount  of  tobacco  is  distrib- 
uted among  the  men,  and  a  certain  amount  is  cached,  in  order 
that  they  may  not  be  entirely  without  the  article  in  the  spring. 
The  flint-lock  guns  sold  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  are  pre- 
ferred by  the  Indians  to  percussion  guns,  as  caps  are  not  always 
obtainable,  while  a  flint  may  be  picked  up  on  any  beach.  These 
guns  are  valued  at  forty  marten  skins.  They  cost  five  dollars 
apiece,  and  the  skins  will  average  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars 
in  total  value. 

On   the   afternoon   of  the   27th   a   shout    was    raised   that    the 
Tananah  Indians  were  coming.     On  going  to  the  beach,  some 


twenty-five  single  canoes  were  seen  approaching.  The  occupants 
kept  perfect  time  with  their  paddles,  advancing  in  three  platoons, 
and  passed  over  the  water  as  swiftly  and  beautifully  as  a  flock  of 
ducks. 

Sakhni'ti,  the  chief  of  the  Kutcha  Kutchin,  or  Fort  Yukon  In- 
dians, stood  on  the  bank  dressed  in  his  gayest  costume,  with  a 
richly  embroidered  blue  blanket  wrapped  about  him.  He  hailed 
the  foremost  canoes  as  soon  as  they  were  out  of  the  current. 
After  a  harangue  of  a  few  minutes  a  fusillade  was  commenced  by 


I08  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

the  Indians  on  shore,  and  returned  by  those  in  the  canoes,  after 
which  they  landed.  The  Tenan  Kutchin  (people  of  the  moun- 
tains), or  Indians  of  the  Tananah,  are  known  to  the  Hudson  Bay 
men  as  Gens  des  Buttes.  They  are  without  doubt  the  tribe  of  all 
others  which  has  had  the  least  to  do  with  the  whites.  No  white 
man  has  yet  explored  the  river  on  which  they  live.  We  only  know 
that  its  head-waters  are  not  very  far  from  Fort  Yukon,  and  that 
its  general  course  is  parallel  with  the  Yukon.  It  is  represented 
as  running  between  mountains,  and  obstructed  with  rapids  and 
cascades.  The  Tenan  Kutchin  are  regarded  with  fear  by  the 
adjacent  tribes,  and  are  doubtless  a  wild  and  untamable  people. 
Their  numbers  are  supposed  not  to  exceed  one  hundred  and  fifty 
families.  Of  their  mode  of  life  nothing  is  known,  except  that  they 
obtain  their  subsistence  principally  by  hunting  the  deer.  No 
women  accompanied  this  party.  They  were  all  dressed  in  the 
pointed  parki'es,  which  were  once  the  universal  male  dress  of  the 
family  of  Tinneh,  and  from  which  they  have  been  called  Chippe- 
wayans,  meaning  "  pointed  coats."  These  coats  were  ornamented 
in  the  same  manner  with  beads  or  quills  as  the  dress  of  the  male 
Koyukuns,  already  described.  Their  parkies  and  breeches  were 
smeared  with  red  ochre.  All  wore  the  dentalium  nose-ornament 
previously  noted.  The  most  striking  peculiarity  about  them  was 
their  method  of  dressing  their  hair.  Allowed  to  grow  to  its  full 
length,  and  parted  in  the  middle,  each  lock  was  smeared  with  a 
mixture  of  grease  and  red  ochre.  These  then  presented  the  ap- 
pearance of  compressed  cylinders  of  red  mud  about  the  size  of  the 
finger.  This  enormous  load,  weighing  in  some  of  the  adults  at 
least  fifteen  pounds,  is  gathered  in  behind  the  head  by  a  fillet  of 
dentalium  shells.  A  much  smaller  bunch  hangs  on  each  side  of 
the  face.  The  whole  is  then  powdered  with  swan's-down,  cut  up 
finely,  so  that  it  adheres  to  the  hair,  presenting  a  most  remarkable 
and  singular  appearance.  The  dressing  of  grease  and  ochre  re- 
mains through  life,  more  being  added  as  the  hair  grows. 

The  fat  is  soon  rancid,  and  a  position  to  leeward  of  one  of 
these  gentry  is  highly  undesirable.  This  method  of  dressing 
the  hair  is  peculiar  to  the  men.  Among  civilized  nations  such 
practices  are  confined  to  the  fairer  sex.  The  gulf  between 
pomatum  with  gold  powder  and  tallow  with  red  ochre  is  not  as 
wide    as  it  seems    at    first    sight  ;    and    the    addition    of   swan's- 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  IO9 

down  is  a  suggestion  which  is  worthy  of  consideration  by  the 
ladies. 

The  tribes  now  represented  at  the  fort,  beside  the  Kutcha 
and  Tenan  Kutchin,  were  the  following :  the  NatcJte  KiitcJiin, 
or  Gens  de  Large,  from  north  of  the  Porcupine  River  ;  the 
Mintd  Kutchin,  or  Rat  Indians,  from  farther  up  the  Porcupine  ; 
the  Han  KutcJiin  (wood  people),  or  Gens  de  Bois,  from  the 
Yukon,  above  Fort  Yukon  ;  and  finally,  the  TiitchSne  Kutchin 
(crow  people),  or  Gens  de  Foux,  from  still  farther  up  the  Yukon. 

The  tribes  resembled  each  other  in  appearance  and  dress. 
They  all  belong  to  the  family  of  Tinneh,  which  is  their  name 
for  "people."  Their  habits  of  life  differ  somewhat  according  to 
locality,  but  none  have  settled  villages,  —  carrying  their  deerskin 
lodges  wherever  food  is  most  abundant. 

Those  who  live  in  mountainous  districts,  hunting  the  active 
deer  from  summit  to  summit,  are  notably  the  most  savage  and 
unruly.  Those  who  live  by  hunting  the  more  phlegmatic  moose, 
which  inhabits  the  lowlands,  are  much  more  docile.  Their  lan- 
guages are  similar  in  construction  and  roots,  though  not  in 
the  forms  of  many  words.  The  dialect  of  the  Upper  Tananah 
assimilates  closely  to  the  Kutchin  languages,  while  that  spoken 
near  Nuklukahyet  resembles  more  nearly  the  Ingalik.  The 
Tananah  Indians  brought  the  news  of  the  body  of  a  white  man 
having  been  found  in  the  river  below. 

A  sad  event  had  happened  at  Fort  Yukon  in  the  early  spring. 
A  young  man  named  Cowley  had  been  acting  as  clerk  at  the 
fort,  and  at  the  time  of  the  freshet  was  shooting  geese  on  an 
island  across  the  river.  He  had  crossed  in  a  large  canoe  with 
one  of  the  men  employed  at  the  fort.  He  was  a  new  arrival,  and 
not  accustomed  to  the  mode  of  life,  and  was  therefore  subjected 
to  many  practical  jokes  from  the  old  voyageurs.  Wishing  to 
return,  he  could  not  find  the  canoe,  and  supposing  that  some  trick 
had  been  played  upon  him,  the  two  embarked  in  a  very  small 
single  canoe  and  attempted  to  cross.  The  river  was  full  of  ice, 
and  nothing  more  was  ever  seen  of  them.  The  wrecked  canoe 
which  we  had  passed  in  the  Ramparts  was  doubtless  the  one  in 
question.  The  Rev.  Mr.  McDonald,  being  informed  of  the  Indian 
rumor,  immediately  started  down  the  river  with  a  companion,  to 
investigate  the  matter,  and  if  necessary  to  perform  the  last  rites 
over  the  remains. 


no  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

Among  the  chiefs  at  the  fort  was  a  man  of  remarkable  intelli- 
gence, who  had  been  of  great  service  to  the  whites  on  various 
occasions.  He  went  by  the  name  of  Red  Leggins,  and  possessed 
great  influence  among  the  Indians.  I  applied  to  him  for  assist- 
ance in  obtaining  ethnological  specimens  and  vocabularies,  and 
improved  the  opportunity  by  taking  his  portrait. 

On  the  29th  of  June  we  were  called  out  by  the  Indians,  who 
said  that  Ketchum  was  coming.  Two  canoes  were  seen  in  the 
distance,  and  before  long  we  had  the  gratification  of  shaking  the 
hands  of  our  fellow-explorers,  and  offering  them  our  hearty  con- 
gratulations on  the  complete  success  of  their  arduous  explora- 
tions. They  had  arrived  safely  at  the  site  of  Fort  Selkirk, 
and  brought  back  as  a  trophy  a  piece  of  one  of  the  blackened 
timbers  which  remained.  They  reported  the  river  to  be  open  to 
navigation  up  to  that  point;  but  just  beyond  it  was  a  rapid, 
where  a  portage  would  be  necessary.  The  country  was  a  fine 
one,  well  timbered,  abundantly  supplied  with  moose  and  game, 
and  inhabited  by  friendly  Indians.  An  enumeration  of  the  ob- 
stacles which  they  had  encountered  would  be  out  of  place  here, 
but  it  may  fairly  be  said  that  only  extreme  patience,  endurance, 
indefatigable  energy  and  courage,  could  have  surmounted  them. 
They  were  principally,  however,  not  such  as  would  impede  a 
well-provided  party  of  regular  explorers.  We  "  laid  ourselves 
out,"  in  California  parlance,  to  get  up  a  good  dinner  for  our 
friends  ;  what  with  this  and  the  interchange  of  news  and  informa- 
tion, it  was  well  into  the  next  day  before  we  sought  our  pillows. 

Mr.  McDonald  returned,  having  determined  the  body  to  be 
that  of  Ward,  Cowley's  companion.  He  had  buried  it  near  the 
point  where  it  was  found. 

After  the  trade,  which  occupied  several  days,  we  obtained 
the  necessary  goods  to  pay  our  Indians  for  the  trip.  To  those 
who  had  come  up  with  us  from  Nulato  we  gave  each  a  gun ;  the 
Nuklukahyet  man  received  a  good  capote ;  and  we  gave  a  knife, 
shirt,  and  powder-horn  to  Bidarshik. 

Our  diet  while  at  the  fort  consi.sted  chiefly  of  boiled  dried 
meat,  which  when  cooked  resembles  in  flavor  and  stringiness  a 
boiled  skein  of  yarn. 

Mr.  McDonald  during  our  stay  performed  several  services 
among  the  Indians.     He  was  an  earnest  and  well-disposed  man, 


RED    LEGGINS. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  I  i  i 

a  fair  type  of  most  missionaries  to  the  Indians.  His  discourses 
were  rendered  into  broken  Slave  by  Antoine  Houle.  In  the 
evening  the  Indians,  old  and  young,  gathered  in  the  fort-yard  and 
sang  several  hymns  with  excellent  effect.  Altogether,  it  was  a 
scene  which  would  have  delighted  the  hearts  of  many  very  good 
people  who  know  nothing  of  Indian  character ;  and  as  such  will 
doubtless  figure  in  some  missionary  report.  To  any  one  who  at 
all  understood  the  situation,  however,  the  absurdity  of  the  pro- 
ceeding was  so  palpable  that  it  appeared  almost  like  blasphemy. 

Old  Sakhni'ti,  who  has  at  least  eighteen  wives,  whose  hands 
are  bloody  with  repeated  and  most  atrocious  murders,  who  knows 
nothing  of  what  we  understand  by  right  and  wrong,  by  a  future 
state  of  reward  and  punishment,  or  by  a  Supreme  Being,  —  this  old 
heathen  was  singing  as  sweetly  as  his  voice  would  allow,  and  with 
quite  as  much  comprehension  of  the  hymn  as  one  of  the  dogs  in 
the  yard. 

Indians  are  fond  of  singing :  they  are  also  fond  of  tobacco  ; 
and  for  a  pipeful  apiece  you  may  baptize  a  whole  tribe.  Why 
will  intelligent  men  still  go  on,  talking  three  or  four  times  a  year 
to  Indians,  on  doctrinal  subjects,  by  means  of  a  jargon  which  can- 
not express  an  abstract  idea,  and  the  use  of  which  only  throws 
ridicule  on  sacred  things,  —  and  still  call  such  work  spreading 
the  truths  of  Christianity .'' 

When  the  missionary  will  leave  the  trading-posts,  strike  out  into 
the  wilderness,  live  with  the  Indians,  teach  them  cleanhness  first, 
morality  next,  and  by  slow  and  simple  teaching  lead  their  thoughts 
above  the  hunt  or  the  camp,  —  then,  and  not  until  then,  will  they 
be  competent  to  comprehend  the  simplest  principles  of  right 
and  wrong.  The  Indian  does  not  think  in  the  method  that 
civilized  men  adopt  ;  he  looks  at  everything  as  "  through  a  glass, 
darkly."  His  whole  train  of  thought  and  habit  of  mind  must  be 
educated  to  a  higher  and  different  standard  before  Christianity 
can  reach  him. 

The  Indian,  unchanged  by  contact  with  the  whites,  is  in  mind 
a  child  without  the  trusting  affection  of  childhood,  and  with  the 
will  and  passions  of  a  man.  Read  by  this  standard,  he  may  be 
fairly  judged.  One  fact  may  be  unhesitatingly  avowed  :  if  he 
can  obtain  intoxicating  liquors  he  is  lost.  Neither  missionaries 
nor  teachers  can  save  him  while  it  is  within  his  reach.     A  general 


112  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

glance  at  the  condition  of  the  American  Indians  at  this  time  con- 
veys only  one  idea,  which  is,  that  the  trader  outstrips  all  re- 
straints and  that  the  whole  race  is  irrevocably  doomed. 

In  dealings  with  them  they  appreciate  justice,  but  do  not  prac- 
tise it,  and  they  respect  the  strong  arm  alone.  It  has  often  been 
asked  why  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  has  succeeded  in  its  in- 
tercourse with  the  aborigines  without  the  misery  and  bloodshed 
which  has  stained  our  western  frontier.  The  inference  has  been 
as  often  drawn  that  it  was  owing  to  the  justice  which  was  charac- 
teristic of  the  Company's  dealings  with  the  Indians.  That  there 
is  no  foundation  for  this  opinion  I  propose  to  show. 

In  the  first  place,  while  the  Hudson  Bay  traders  have  had  few 
contests  with  the  Indians,  still,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
whites,  full  as  many  Indian  outrages  have  taken  place  as  in  the 
Western  United  States.  The  following  from  the  pen  of  Bernard 
R.  Ross,  Esq.,  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  is  pertinent  to  the 
question.*     Speaking  of  the  Eastern  Tinneh,  he  says :  — 

"  As  a  whole,  the  race  under  consideration  is  unwarlike.  I  have 
never  known,  in  my  long  residence  among  this  people,  of  arms  having 
been  resorted  to  in  conflict.  In  most  cases  their  mode  of  personal 
combat  is  a  species  of  wrestling,  and  consists  in  the  opponents  grasp- 
ing each  other's  long  hair.  This  is  usually  a  very  harmless  way  of  set- 
tling disputes,  as  whoever  is  thrown  loses  ;  yet  instances  have  occurred 
of  necks  having  been  dislocated  in  the  tussle.  Knives  are  almost  in- 
variably laid  aside  previous  to  the  contest.  Some  of  them  box  tolera- 
bly well  ;  but  this  method  of  fighting  does  not  seem  to  be  generally  ap- 
proved of,  nor  is  it  much  practised.  On  examination  of  the  subject 
closely,  I  am  disposed  to  consider  that  this  peaceful  disposition  pro- 
ceeds more  from  timidity  than  from  any  actual  disinclination  to  shed 
blood.  These  Indians,  whether  in  want  or  not,  will  take  the  life  of  any 
animal,  however  useless  to  them,  if  they  be  able  to  do  so,  and  that  they 
can  on  occasion  be  sufficiently  treacherous  and  cruel  is  evinced  by  the 
massacre  at  St.  John's,  on  Peace  River,  and  at  Fort  Nelson,  on  tlie 
Liard  River.  It  may  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  give  a  brief  account  of 
the  latter  catastrophe. 

"In  1841  the  post  of  Fort  Nelson,  on  the  Liard  River,  was  in  charge 
of  a  Mr.  Henry,  a  well-educated  and  clever  man,  but  of  a  hasty  tem- 
per and  morose  disposition.  While  equipping  the  Indians  in  the  au- 
tumn he  had  a  violent  dispute  with  one  of  the  principal  chiefs  of  the 
*  l"'r<Mn  the  annual  Rei^ort  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  II3 

Bastard  Beaver  Indians  resorting  to  the  establishment,  wlio  departed 
greatly  enraged,  and  muttering  suppressed  threats,  which  were  little 
thought  of  at  the  time.  In  the  winter  a  'courier'  arrived  at  the  fort 
to  inform  the  whites  that  there  were  the  carcasses  of  several  moose 
deer  lying  at  the  camp  ready  to  be  hauled,  and  requested  dog-sleds  to 
be  sent  for  that  purpose.  Mr.  Henry,  never  in  the  least  suspecting  any 
treachery,  immediately  despatched  all  the  men  and  dogs  that  he  could 
muster.  On  their  way  out  they  met  an  Indian,  who  told  them  that  tliey 
had  better  turn  back,  as  the  wolverines  had  eaten  all  the  meat.  This 
information,  as  it  turned  out,  was  given  from  a  friendly  motive  ;  but 
fear  of  ulterior  consequences  to  himself  prevented  the  man  from  speak- 
ing more  plainly.  The  fort  interpreter,  who  was  of  the  party,  took  the 
precaution  to  carry  his  gun  with  him,  and  when  they  drew  near  to  the 
path  which  led  from  the  bed  of  the  river  to  the  top  of  the  bank,  where 
the  Indians  were  encamped,  he  lingered  a  little  behind.  On  the  others 
mounting  the  ascent,  they  were  simultaneously  shot  down,  at  one  dis- 
charge, by  the  natives,  who  were  in  ambush  awaiting  them.  When  the 
interpreter  heard  the  shots  he  was  convinced  of  foul  play ;  he  therefore 
turned  and  made  for  the  fort  as  quickly  as  he  could,  pursued  by  the 
whole  party  of  savages,  whose  aim  was  to  prevent  him  from  alarming 
the  establishment.  The  man  was  a  famous  runner,  and  despite  the 
disadvantage  of  small  snow-shoes,  which  permitted  him  to  sink  more 
deeply  than  the  Indians,  who,  on  their  large  hunting  snow-shoes,  al- 
most skimmed  over  the  surface  of  the  snow,  he  would  have  reached  the 
houses  before  them,  had  not  the  line  that  confined  the  snow-shoe  on 
his  foot  broken.  His  enemies  were  too  close  upon  him  to  allow  time 
for  its  repair  ;  so,  wishing  to  sell  his  life  as  dearly  as  possible,  he  levelled 
his  gun  at  the  nearest  Indian,  who  evaded  the  shot  by  falling  upon  his 
face,  whereupon  the  whole  party  despatched  him.  After  perpetrating 
this  additional  murder  the  band  proceeded  to  the  fort,  which  they 
reached  at  early  dawn.  A  poor  old  Canadian  was,  without  suspicion 
of  evil,  cutting  fire-wood  at  the  back  gate.  His  brains  were  dashed 
out  with  their  axes,  and  they  entered  the  establishment,  whose  inhabi- 
tants, consisting,  with  one  exception,  of  women  and  children,  were 
buried  in  profound  repose.  They  first  opened  Mr.  Henry's  room, 
where  he  was  asleep.  The  chief  pushed  him  with  the  end  of  his  gun 
to  awaken  him.  He  awoke,  and  seeing  numerous  fiendish  and  stern 
faces  around  him,  made  a  spring  to  reach  a  pair  of  pistols  that  were 
hanging  over  his  head  ;  but  before  he  could  grasp  them,  he  fell  a  bleed- 
ing corpse  on  the  bosom  of  his  wife,  who,  in  turn,  became  a  helpless 
victim  of  the  sanguinary  and  lustful  revenge  of  the  infuriated  savages. 


114  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

Maddened  by  the  blood,  they  next  proceeded  to  wreak  their  vengeance 
on  the  innocent  women  and  children,  who  expired  in  agonies  and  under 
treatment  too  horrible  to  relate.  The  pillage  of  the  stores  was  the 
next  step,  after  which  they  departed,  leaving  the  bodies  of  the  dead  un- 
buried.  No  measures  further  than  the  abandonment  of  the  fort  for 
several  years  were  taken  by  the  Northwest  Company,  to  whom  the 
establishment  belonged,  to  punish  the  perpetrators  of  the  atrocious 
deed  ;  yet  it  is  a  curious  fact  that  when  I  visited  Fort  Liards  in  1849, 
but  one  of  the  actors  survived,  all  the  others  having  met  with  violent 
deaths,  either  by  accident  or  at  the  hands  of  other  Indians.  This  man, 
who  was  at  the  time  only  a  lad,  confessed  to  have  dashed  the  brains 
out  of  an  infant,  taking  it  by  the  heels  and  swinging  it  against  the  walls 
of  the  house." 

This,  and  the  long  list  of  forts  pillaged  by  the  Indians  or  aban- 
doned on  account  of  their  hostility*  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany, is  sufficient  to  show  that  their  occupation  has  not  been 
wholly  peaceful.  But  little  has  been  said  of  these  outrages,  as  it 
was  evidently  for  the  interest  of  the  Company  that  they  should 
not  be  talked  about. 

It  must  also  be  noticed  that  the  policy  of  the  Company  has 
always  been  to  put  as  few  men  as  possible  in  these  trading-posts. 
A  very  few  white  men  can  go  in  safety  where  a  large  body  would 
instantly  excite  hostilities.  After  the  fort  has  been  in  operation 
for  years,  and  a  demand  created  for  tobacco  and  other  articles, 
the  Indians  feel  that  it  is  to  their  advantage  to  have  them  there, 
and  the  whites  in  small  numbers  no  longer  excite  their  jealousy. 
Then,  whenever  a  new  post  was  established,  the  influential  chiefs 
were  handsomely  provided  with  presents,  the  whites  in  the  fort 
were  kept  in  subjection  to  the  extent  already  described,  going 
about  in  rags,  while  the  Indians  obtained  broadcloth  and  clothing 
of  every  description  for  their  furs.  This  obvious  superiority 
pleased  the  vanity  of  the  savage.  Little  or  no  retribution  fol- 
lowed the  outrages  previously  mentioned.  In  some  cases  pres- 
ents were  plentifully  distributed  to  appease  their  anger,  and  any 
offence  toward  an  Indian  was  severely  punished.  The  self-re- 
spect of  the  white  man  was  sacrificed  to  the  desire  of  obtaining 
furs.  Lastly,  the  most  warlike  and  bloody  tribes  had  been  reduced 
to  comparative  cjuictness  in  the  early  colonial  wars. 

*  This  includes  Forts  .Selkirk,  Pelly  Banks,  Dease,  P'rances,  B.abine,  Peace  River, 
and  others,  —  all  Ijurnt  or  pillaged  and  abandoned. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


15 


On  the  other  hand,  the  Indians  of  the  western  plains  were 
races  more  vigorous  and  active  than  their  northern  congeners. 
They  were  met  by  large  bodies  of  pioneers,  bent  on  settling  and 
occupying  the  territory.  Indian  outrages,  provoked  or  unpro- 
voked, met  with  speedy  return  from  the  colonists,  and  matters 
were  still  further  complicated  by  the  recognition  of  the  hypo- 
thetical authority  of  the  chiefs  by  the  government.  Promises 
were  made  by  the  former,  of  which  they  had  not  power  to  en- 
force the  fulfilment  by  the  Indians,  who  were  erroneously  sup- 
posed to  obey  them.  The  pernicious  system  of  making  presents 
to  the  chiefs,  the  introduction  by  traders  of  intoxicating  liquors, 
and,  above  all,  the  failure  of  the  government  in  any  instance  to 
enforce  respect  by  its  strong  arm,  have  created  an  animosity 
which  will  die  out  only  with  the  Indians  themselves. 

It  would  seem  brutal  to  advise  force  as  a  civilizer,  but  the 
Aleuts,  who  were  thoroughly  crushed  and  subjugated  by  the 
early  Russian  traders,  and  subsequently  by  the  Russian  American 
Company,  are  to-day  the  only  large  body  of  aborigines  in  America 
who  give  any  promise  of  ultimate  civilization. 

After  the  trade  was  over,  we  had  an  opportunity  of  looking  at 
the  results.  It  was  a  sight  seldom  witnessed  by  others  than 
traders.  The  large  loft  over  the  store-house  was  literally  over- 
flowing with  valuable  furs.  Among  other  trophies  of  the  chase 
were  forty-five  silver  foxes.  The  commander  confessed  to  five 
thousand  sables  purchased  the  previous  year.  The  men  in  the 
fort  said  that  the  amount  was  nearer  eight  thousand,  with  half  as 
many  beaver,  and  five  hundred  foxes  of  all  kinds.  Few  otter,  and 
very  few  mink  are  obtained  here,  but  black  bearskins,  dressed 
mooseskins,  and  black  and  silver  foxes  are  especially  abundant. 
The  value  of  the  furs  annually  obtained  at  this  post  cannot  be  es- 
timated as  less  than  fifty  thousand  dollars. 

We  decided  to  start  down  the  river  on  the  8th  of  July.  The 
women  in  the  fort  were  very  busy  filling  orders  for  mocca- 
sins, and  other  specimens  of  their  work,  which  we  designed  for 
friends  below.  I  was  indebted  to  one  of  the  men  for  a  fine 
pair  of  otter-skin  mittens,  which  have  since  done  me  good  ser- 
vice. Ketchum  decided  to  take  a  small  boy,  Jean  Baptiste  by 
name,  who  was  well  qualified  to  act  as  interpreter  with  several 
tribes  of  Indians.     He   spoke   comparatively  little  English,  but 


Il6  THE   YUKON   TERRITORY. 

understood  Canadian  French,  having  a  little  Canadian  blood  in 
his  veins. 

The  commander  coolly  proposed  to  Ketchum  that  he  should 
kidnap,  iron,  and  send  back  to  Fort  Yukon  the  unfortunate  run- 
away McLeod  !  However,  we  let  it  pass  without  remark,  for  we 
were  under  great  obligations  to  Mr.  McDougal  for  hospitality 
shown  us,  and  assistance  rendered  in  paying  our  men.  Ketchum 
arranged  it  so  that,  in  going  back,  Whymper  and  Mike  should 
take  the  bidarra,  while  he  and  I  had  each  a  large  birch  canoe, 
with  Indians  fore  and  aft  to  paddle  it.  Having  got  everything 
on  board,  we  shook  hands  and  bade  our  kind  entertainers  good 
by.  About  two  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  8th  we  left  Fort 
Yukon  behind  us.  A  tremendous  firing  from  the  assembled  In- 
dians announced  our  departure,  and  we  returned  the  compliment 
to  the  best  of  our  ability. 

Travelling  down  stream  is  always  easy.  Our  journey  seemed 
easier  still  as,  in  the  broad  channel,  out  of  reach  of  the  mosquitoes, 
we  drifted  on  without  impediment  at  the  rate  of  four  or  five  miles 
an  hour.  Points  appeared,  were  passed,  and  faded  out  of  view, 
almost  without  our  perceiving  it  ;  while  between  them,  going  up, 
we  had  passed  many  hours  of  hard  paddling  in  the  hot  sun.  No 
sand-bars  or  shoal  water  obstructed  onr  progress  anywhere,  ex- 
cept where  the  swift  current  brought  us  close  to  the  bank.  We 
tied  our  canoes  together,  and  floated  down,  sometimes  sleeping, 
and  often  in  a  revery  which  recalled  the  lotus-eaters  of  the  Nile. 
We  did  not  camp  anywhere.  We  boiled  the  chynik  and  cooked 
our  meals  ashore,  and,  pushing  out  into  the  broad  stream,  ate 
them  while  calmly  drifting  with  the  current.  Sometimes  the 
mosquitoes  would  try  to  follow  us,  and  we  could  see  them  vainly 
endeavoring  to  make  headway  against  the  fresh  breeze  usually  to 
be  found  in  midstream.  They  were  always  unsuccessful,  and  we 
discarded  our  nets  and  laughed  at  the  discomfited  insects.  About 
three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the  9th  we  re-entered  the  Ram- 
parts, and  here,  in  the  swifter  current,  our  progress  was  more  rapid. 

Large  fires  were  burning  in  the  forests,  and  on  the  sides  of  the 
hills.  They  had  been  kindled  by  some  neglected  camp-fire,  and 
spread  rapidly  over  the  mossy  sod  and  leaves  dried  by  the  mid- 
summer sun.  The  smoke  hung  over  all  the  country,  obscuring 
everything  with  a  lurid  haze. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


117 


About  six  o'clock  on  the  afternoon  of  the  lOth  we  passed  the 
Rapids.  The  water  had  fallen,  and  we  should  not  have  known 
the  place  but  for  the  Indians.  One  of  the  party  refused  to  believe 
it.  A  long  island  of  rock,  smoothed  by  the  water,  divided  the 
river,  which  flowed  smoothly  but  with  great  swiftness  on  either 
side.  The  riffle  which  had  attracted  most  of  our  attention  had 
been  caused  by  an  insignificant  ledge  of  rock,  now  bare.  The 
difference  between  the  level  of  the  ice  in  winter  and  extreme  high- 
water  mark,  as  indicated  on  the  rocks,  cannot  be  much  less  than 
thirty  feet.  Some  distance  below  we  found  the  Nuklukahyet 
chief  and  his  people  fishing  for  salmon  with  large  hand-nets. 
The  little  canoes  sailed  down  stream  with  the  current,  the  Indians 
keeping  in  line  like  soldiers,  and  joining  in  a  monotonous  but  not 
discordant  chorus.  At  a  given  signal,  all  plunged  their  nets  be- 
low the  surface,  and  on  raising  them  a  great  salmon  frequently 
was  seen  struggling  in  the  meshes.  In  this  case  all  joined  in  a 
derisive  shout  and  song.  The  dried  meat  which  the  chief  had 
promised  was  not  forthcoming.  A  "  cash  "  business  is  the  only 
safe  one  with  Indians.  They  never  pay  old  debts,  giving  as  a 
reason  that  the  articles  purchased  are  already  worn  out. 

We  had  a  good  deal  of  amusement  chasing  the  young  geese. 
Their  wing  feathers  not  being  grown,  they  could  not  fly ;  but  they 
were  very  expert  divers,  and  were  beneath  the  water  almost  as  soon 
as  the  cap  flashed.  We  obtained  quite  a  number,  and  found  them 
very  delicate  eating.  We  passed  numerous  fishing-camps,  where 
the  banks  were  red  with  the  salmon,  split  and  hung  up  to  dry. 

About  eight  o'clock  on  the  evening  of  the  12th  we  arrived  at 
the  bluffs  above  Nulato.  Here  old  Yagorsha,  the  Yakut,  was  fish- 
ing, and  hailed  us  from  the  bank.  He  told  us  that  the  whole  of 
Russian  America  had  been  bought  by  an  American  company,  and 
that  an  American  ship  and  steamer  were  already  at  the  Redoubt! 
The  pleasure  which  we  felt  at  this  intelligence  was  marred  by 
doubts  of  its  truth  ;  but,  passing  on,  about  ten  o'clock  we  arrived 
at  Nulato.  Here  the  air  resounded  with  the  discharges  of  cannon, 
which  welcomed  our  return.  Indians  and  Russians  vied  in  the 
expenditure  of  gunpowder,  and  the  enthusiastic  Kurilla  used  up 
all  his  ammunition  in  returning  the  salute. 

Our  delight  was  soon  damped,  however,  by  an  incompre- 
hensible order  which  awaited  us.     This  instructed  us  to  trans- 


Il8  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

mit,  without  delay,  all  movable  property  belonging  to  the  Tele- 
graph Company  to  the  Redoubt.  Various  rumors  about  the  sale 
of  the  country  were  current  among  the  Russians.  Nothing  was 
certain,  and  one  of  them  remarked  to  me  with  a  sneer,  "  Perhaps, 
Gospodin  Doctor,  it  is  the  Americans,  and  not  the  Russians,  who 
are  about  to  march  !  " 

The  Koyukuns  occupied  the  beach,  fishing,  and  with  character- 
istic insolence  took  fish  out  of  the  Russian  nets  before  their  eyes. 
The  latter  were  too  few  in  number  to  resent  the  insult,  the 
bidarshik  and  two  men  being  absent  at  the  Redoubt. 

We  proceeded  to  carry  out  our  instructions,  purchasing  the 
large  Russian  bidarra,  putting  all  the  collections  and  other 
valuable  property  aboard,  and  hiring  six  men  to  accompany  us 
to  the  sea-coast.  Near  midnight,  July  15th,  we  started  down 
the  river,  full  of  anxiety,  not  knowing  what  changes  were  at 
hand. 

The  river  was  lined  with  Indian  fishing-camps  laying  in  the 
winter  supplies  of  ukali.  Had  we  possessed  the  necessary  trad- 
ing-goods and  transportation,  w^e  might  have  bought  thousands  of 
salmon. 

On  the  night  of  the  17th  we  saw  the  first  star  visible  since  the 
end  of  April.  On  the  19th  of  July,  about  eleven  o'clock  at  night, 
we  felt  a  shock  as  if  we  had  struck  a  snag.  Next  morning  we 
arrived  at  the  Russian  mission  of  the  Greek  Catholic  Church. 
There  we  learned  that  there  had  been  an  earthquake  shock  in 
the  night,  of  sufficient  severity  to  throw  down  books  and  other 
articles  from  the  shelves  on  which  they  were  placed.  The  priest, 
or  "  Pope  "  as  the  Russians  call  him,  with  most  of  the  Russians 
who  belonged  here,  was  absent  at  the  Redoubt.  In  this  part  of 
the  river  the  channel^  is  deep  enough  for  vessels  of  any  size.  It 
is  extremely  broad,  the  low  left  bank  being  sometimes  barely 
visible.  Sloughs  and  innumerable  islands  characterize  this  por- 
tion of  the  Yukon. 

The  weather  was  much  o(  it  hot,  cloudv.  and  disagreeable, 
\yith  occasional  rain,  forming  a  marked  contrast  to  that  which 
we  had  experienced  farther  inland.  The  white-winged  gull 
{Lams  Icncoptenis)  replaces  the  familiar  silver  gull  {L.  argentatiis) 
of  the  Upper  Yukon.  On  the  morning  of  the  22d  we  saw  numer- 
ous leopard  seal   {iicrpa)  sporting  in  the  river.     Seal  have  been 


THE    YUKON    TJiRRITORY, 


119 


occasionally  seen  at  Nulato,  and  on  one  occasion  a  white  whale 
or  Beluga  was  killed  only  a  few  miles  below  Nulato,  at  least  four 
hundred  miles  from  salt  water.  About  five  o'clock  the  same  day 
we  reached  the  post  of  Andreaffsky,  occupied  by  two  men  only, 
one  of  them  a  native.  The  other  received  us  as  hospitably  as  his 
means  would  allow,  and  spread  us  a  repast  of  salted  salmon  and 
bread.  We  made  his  heart  glad  by  a  present  of  some  tea,  as  .his 
own  supply  was  exhausted,  and  borrowed  his  assistant  to  guide 
us  to  the  Uphoon,  or  northernmost  mouth  of  the  Yukon,  by 
which  the  sea-coast  is  reached.  A  strong  breeze  arose,  and  we 
scudded  before  it,  reaching  the  Uphoon  and  dismissing  our  guide 
about  three  o'clock  the  next  morning. 

About  noon  we  reached  a  Russian  house  at  Kiitlik,  whose  in- 
mates were  absent  at  the  Redoubt.  Five  channels  leading  in 
different  directions  misled  us,  and  we  pulled  nearly  ten  miles  up 
a  small  river,  until  the  tide  turned  and  we  saw  our  mistake. 
The  next  trial  was  more  successful,  and  we  soon  reached  Pastolik, 
an  Eskimo  village  opposite  the  Uphoon-mouth,  where  we  camped 
ashore  for  the  first  time  since  leaving  Nulato. 

The  next  morning  we  divided  our  load,  hiring  another  bidarra 
and  some  Unaligmut  Eskimo  to  assist  us  in  our  voyage  along  the 
sea-coast  to  St.  Michael's.  At  noon  we  reached  Point  Romanoff, 
the  Cape  Shallow  Water  of  Cook.  This  is  the  only  hill  or  land- 
mark north  of  Cape  Romanzolf  on  the  coast.  Here  is  a  small 
village  of  a  few  huts,  where  we  purchased  some  fish  and  game. 

About  two  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  25th  we  reached 
the  southeastern  entrance  of  the  Canal  between  St.  Michael's 
Island  and  the  mainland.  Here  we  stopped  and  arrayed  our- 
selves in  apparel  more  suitable  for  civilized  society.  We  tracked 
through  the  Canal,  hoisted  our  flags,  and  bore  away  for  the 
Redoubt  with  a  light  wind.  Here  we  arrived  about  noon  of 
July  25th,  finding  all  the  members  of  the  exploring  and  con- 
structing parties  gathered  to  receive  us.  The  news  was  soon 
told. 

The  Atlantic  cable  was  a  triumphant  success.  The  United 
States  were  in  negotiation  for  the  purchase  of  Russian  America. 
Our  costly  and  doubtful  enterprise  was  abandoned,  and  the 
bark  Clara  Bell  was  soon  expected,  to  take  all  hands  to  San 
Francisco.     The  ill-fed  and  hard-worked  constructors  hailed  their 


I20  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

deliverance  with  joy;  but  the  weather-beaten  explorers,  wath  their 
carefully  matured  plans  for  more  thorough  and  extended  explo- 
rations during  the  coming  year,  felt  a  regret  and  disappointment 
which  could  hardly  be  over-estimated,  as  with  a  few  words  these 
prospects  were  destroyed.  There  was,  of  course,  nothing  to  be 
done  but  to  pitch  our  tents  on  the  beach,  and  there  await  the  re- 
turn of  the  vessel,  now  absent  in  search  of  the  parties  which  had 
been  left  at  Grantley  Harbor,  Bering  Strait. 


CHAPTER     IV. 

Arrival  of  the  vessel.  —  Arrange  to  remain  in  the  country.  —  Departure  of  the  Clara 
Bell.  —  Mushrooms.  —  Plans  for  the  season.  —  Start  for  Unalaklik.  —  The  Major's 
Cove.  —  Voyage  to  Kegiktovvruk.  —  Description  of  the  casine.  —  End  of  the  old 
bidarra.  —  Leave  Kegiktowruk.  —  Crossing  the  bar  of  the  Unalaklik  River.  —  Send 
back  for  the  goods.  —  Trip  to  Ulukuk.  —  Death  of  Stareek.  —  Bears  and  bear-hunt- 
ing. —  Geological  reconnoissance,  and  discovery  of  fossils.  —  Return  to  Unalaklik.  — 
Purchasing  winter  supplies.  —  Innuit  of  Norton  Sound.  —  Tribes,  physique,  games, 
kyaks.  —  Disposition,  morality,  marriages,  and  infanticide.  —  Treatment  of  the 
women,  and  work  allotted  to  the  sexes.  —  Dress,  labrets  of  the  different  tribes.  — 
Property,  method  of  computation,  and  map-drawing.  —  Fire-drills. —  Weapons  of 
bone,  flint,  and  ivory.  —  Guns  and  trading.  —  Intercourse  with  Indians,  and  boun- 
dary lines  of  their  territory.  —  Shamanism.  —  Patron  spirits.  —  Interment  of  the 
dead.  —  Habits,  and  means  of  gaining  subsistence  throughout  the  year.  —  Dances 
and  festivals.  —  Arrival  of  my  new  bidarra.  —  Sudden  illness,  and  departure  for  the 
Redoubt.  —  Storm  and  detention  at  Kegiktowruk.  —  Proceed  to  the  Redoubt 
.on  foot.  —  Return  to  Unalaklik.  —  Kill  a  deer.  —  Cowardly  abuse  of  the  natives  by 
the  Russians.  —  Kamokin  and  his  barbarity  to  the  sick.  —  Deaths  in  the  village.  — 
Making  dog-harness. 

ALONG  month  passed  by  and  brought  no  signs  of  the 
ship.  A  party  of  seven  bidarras,  manned  with  Okeeogemuts 
and  other  Bering  Strait  Innuit,  arrived  at  St.  Michael's.  They 
brought  the  news  that  the  Grantley  Harbor  parties  had  safely 
embarked,  and  departed.  We  began  to  fear  that  some  accident 
had  happened  to  the  vessel.  Our  daily  walk  was  invariably  to 
the  northeast  bluff,  whence  we  could  look  seaward.  A  pound  of 
tobacco  was  promised  to  the  first  person  who  should  see  the  ship. 
About  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the  i8th  of  August  an 
old  woman  came  breathless  from  the  bluff,  saying  the  ship  was 
coming.  All  started  to  confirm  the  report,  which  proved  true,  and 
the  venerable  Martha  was  made  the  recipient  of  more  tobacco 
than  she  had  ever  before  possessed. 

It  was  the  Clara  Bell,  and  about  eight  o'clock  she  anchored  in 
the  bay.  I  had  by  this  time  become  pretty  well  versed  in  colonial 
Russian,  as  spoken  in  the  territory.  I  had  also  some  knowledge  of 
the  Innuit  and  Indian  dialects,  and  understood  the  mode  of  life 


122  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

necessary  in  the  Yukon  Territory.  I  had  formed  my  plans,  and 
immediately  took  the  opportunity  of  explaining  them  to  Major 
George  M.  Wright,  adjutant  of  the  Expedition,  and  now  in  charge 
of  all  the  men  and  materials  which  were  to  be  shipped  on  board 
the  Clara  Bell. 

A  pretty  thorough  reconnoissance  had  been  made  of  the  geology 
and  natural  history  of  the  Yukon  above  and  at  Nulato,  and  on 
the  shores  of  Norton  Sound.  The  Lower  Yukon  and  the  delta 
had  yet  to  be  examined.  I  felt  unwilling  that  the  plans  of  Mr. 
Kennicott,  so  far  carried  on  successfully,  should  be  left  uncom- 
pleted. I  therefore  proposed  to  carry  them  out  alone,  and  at  my 
own  expense,  and  relied  on  Major  Wright  for  the  co-operation  ne- 
cessary to  accomplish  this  arrangement.  With  his  characteristic 
politeness  he  agreed  to  do  what  lay  in  his  power.  He  could  leave 
me  no  provisions,  as  they  were  already  short  of  them.  He  could 
sell  me,  at  the  Company's  prices,  a  small  amount  of  trading-goods, 
and  he  would  pay  a  certain  proportion  of  the  salary  due  me  from 
the  Company  into  the  hands  of  Stepanoff  (the  chief  factor  of  the 
Russian  American  Company  at  St.  Michael's),  who  could  furnish 
me  with  some  trading-goods  and  a  limited  supply  of  provisions  ; 
while  for  the  rest  I  must  depend  upon  the  natural  resources  of  the 
country. 

Explaining  to  Stepanoff  that  I  had  no  desire  to  interfere  with 
the  fur-trade,  he  expressed  himself  willing  to  co-operate  with  me, 
and  the  proposed  arrangement  was  carried  into  effect. 

To  my  companions  of  the  previous  year,  and  to  the  officers  of 
the  vessel,  I  was  greatly  indebted  for  many  articles  useful  in  the 
country,  and  otherwise  unattainable.  The  boy  who  had  been 
brought  from  Fort  Yukon  was  left  in  my  care  to  be  sent  home. 
My  mail  was  made  up  for  transmission  by  the  vessel  to  San  F'ran- 
cisco  ;  the  Reports  on  the  Medical  Department  and  the  Scien- 
tific Corps  were  placed  in  the  adjutant's  hands.  The  collections 
of  the  previous  year  were  also  sent  aboard.  I  depended,  for  the 
means  of  reaching  civilization  again,  on  some  passing  trader  or 
the  annual  store-ship  of  the  Russians.  On  the  23d  of  August 
everything  was  concluded,  and  I  went  on  board  and  bade  all  hands 
good  by.  I  returned,  with  the  boy  Johnny  and  Stepanoft",  in  the 
Russian  boat.  About  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  the  Clara 
Bell  stood  out  to  sea. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


123 


As  I  saw  her  white  sails  disappear  in  the  distance  I  realized 
more  thoroughly  the  loneliness  of  my  position,  and  that  I  was  the 
only  person  in  the  whole  of  that  portion  of  the  territory  who  spoke 
English.  If  I  needed  companions,  I  must  seek  them  among  alien 
convicts  or  Indians,  in  a  foreign  tongue. 

Returning  to  my  room  in  the  fort,  I  soon  stifled  any  feeling 
of  regret  by  busying  myself  in  putting  on  paper  a  brief  sketch 
of  my  plan  of  exploration  for  the  coming  year. 

Stepanoff  called  me,  saying  that  there  was  no  meat  or  other 
fresh  provisions  in  the  fort,  and  we  must  go  out  and  get  some- 
thing for  dinner.  At  first  I  took  down  my  gun,  but  he  informed 
me  that  it  was  unnecessary,  and  after  walking  a  short  distance  he 
pointed  out  various  fungi,  which  he  assured  me  were  eatable. 
They  were  of  two  or  three  species,  all  poisonous  in  our  climate ; 
but  in  this  extreme  northern  region  they  proved  to  be  innocuous 
and  eatable,  though  quite  tasteless. 

During  our  walk  we  came  to  a  definite  conclusion  on  the  sub- 
ject of  fur-trading.  Stepanoff  said  that  he  did  not  believe  in  the 
rumor  which  prevailed  as  to  the  sale  of  the  country  ;  that  his 
duty  to  the  Russian  American  Company  would  compel  him  to 
prevent  any  one  from  trading  except  the  authorized  employes  of 
the  Company  ;  that  when  the  official  information  should  arrive  I 
might  trade  as  much  as  I  chose,  but  until  then  I  must  refrain. 
I  assured  him  that  trading  was  not  my  object  in  remaining  in  the 
country,  and  that  I  would  not  do  anything  of  the  kind  until  he 
had  received  definite  information.  The  latter  might  be  expected, 
if  at  all,  by  a  midwinter  courier  from  Nushergak  to  the  Kolma- 
koff  Redoubt  on  the  Kuskoqui'm.  Such  couriers  had  been  sent 
on  rare  and  important  occasions,  and  a  mail  was  always  sent  to 
Nushergak  from  St.  Michael's  every  December. 

Stepanoff  begged  me  to  consider  myself  his  guest  while  at  the 
Redoubt,  and  offered  to  have  any  orders  sent  to  Nulato  in  regard 
to  the  building  in  which  we  had  spent  the  previous  winter,  if  I 
desired  to  use  it  during  the  coming  season. 

My  plans  were  as  follows  :  First,  to  examine  the  rocks  along 
the  shores  of  Norton  Sound  and  across  the  portage  as  thoroughly 
as  possible.  Next,  to  take  my  trading-goods  and  such  provisions 
as  I  could  obtain  to  Nulato  ;  spend  the  winter  in  making  explora- 
tions in  that  vicinity,  and,  if  possible,  make  a  winter  visit  to  Kot- 


124  THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 

zebue  Sound  ;  to  take  a  boat  across  the  portage  and  descend  the 
Yukon  in  the  spring,  examining  the  rocks  carefully,  and  making 
as  thorough  collections  as  possible  of  specimens  of  natural  his- 
tory ;  to  spend  some  time  at  the  Yukon-mouth  ;  and  finally 
return  by  sea  to  the  Redoubt,  and  there  await  some  opportunity 
of  getting  a  passage  to  Sitka  or  San  Francisco  with  the  collec- 
tions. 

I  therefore  requested  Stepanoff  to  order  Ivan  Pavloft~  to  have 
the  house  put  in  thorough  repair,  the  seams  calked,  floor  put  in 
order,  and  the  peechka  replastered.  The  building  at  Fort  Ken- 
nicott  was  too  large  and  too  cold  to  be  readily  made  habitable. 
The  orders  were  sent  by  Kuri'Ua,  whom  I  engaged  as  my  per- 
manent assistant.  He,  with  Antoshka  and  Tekunka,  started  for 
Nulato  via  Unalakli'k,  in  the  three-holed  bidarka  in  which  Dyer 
had  descended  the  Yukon.  Kun'lla  was  to  get  our  dogs  and  sleds 
together,  hire  Indians,  buy  ukali  for  dog-feed,  and  meet  me  at 
Unalaklik  as  soon  as  the  Yukon  was  ice-bound.  Then  we  would 
proceed  together  to  Nulato.  I  furnished  him  with  the  necessary 
trading-goods  for  purchasing  dog-feed  and  hiring  Indians,  and  he 
departed  in  high  spirits  at  the  responsibility  intrusted  to  him. 

One  day  when  Stepanoff  was  away  shooting,  on  the  marshes 
about  the  Canal,  one  of  the  Russians  came  to  me  with  a  sable,  for 
which  he  wanted  alcohol.  I  refused  him,  and  added  that  I  had 
promised  Stepanoff  not  to  purchase  furs,  and  should  keep  my 
word.  The  meaning  of  truth  and  honesty  is  incomprehensible  to 
these  degraded  wretches,  and  he  still  urged  me,  saying  Stepanoff 
would  never  hear  of  it.  As  he  did  not  take  any  notice  of  re- 
peated refusal,  I  became  at  last  so  angry  that  I  pitched  him  he_els 
over  head  out  of  the  door  and  down  the  steps,  into  the  muddy 
courtyard,  greatly  to  the  Amusement  of  old  Martha,  who  had 
just  previously  brought  in  some  work,  and  was  waiting  for  her 
pay. 

Life  among  the  natives  is  far  preferable  to  being  surrounded 
by  white  men  of  such  a  despicable  class.  It  is  not  to  be  won- 
dered at  that  the  knout  and  the  brand  were  formerly  in  use  in 
Russia.  Nothing  else  would  seem  capable  of  inspiring  a  respect 
for  the  law  in  such  minds. 

I\Iy  time  was  passed  in  running  lead  into  balls,  adding  to  the 
collection,  and  making  general  preparations  for  starting  for  Una- 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  I  25 

lakli'k  as  soon  as  any  natives  should  arrive  from  Pastolik,  where 
they  were  hunting  the  beluga. 

I  accompanied  Stepanofif  on  several  of  his  shooting  expeditions 
in  the  Canal,  and  secured  a  large  number  of  geese,  ducks,  and 
swans.  These  are  salted,  and  form  an  acceptable  addition  to  the 
winter  fare. 

On  September  22d  I  purchased  my  supplies,  including  six 
hundred  pounds  of  flour,  twenty-five  of  tea,  fifty  of  sugar,  and  a 
variety  of  trading-goods.  I  also  laid  in  a  supply  of  crockery  — 
a  mug,  plate,  and  bowl  apiece  —  for  myself,  Johnny,  and  Kuri'lla. 
China  ware  is  more  precious  in  this  part  of  the  world  than  silver 
plate  in  more  civilized  localities.  I  also  purchased  fifty  pounds 
of  sukaree,  and  some  large  ukali  for  use  on  the  road.  Several 
Mahlemuts  having  arrived,  I  engaged  them  to  accompany  me  to 
Unalaklik.  I  proposed  to  take  the  old  bidarra  in  which  we  had 
descended  the  Yukon  from  Nulato.  I  had  engaged  to  have  a 
small  bidarra  made  at  Pastolik  and  forwarded  to  me  for  use  the 
coming  spring ;  but  it  had  not  yet  arrived.  The  old  one  was 
very  large,  and  the  lashings  and  covering  very  rotten.  I  hardly 
dared  risk  my  invaluable  trading-goods ;  but,  taking  counsel  with 
some  of  the  Innuit,  we  concluded  that  we  could  probably  reach 
Unalaklik  in  safety  with  it. 

My  crew  was  composed  of  Johnny,  a  Mahlemut  called  Myunuk, 
an  old  man  whom  I  called  New- Years,  and  a  young  Kaviagemut. 
The  latter  had  an  extremely  stupid  appearance,  but  was  an  excel- 
lent hunter. 

On  the  23d  of  September  I  put  my  goods  on  board,  took  a 
mail  for  the  Russians  at  Unalaklik,  and  put  to  sea.  The  wind 
was  hardly  fair,  and  rather  light,  and  I  was  obliged  to  beat  across 
the  southeast  arm  of  the  Sound,  and*fut  into  the  Major's  Cove. 
I  had  hoped  to  reach  Kegiktowruk,  but  the  wind  was  adverse, 
and  so  high  I  could  not  risk  it.  Having  pitched  our  tent  under 
the  shelter  of  the  hill,  I  sent  Johnny  off  to  shoot  ptarmigan,  and 
rigged  some  fishing-poles,  in  hopes  to  catch  some  small  fish,  of  a 
species  known  here  as  waikh-ne,  a  kind  of  tom-cod.  Our  success 
was  not  very  great,  but  we  got  a  mess  for  supper,  and  Johnny 
returned  with  an  arctic  hare  which  had  already  donned  its  winter 
coat  of  white. 

The  next  day  the  wind  was  still  high,  and  it  was  impossible  to 


126  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

get  away.  The  anchor  dragged  so  much  that  I  was  obliged  to 
haul  the  bidarra  up  on  the  beach.  Our  sail  had  proved  too  small, 
and  we  occupied  ourselves  in  sewing  on  a  strip  of  drill  on  each 
side.  Having  experienced  the  difficulty  of  transporting  heavy 
goods  by  sleds  to  Ulukuk,  I  hoped  to  get  them  to  that  point  by 
water ;  but  the  ice  was  already  forming  in  the  ponds  on  the  tun- 
dra, and  I  began  to  fear  that  the  Unalakli'k  River  would  be  frozen 
over  before  my  arrival.  The  next  day  the  weather  was  equally 
bad,  and  we  were  compelled  to  remain.  Game  and  fish  were 
both  very  scarce,  and  we  lived  principally  on  sukaree  and  tea,  as 
I  had  no  bacon. 

On  the  26th  the  wind  was  very  variable  and  the  waves  very 
high.  Toward  noon  it  came  from  the  westward,  and  against  the 
wishes  of  the  men  I  decided  to  start.  Just  as  we  left  the  cove 
some  tremendous  rollers  came  in,  but  we  rode  over  them  safely, 
and  New-Years  remarked,  "  The  far-off  wind  has  died  away." 
Looking  out  to  sea,  I  saw  that  the  rollers  mentioned  above  were 
the  last,  and  the  sea  was  quite  smooth. 

The  wind  grew  fresher  and  fresher,  being  nearly  a-beam.  The 
coast  between  the  cove  and  Kegiktowruk  is  rocky,  with  no  land- 
ing-places. The  wind  increased  and  rain  came  in  squalls.  The 
darkness  rapidly  closed  over  us  and  the  clouds  were  so  heavy 
that  the  land  was  indistinguishable.  For  three  hours  I  held  the 
tiller,  almost  blinded  by  the  rain,  fearing  every  moment  that  the 
wind  would  haul  ahead  and  drive  us  on  the  lee  shore ;  my  only 
guide  in  steering  was  the  white  line  of  breakers  on  the  rock-bound 
coast.  We  passed  a  rocky  point,  known  as  Pallonoi  or  Burning 
Point,  in  safety,  and  about  half  past  eight  the  moon  suddenly 
broke  through  the  clouds,  revealing  the  three  rounded  hills  which 
lie  back  of  Kegiktowruk.  We  pulled  into  the  cove,  and  I  sent  up 
to  the  village  to  obtain  help  in  hauling  up  the  heavy  boat,  but 
the  inhabitants  had  gone  to  sleep  or  refused  to  come.  We  did 
our  best  to  put  her  in  safety,  and  went  up  to  the  casine,  where  we 
boiled  the  chynik  and  turned  in. 

The  Kegiktowruk  casine  is  the  largest  in  the  country.  The  an- 
nexed section  gives  an  idea  of  its  construction.  Its  area  is  about 
twenty-five  feet  by  thirty,  and  its  height  fifteen  feet  from  floor 
to  smoke-hole.  The  entrance  is  similar  to  that  of  the  ordinary 
houses,  but  at  a  is  a  second  opening,  by  which  the  cavity  beneath 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


127 


the  floor  may  be  reached.  In  the  middle  of  the  floor  is  a  hole 
(b)  where,  during  their  dances,  the  performers  come  up  from 
below,  not  entering  by  the  ordinary  door  at  i.  A  portion  of 
the  floor  about  twelve  feet  square  (ff)  is  composed  of  planks, 
which  may  be  removed  when  it  is  desired  to  build  a  fire  on  the 
earth  beneath.  Broad  planks  about  three  feet  and  a  half  above 
the  floor  form  seats  (s)  where  the  spectators  may  place  them- 
selves. The  opening  (l)  in  the  roof  is  for  the  admission  of  light 
and  egress  of  smoke.  There  are  no  other  windows.  The  en- 
trance (i)  is  usually  closed  by  a  hanging  bearskin.  The  sides 
are  of  logs  split  in  two  and  placed  on  end  in  the  earth  with  the 
flat  side  inward.  The  roof  is  supported  by  large  logs  laid  across 
so  as  to  support  each  other.  These  are  covered  by  a  layer  of 
small  timbers,  split,  or  hewn  flat  on  one  side ;  and  the  latter  are 


Diagram  of  Iiinuit  casine. 

kept  in  place  by  large  timbers  laid  over  them  outside  and  at- 
tached by  a  saddle-joint  at  the  four  corners  of  the  roof.  The 
latter  is  covered  with  straw,  and  the  straw  with  earth,  pounded 
down  hard,  so  as  to  be  waterproof  There  is  not  a  nail  or  a  pin 
in  the  whole  structure,  which  is  of  the  most  solid  description. 
Some  of  the  logs  are  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  broad  seats  on 
each  side,  previously  referred  to,  are  each  composed  of  a  single 
plank  forty-four  inches  wide,  thirty  feet  long,  and  four  inches 
thick.  These  enormous  planks  are  from  drift-logs,  and  were 
hewn  with  the  stone  axes  of  the  natives. 

I  was  informed  that,  the  old  casine  being  decayed,  all  the 
Innuit  of  Norton  Sound  had  joined  in  building  the  present  one. 
Many  logs  were  towed  from  distant  parts  of  the  coast.  The 
whole  work  had  occupied  six  seasons  in  construction,  and  had 
been  standing  about  seven  years. 


125  THE    YL'KOX    TERRITORY. 

The  annexed  sketch  of  the  village  was  taken  on  the  spot.  On 
the  right  is  the  casine.  There  are  several  ordinary  winter  houses, 
which  are  on  the  brow  of  a  high  bank.  Caches  are  scattered 
about,  and  stages,  on  which  the  kyaks  are  elevated  out  of  reach 
of  the  dogs.  In  the  engraving,  the  kyaks  are  represented  too 
much  curved  upwards,  fore  and  aft.  They  are  nearly  straight, 
except  at  the  bow. 

At  the  left  of  the  houses  is  a  mass  of  perpendicular  timbers, 
projecting  from  the  ground.  This  was  the  dwelling  of  an  old 
couple,  who  died  in  the  summer  while  the  other  inhabitants  were 
away.  Returning  from  the  chase,  rather  than  touch  the  bodies, 
they  broke  down  the  house  over  them,  and  filled  it  in  with  earth; 
a  few  projecting  uprights  are  their  only  monument. 

There  is  no  beach,  the  cove  is  shallow  and  full  of  rocks,  and 
the  skin-boats  must  be  hauled  up  on  ways  built  for  the  purpose, 
of  logs.  The  village  is  a  very  dirty  one.  Travellers  are  usually 
detained  there  by  adverse  winds.  The  inhabitants  have  no 
reputation  for  honesty,  and  it  is  in  every  respect  the  meanest 
place  on  the  Sound.  The  principal  support  of  the  inhabitants 
is  the  seal-fishery,  but  in  the  fall  reindeer  abound  in  the 
vicinity.  Our  young  Kaviak  started  in  search  of  deer,  as  the 
weather  would  not  permit  of  our  continuing  the  voyage.  We 
started  with  a  fair  breeze  about  noon,  but  just  as  we  had  got 
well  out  of  the  cove  the  wind  shifted  dead  ahead,  and  we  had 
to  put  back. 

The  boat  made  so  much  water  that  I  suspected  a  hole,  and  un- 
loaded her.  The  Kaviak  and  New-Years  were  away,  and  My- 
unuk  was  sick  ;  so  I  had  an  hour's  hard  work  unloading  her  alone. 
I  called  some  of  the  natives  who  were  looking  on  to  help  turn 
her  over.  As  soon  as  we  raised  one  side  the  whole  frame  gave 
way,  and  the  sides  of  the  boat  shut  together  like  the  leaves  of  a 
book  !  The  sealskin  lashings  were  quite  rotted  awa)',  and  only 
the  weight  of  the  goods  had  kept  her  in  shape.  Here  was  a 
quandary  I  There  was  only  one  bidarra  in  the  village,  and  she 
was  very  small  and  narrow.  She  belonged  to  an  old  man,  who 
saw  his  advantage  and  used  it.  After  long  persuasion  I  induced 
him  to  lend  her  to  me  to  take  my  goods  to  Unalaklik.  He 
required  for  her  hire  an  enormous  price,  more  than  the  boat  had 
cost  him  originally.     He  demanded  his  pay  in  advance,  and  his 


m 


li     1   ,1 Tl^\\  ''ib;I  I  !'  'I  II 'INI I" 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  I  29 

wife  stood  by  him  while  I  measured  out  the  drill,  powder,  ball, 
and  tobacco,  and,  as  I  gave  him  the  required  quantity  of  each, 
would  exclaim,  "  It  is  too  little,  we  must  have  more  ! "  I  was 
very  much  provoked,  but  there  was  no  way  in  which  I  could  help 
myself,  and  I  was  obliged  to  satisfy  her  avarice,  and  make  her  a 
present  besides,  while  wishing  her  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  I 
then  loaded  the  boat,  but  she  was  so  dry  that  the  water  came  in 
at  all  the  seams,  and  I  was  obliged  to  unload  her  again.  It  was 
evident  that  I  must  leave  a  large  part  of  my  load  at  the  village, 
and  send  back  for  it.  I  was  very  loath  to  do  this,  as  the  Kegik- 
towruk  men  are  notorious  thieves ;  but  there  was  no  help  for  it. 
Having  picked  out  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  cargo,  including 
the  flour,  sugar,  tea,  lead,  and  powder,  I  placed  the  rest  in  charge 
of  the  old  man  to  whom  the  boat  belonged.  I  then  loaded  up  for 
the  third  time,  after  greasing  the  seams  with  tallow.  This  day's 
experience  will  give  a  faint  idea  of  the  annoyances  sometimes 
endured,  and  the  patience  required,  in  travelling  among  these 
natives. 

That  afternoon  an  old  acquaintance  arrived,  —  a  Mahlemut 
called  Ark-hannok,  and  his  family.  His  bidarra  was  so  full  that 
he  could  not  take  any  goods  for  me,  but  he  promised  to  send  back 
his  men  and  boat  from  Unalakli'k,  to  fetch  the  goods  I  left  behind. 
In  the  evening  the  absent  Kaviak  returned  with  two  haunches  of 
venison  on  his  back,  having  killed  a  deer.  We  had  a  good  supper 
off  them,  and  retired  early.  The  next  morning  I  rose  at  four 
o'clock  and  found  the  wind  fair.  We  boiled  the  chynik  and 
took  a  hasty  breakfast,  getting  off  about  six.  Our  boat  was  very 
low,  her  gunwale  amidships  being  only  four  inches  above  the 
water.  She  was  so  narrow  and  crank  that  we  were  obliged  to 
lash  a  kyak  alongside  with  two  oars,  as  an  outrigger.  Even  then 
the  Innuit  were  unwilling  to  sail  from  point  to  point,  but  insisted 
on  hugging  the  shore. 

The  wind  was  light,  and  we  only  reached  Golsova  River  by 
noon.  We  rounded  Tolstoi  Point  with  a  fair  breeze.  At  To- 
panika  we  landed,  and  found  a  Mahlemut  chief,  called  Ark-na-py- 
ak,  camped  with  his  family.  Here  we  drank  tea,  and  took  on 
board  a  lad  about  twelve  years  old,  whom  we  had  named  Tommy 
the  previous  year.  He  wished  to  go  to  Unalakli'k,  and  to  obhge 
the  natives  I  offered  him  a  passage.  We  started  about  three 
9 


130  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

o'clock,  with  a  strong  breeze  from  the  southwest,  wind  coming  in 
puffs  with  intervals.  The  water  was  perfectly  smooth,  and  we 
sailed  finely  for  some  time.  The  wind  grew  stronger  rapidly,  and 
soon  raised  a  sea  which  made  me  anxious.  The  tide  was  high, 
and  the  perpendicular  sandstone  bluffs  rose  direct  from  the 
water,  the  narrow  beach  being  covered.  There  was  no  oppor- 
tunity for  landing  until  the  bluffs  were  passed.  The  waves  began 
to  don  their  white  caps,  and  occasionally  tossed  a  handful  of  spray 
in  our  faces,  as  a  foretaste  of  what  was  coming.  I  resigned  the 
steering-paddle  into  the  more  experienced  hands  of  old  New- 
Years,  and  stood  by  him  with  another,  in  case  that  should  break. 
I  distributed  tin  cups  to  all  hands,  as  I  knew  we  should  have  to 
use  them  very  soon  in  bailing. 

The  end  of  the  bluffs  was  passed,  but  to  my  dismay  I  saw  the 
long  low  beach  piled  with  driftwood,  forming  an  impenetrable 
chevaiix-de-frise  at  high-water  mark.  Against  it  the  waves  were 
dashing.  There  was  no  choice  but  to  go  on.  It  was  rapidly 
growing  dark,  but  the  mouth  of  the  river  was  discernible.  We 
managed,  by  constant  bailing,  to  keep  her  free,  though  every  tenth 
wave  would  throw  in  a  dozen  bucketfuls.  The  worst  was  yet  to 
come.  I  knew  that  the  sea  would  be  breaking  on  the  bar  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Unalakli'k  River,  where  there  is  seldom  over  five 
feet  of  water.  The  only  question  was,  could  we  pass  through  that 
hne  of  breakers  in  safety .''  I  hardly  dared  to  hope  we  could. 
We  already  heard  them  roaring  on  the  bar,  and  could  see  their 
white  caps  dimly.  We  were  all  so  thoroughly  drenched  that  we 
could  be  no  wetter.  The  old  Mahlemut  never  flinched.  With 
his  eye  on  the  breakers,  as  we  drew  nearer  and  nearer,  he  sat 
silent  and  rigid  as  a  carved  image.  The  younger  men  crouched 
in  the  bottom  of  the  boat.  The  little  Eskimo  lad  looked  fright- 
ened, but  did  not  stop  bailing  for  a  moment.  I  threw  off  my 
hunting-shirt,  and  made  ready  for  swimming.  As  we  were  just 
upon  the  breakers  I  glanced  at  the  steersman.  He  moved  not  a 
muscle  of  his  weather-beaten  face.  The  next  moment  a  crash 
announced  that  our  outriggers  were  broken.  I  threw  myself 
upon  the  kyak  and,  with  the  young  Kaviak,  held  it  for  a  moment 
in  place.  The  crest  of  the  advancing  roller  struck  us  on  the 
stern,  deluging  us  with  water,  and  before  I  had  time  to  realize  it 
another  followed  it,  almost  burying  us  ;  and  for  a  second  I  thought 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  I3I 

we  were  going  down.  She  rose  again,  however,  more  than  half 
filled  ;  and  shaking  the  water  out  of  his  scanty  hair,  the  old  man 
said  calmly,  "  Here  is  the  river,  there  is  the  fort."  We  were  in 
smooth  water.     The  last  breaker  had  carried  us  over  the  bar. 

All  hands  bailed  for  dear  life,  and  as  soon  as  we  had  freed  the 
boat  from  a  dangerous  amount  of  water  we  pulled  for  the  shore. 
Here  we  found  ice,  and  were  obliged  to  pull  half  a  mile  to  find 
a  landing-place.  The  Innuit  shouted  at  the  top  of  their  lungs, 
and  we  were  soon  answered.  Eskimo  of  all  ages  and  both 
sexes  came  out  from  their  dens,  helped  to  haul  up  the  boat,  and 
unloaded  her  above  high-water  mark.  I  expected  to  find  the 
flour  and  sugar,  which  were  in  bags,  entirely  spoiled.  Popoft^,  the 
Unalakli'k  bidarshik,  finally  awoke,  and  opened  the  gates.  With 
the  help  of  the  natives,  I  carried  the  goods  into  the  storehouse, 
dismissed  the  men,  who  took  refuge  with  their  friends  in  the 
village,  and,  quite  exhausted,  followed  Popofif  into  the  casarmer. 
Here  I  stripped  off"  my  clothes.  I  had  literally  not  a  dry  stitch 
on  me,  and  there  was  about  a  gallon  of  salt  water  in  each  boot. 
Popofif  kindly  supplied  me  with  dry  clothing,  and  we  sat  down 
around  the  hospitable  samovar.  I  dare  not  say  how  many  cups  of 
fragrant  tea  I  disposed  of.  I  know  the  last  was  well  among  the 
"  teens."  The  bed  was  only  a  plank  and  a  blanket,  but,  with  a 
tobacco-box  under  my  head,  I  lost  myself  in  a  well-earned  slumber. 

The  next  day,  thanks  to  the  tea,  I  arose  as  fresh  as  ever,  though 
not  until  nearly  noon.  My  first  act  was  to  overhaul  the  goods. 
The  tea  I  had  taken  the  precaution  to  solder  up  in  an  empty  tin 
before  leaving  the  Redoubt.  The  powder  was  in  tight  cans. 
The  lead  of  course  was  not  injured  by  wetting.  The  flour,  to  my 
surprise,  was  but  slightly  wet.  Water  does  not  easily  penetrate 
flour  in  the  bags.  Our  clothes,  except  what  were  in  tight  seal- 
skin bags,  and  our  blankets,  were  soaked.  The  sugar  had  sufifered 
most.  About  half  of  it  was  well  salted.  This  was  a  serious  loss, 
but  might  be  partly  made  good.  Altogether  we  got  ofif  much 
better  than   I  had  dared  to  anticipate. 

Popoff",  another  Russian  named  Ostrofskoi,  two  native  work- 
men, and  a  Creole  woman  comprised  the  entire  garrison  at  the 
fort.  Popoff  was  a  much  pleasanter  fellow  than  most  of  the 
Russians,  and  I  got  along  with  him  very  well.  The  village  con- 
tained very  few  natives,  most  of  them  being  still  absent  hunting 


132  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

deer.  The  next  day  I  secured  Ark-hannok"s  bidarra,  and  de- 
spatched it  with  a  crew  of  five  to  fetch  the  remaining  goods  from 
Kegiktowruk,  On  the  night  of  October  ist  they  returned,  to 
my  surprise,  with  their  load.  The  rascals  at  Kegiktowruk  had 
stolen  some  thirty  pounds  of  backfat  and  a  hatchet.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  goods  were  safe. 

The  weather  continued  warm  and  rainy.  A  few  days  cleared 
the  ice  completely  out  of  the  river.  I  therefore  made  immediate 
arrangements  for  taking  the  heavy  goods  by  water  to  Uliikuk,  thus 
saving  time,  and  transportation  over  a  very  bad  portage  in  winter. 

On  the  3d  of  October  I  took  three  men  and  the  Kegiktowruk 
bidarra,  and  started  up  the  Unalakli'k  River.  We  found  the  cur- 
rent very  strong  and  the  water  low.  We  drew,  loaded,  a  foot  and 
a   half,    finding    occasional    difficulty   in    crossing   the    sandbars. 


Ingalik  grave. 


Ulukuk,  in  a  straight  line,  is  only  thirty-three  miles  from  Unala- 
kli'k. By  the  river,  w^hich  is  more  winding  than  the  ancient 
Meander,  it  is  at  least  double  the  distance,  and  probably  more. 
On  the  morning  of  the  4th  we  reached  Ikti'galik.  Here  we 
found  many  of  the  Ingaliks.  They  wanted  to  go  up  in  my  boat 
to  Ulukuk,  and  attempted  to  detain  me  by  all  sorts  of  contradic- 
tory stories  about  the  river.  I  had  had  some  experience  in  estimat- 
ing the  value  of  such  talk,  and  pushed  on.  Every  night  new  ice 
formed  in  the  river,  and  I  used  all  my  energy  in  travelling,  in 
order  that  we  might  not  be  caught  and  frozen  in.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  the  6th  we  arrived  at  Ulukuk.  As  we  drew  near  we  heard 
a  low  wailing  chant,  and  Mikala,  one  of  my  men,  informed  me 
that  it  was  women  lamenting  for  the  dead.  On  landing  I  saw 
several  Indians  hewing  out  the  box  in  which  the  dead  are  placed. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  1 33 

On  inquiry  I  found  that  our  old  acquaintance  of  the  previous 
year,  "  Kaltag  Stareek,"  had  gone  to  his  long  home.  He  had  been 
for  many  years  the  "  oldest  inhabitant,"  and  was  much  respected 
by  the  Russian.s.  The  body  lay  on  its  side  in  a  deerskin.  The 
heels  were  lashed  to  the  small  of  the  back,  and  the  head  bent  for- 
ward on  the  chest,  so  that  his  coffin  needed  to  be  only  about  four 
feet  long. 

We  lost  no  time  in  putting  the  goods  into  an  empty  cache, 
covering  them  with  walrus  hide,  and  nailing  up  the  door.  During 
a  long  experience  I  have  never  known  of  goods  being  meddled 
with  or  broken  open  if  properly  secured,  no  matter  how  lonely  the 
situation  of  the  cache,  or  how  long  it  remained  unvisited.  "  A 
cache  is  sacred  "  is  one  of  the  axioms  of  the  wilderness.  This 
goes  far  to  prove  that  the  average  of  honesty  among  these  In- 
dians is  higher  than  that  which  obtains  among  white  men.  The 
Innuit,  as  at  Kegiktowruk,  are  occasionally  less  trustworthy. 

The  Ingaliks  had  just  returned  from  a  bear  hunt.  Bears  are 
not  uncommon  in  this  part  of  the  territory.  There  are  three 
species :  The  large  brown  bear  of  the  mountains,  known  as  the 
"grizzly"  among  the  Hudson  Bay  voyageurs  ;  the  barren-ground 
bear  {Ursus  Richardsonii  of  Mayne  Reid),  which  is  confined  in  Rus- 
sian America  to  the  extreme  northeast ;  and  the  black  bear,  which 
frequents  the  vicinity  of  the  Yukon,  in  the  wooded  district  only. 
The  polar  or  white  bear  is  found  only  in  the  vicinity  of  Bering 
Strait,  on  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  on  St.  Matthew's 
Island  in  Bering  Sea.  It  has  probably  reached  the  latter  locality 
on  floating  ice ;  we  only  know  of  its  existence  there  from  whalers, 
who  apply  the  name  of  Bear  Island  to  the  locality,  from  the  abun- 
dance of  these  animals.  We  know  that  it  is  not  found  on  the 
mainland  south  of  latitude  65°.  The  cubs  of  the  black  bear  are  of 
the  same  color  as  the  parent,  and  the  adult  is  very  much  smaller 
than  its  brown  cousin,  which  sometimes  reaches  a  length  of  nine 
feet,  with  a  girth  nearly  as  great.  The  brown  bear,  or  grizzly,  is 
the  only  one  which  manifests  any  ferocity,  and  it  always  avoids 
any  contest  unless  brought  to  bay. 

The  manner  of  hunting  it  is  as  follows.  After  discovering  its 
lair  the  natives  carefully  measure  the  opening.  Timbers  of  the 
requisite  length,  and  from  four  to  six  inches  in  diameter,  are  care- 
fully cut,  and  carried  to  the  vicinity.     During  the  day,  when  the 


134  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

bear  is  !<  3  have  returned  to  the  cave,  the  Indians  collect 

in  large  nuniucis,  and  approach  with  the  utmost  quietness,  each 
carrying  a  timber  or  a  large  stone.  The  timbers  are  then  fitted 
into  the  mouth  of  the  den,  forming  a  barricade,  and  stones  in 
large  numbers  are  piled  up  against  them,  only  leaving  an  open- 
ing about  a  foot  square.  Burning  brands  are  then  thrown  in  to 
arouse  the  animal,  who  puts  his  head  out  of  the  opening,  which  is 
too  small  for  egress.  A  volley  of  balls  soon  puts  an  end  to  his 
existence.  After  satisfying  themselves  of  his  death,  the  hunters 
remove  the  barricade,  and  divide  the  body  among  themselves. 
The  skin  is  valuable  only  as  a  rug  or  bed,  or  to  hang  in  the 
doorway  of  a  lodge  to  exclude  the  cold. 

The  Indians  were  anxious  that  I  should  pass  the  night  at 
Ulukuk ;  but,  fearful  of  being  frozen  in,  I  decided  to  return  with- 
out delay.  Coming  up,  while  examining  the  rocks  I  discovered 
a  fossil  elephant  tusk  about  eight  feet  long  on  one  of  the  bars 
in  the  river.  I  put  it  up  on  end  in  order  to  see  it  and  take  it 
with  me  on  my  return.  A  snow-storm  came  on,  which  obscured 
everything,  so  that  we  passed  down  without  seeing  it,  and 
arrived  at  Ikti'galik  about  seven  in  the  evening.  The  next  morn- 
ing we  left  Ikti'galik  about  nine  o'clock,  and  half-way  down  came 
upon  the  three-holed  bidarka  which  Kurilla  and  his  companions 
had  left  on  the  shore  when  they  struck  across  the  summer  port- 
age. I  thought  it  might  prove  useful,  and  took  it  aboard. 
About  two  o'clock  we  arrived  at  Unalaklik,  just  in  time  to  enjoy 
a  steam  bath.  While  I  had  been  absent  some  Eskimo  from  Kot- 
zebue  Sound  had  arrived,  bringing  alcohol,  purchased  from  the 
traders. 

The  whole  village  was  in  a  turmoil,  and  the  Russians  at  the 
fort  in  no  little  alarm,  anticipating  an  attack.  Some  natives 
having  reported  a  remarkable  and  unknown  object  as  cast  upon 
the  beach,  Popofif  and  myself  walked  four  or  five  miles  to  examine 
it.  It  proved  to  be  the  carcass  of  a  walrus  deprived  of  its  head. 
These  animals,  as  well  as  whales,  are  unknown  in  Norton  Sound, 
and  this  carcass  had  probably  been  driven  by  the  wind  and  sea 
from  the  north. 

On  the  9th  of  October  I  had  the  bidarka  repaired  and  well 
oiled.  The  next  day,  with  Tommy,  Johnny  and  a  Kaviak,  I 
started  for  Topanika,  to  examine  the  geological  character  of  the 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


135 


shore.  At  night  we  arrived  at  a  creek  where  an  old  Mahlemut 
chief,  Allu-iokan,  and  his  people  were  camped.  Here  I  purchased 
some  deer  meat  and  a  large  number  of  tongues. 

The  next  morning  the  Innuit  left  us  for  Unalakli'k.  Johnny 
and  Tommy  started  into  the  interior  in  search  of  deer.  Taking 
my  haversack,  I  proceeded  to  Tolstoi  Point,  examining  the  rocks, 
and  taking  notes  of  the  character,  thickness,  and  dip  of  the 
strata.  I  found  no  fossils  except  indistinct  vegetable  remains. 
Climbing  the  bluff,  I  followed  the  edge  of  a  deep  ravine  inland 
for  half  a  mile.  Feeling  thirsty,  I  managed  to  swing  myself  down 
the  precipitous  sides,  by  the  birches  which  grew  sparingly  in 
rifts  of  the  rock.  Here  I  found  a  stream  of  pure  cold  water,  and, 
bending  down  to  drink,  some  fine  fossils  attracted  my  attention. 
Securing  a  bundle  of  about  fifty  pounds'  weight,  I  had  a  piece  of 
hard  work  packing  them  on  my  back  out  of  the  ravine.  I  was 
obliged  to  walk  in  the  bed  of  the  stream,  as  the  sides  were 
too  abrupt  to  ascend  with  my  load.  I  finally  arrived  at  camp, 
after  dark,  and  pretty  tired.  No  one  was  there,  and  I  built 
a  large  fire,  fearing  that  Johnny  might  be  unable  to  return 
in  the  obscurity  over  the  rough  and  broken  hills.  The  boys 
arrived  at  last,  having  killed  two  deer,  bringing,  however,  only 
the  tongues  and  kidneys.  I  rated  them  well  for  the  folly  of  de- 
stroying game  which  they  could  not  use  or  bring  home.  Econ- 
omy in  such  matters  is  incomprehensible  to  the  native  mind. 
They  are  always  ready  to  destroy  life  even  if  they  cannot  avail 
themselves  of  the  remains. 

The  next  day,  having  completed  my  observations,  I  availed 
myself  of  an  invitation  to  take  passage  for  Unalakli'k  in  a 
passing  Mahlemut  bidarra.  I  occupied  myself  for  several  days 
in  purchasing  articles  which  I  had  found  from  experience  were 
necessary  or  useful  in  the  interior.  These  were  principally 
Eskimo  winter  boots,  of  deerskin  with  sealskin  soles  ;  deerskin 
mittens,  parkies,  and  breeches,  some  destined  for  the  ethnological 
collection,  and  others  for  use  ;  boot-soles,  to  replace  old  ones 
when  worn  out  ;  deer  sinew,  for  sewing  skin  clothing  ;  fine  seal- 
skin line,  for  lashing  sleds,  bidarra-frames,  dog-harness,  and  boot- 
strings  ;  mahout,  or  walrus  hide  cut  in  long  strips,  for  tracking- 
line  ;  prepared  sealskin,  for  mending  boats ;  oil,  for  lamps  in 
winter ;  ukali,  by  the  thousand,  for  dog  and  man  feed  ;  the  white 


136  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

bellies  of  the  deer,  with  dried  fish  skins  and  wolverine  skins,  fir 
trimming  skin  clothes  ;  and  the  backfat  of  the  reindeer,  to  supply 
the  total  absence  of  pork,  bacon,  and  butter. 

The  reindeer,  in  summer,  is  furnished  with  a  broad  layer  of 
fat,  between  the  muscle  and  the  skin,  along  the  back  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  haunch.  This  layer  comes  off  in  a  single  piece 
fifteen  inches  broad  and  from  half  an  inch  to  four  inches  thick. 
This  is  called  the  "backfat."  Other  fat  in  smaller  quantity  is 
procured  from  the  vicinity  of  the  kidneys,  the  omentum,  and  the 
intestines.  A  little  is  also  procured  with  the  marrow,  by  pound- 
ing and  boiling  the  bones.  All  this  in  its  dried  state  is  liable  to 
spoil.  Anticipating  this,  I  had  all  my  fat  cut,  pounded  up,  and 
tried  out.  When  thoroughly  extracted,  I  poured  the  pure  fat  into 
empty  tin  cans,  thus  preserving  it  from  injury  and  rendering  it 
compact  for  transportation.  The  Hudson  Bay  pemmican  is  made 
by  pounding  dry  meat  between  stones,  until  all  the  meat  is  re- 
duced to  powder.  The  sinews  and  gristle  are  picked  out,  and  the 
rest  is  mixed  with  boiling  fat  and  poured  into  a  rawhide  bag, 
where  it  becomes  perfectly  solid.  Pemmican  is  unknown  to  the 
Russians,  whose  chief  dependence  is  fish.  Indeed,  I  do  not  know 
of  any  part  of  Russian  America  where  meat  and  fat  abound  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  be  much  used  in  this  way.  Pemmican  is 
tasteless,  unappetizing  food,  but  contains  much  nourishment  in  a 
very  compact  form. 

I  have  hitherto  deferred  any  minute  account  of  the  Innuit  of 
Norton  Sound,  preferring  to  give  my  own  impression  of  them 
unaffected  by  that  of  other  observers.  During  the  time  spent  at 
Unalakli'k  I  became  moderately  proficient  in  their  language,  and 
studied  their  mode  of  life  with  great  care. 

The  Innuit,  as  they  call  themselves,  belong  to  the  same  family 
as  the  Northern  and  Western  Eskimo.  I  have  frequently  used 
the  term  Eskimo  in  referring  to  them,  but  they  are  in  many 
respects  very  different  people  from  the  typical  tribes  called  by 
that  name  in  the  works  of  Parry,  Ross,  Simpson,  Kane,  and 
other  arctic  explorers.  Comparative  vocabularies  and  an  analy- 
sis of  the  different  branches  of  the  family  will  be  found  elsewhere 
in  this  volume.  The  present  remarks  refer  more  particularly  to 
their  mode  of  life. 

It  should  be  thoroughly  and  definitely  understood,  in  the  first 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY, 


2>7 


place,  that  they  are  not  Indians  ;  nor  have  they  any  known  rela- 
tion, physically,  philologically,  or  otherwise,  to  the  Indian  tribes 
of  North  America.  Their  grammar,  appearance,  habits,  and  even 
their  anatomy,  especially  in  the  form  of  the  skull,  separate  them 
widely  from  the  Indian  race.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  almost 
equally  questionable  whether  they  are  even  distinctly  related  to 
the  Chiikchees  and  other  probably  Mongolian  races,  of  the  east- 
ern part  of  Siberia.     This  is  discussed  elsewhere. 

The  Innuit  of  Norton  Sound  and  the  vicinity  are  of  three 
tribes,  each  of  which,  while  migrating  at  certain  seasons,  has 
its  own  peculiar  territory.  The  peninsula  between  Kotzebue  and 
Norton  Sounds  is  inhabited  by  the  Kdviaks  or  Kavidgenmt  Innuit. 
The  neck  of  this  peninsula  is  occupied  by  the  Mdhleinut  Innuit. 
The  shore  of  Norton  Sound  south  of  Cape  Denbigh  to  Pastolik 
is  the  country  of  the  Unaleets  or  Unaligimit  Innuit.  The  habits 
of  these  tribes  are  essentially  similar.  They  are  in  every  respect 
superior  to  any  tribe  of  Indians  with  which  I  am  acquainted. 

Their  complexion  I  have  described  as  brunette.  The  effect  of 
the  sun  and  wind,  especially  in  summer,  is  to  darken  their  hue, 
and  from  observing  those  who  lived  in  the  fort,  I  am  inclined  to 
think  that  a  regular  course  of  bathing  would  do  much  toward 
whitening  them.  They  are  sometimes  very  tall ;  I  have  often 
seen  both  men  and  women  nearly  six  feet  in  height,  and  have 
known  several  instances  where  men  were  taller.  Their  aver- 
age height  equals  that  of  most  civilized  races.  Their  strength 
is  often  very  great.  I  have  seen  a  Mahlemut  take  a  hundred- 
pound  sack  of  flour  under  each  arm,  and  another  in  his  teeth, 
and  walk  with  them  from  the  storehouse  to  the  boat,  a  distance 
of  some  twenty  rods,  without  inconvenience.  They  are  fond  of 
exercise,  and  practise  many  athletic  games,  such  as  football  or 
a  similar  game,  tossing  in  a  blanket  or  rather  walrus  hide,  run- 
ning races,  hurling  stones  or  lances,  lifting  weights,  and  wrestling. 
Their  boats  —  the  kyak  or  bidarka,  and  oomiak  or  bidarra  —  have 
been  already  described.  It  may  be  mentioned  in  this  connection 
that  the  oomiak  is  not  considered  among  the  Norton  Sound  Innuit 
as  a  "  women's  boat,"  nor  is  there  ever  any  hesitation  about  men's 
using  them.  In  this  they  differ  from  the  Eskimo  as  described  by 
arctic  explorers.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  more  northern  the  canoe, 
the  smaller  it  is  made.     The  kyak  of  Nunivak  Island  is  double  the 


138  THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 

size  of  those  used  in  Bering  Strait.  The  kyaks  are  often  orna- 
mented with  beluga  teeth,  or  carved  pieces  of  walrus  ivory, 
imitations  of  birds,  walrus,  or  seal.  The  prow  is  also  fashioned 
into  the  semblance  of  a  bird's  or  fish's  head.  Securely  seated  in 
his  kyak,  with  a  gut  shirt  strongly  tied  around  the  edge  of  the  hole, 
the  Innuit  is  at  home.  He  will  even  turn  over  his  kyak  and  come 
up  on  the  other  side,  by  skilful  use  of  his  paddle. 

Aziak  or  Sledge  Island  is  an  abrupt  rock  rising  out  of  the 
water,  with  a  landing  only  at  low  tide  in  good  weather.  I  was 
informed  by  the  captain  of  a  trader,  a  trustworthy  person,  that 
he  once  approached  the  island  to  trade,  in  rough  weather,  but 
could  not  send  a  boat  ashore,  as  it  was  impossible  to  land.  He 
lay  as  close  as  he  dared  under  the  lee  of  the  island.  Here  they 
saw  the  Innuit  tying  several  men  securely  into  their  kyaks,  on  the 
top  of  the  rock,  some  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  above  the  water. 
When  all  was  done  each  man  grasped  his  double-ended  paddle, 
and  two  others  took  the  kyak  by  bow  and  stern  and  tossed  it, 
with  its  occupant,  into  the  water.  For  a  moment  they  disappeared 
under  the  waves,  but  instantly  rose  and  righted  themselves  ;  in  a 
few  minutes  they  were  alongside,  and  being  taken  on  board,  pro- 
duced furs  and  ivory  from  their  kyaks,  with  which  they  proceeded 
to  trade  for  tobacco  and  other  articles.  When  the  tide  and  wind 
fell  they  returned  to  the  island.  This  is  an  excellent  illustration 
of  the  wonderful  skill  with  which  they  learn  to  manage  these  little 
canoes.  In  his  kyak  the  Innuit  does  not  hesitate  to  attack  the 
seal,  walrus,  or  whale.  Those  of  Norton  Sound  have  onl)'  the 
seal  and  beluga,  but  those  of  Bering  Strait  have  abundant  oppor- 
tunities for  hunting  the  bowhead  and  walrus. 

They  are  good-humored  and  careless,  slow  to  anger,  and  usually 
ready  to  forgive  and  forget.  They  are  sometimes  revengeful ;  and 
murders,  generally  the  result  of  jealousy,  are  not  very  rare.  The 
women  are  modest,  but  a  want  of  chastity  in  an  unmarried  female 
is  hardly  looked  upon  as  a  fault.  Taking  this  fact  into  consider- 
ation, they  are  rather  free  from  immorality.  Among  the  Mahle- 
muts,  cousins,  however  remote,  do  not  marry,  and  one  wife  is  the 
rule.  Among  the  Kaviaks,  incest  is  not  uncommon,  and  two  or 
three  wives,  often  sisters,  are  taken  by  those  who  can  afford  to 
support  them.  These  people  have  become  demoralized  by  trad- 
ing liquor  for  their  furs,  and  wide-spread  immorality  is  the  result. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


139 


The  same  is  also  true  of  the  Kotzebue  Sound  Mahlemuts.  What 
we  should  call  immodesty  is  often  undeserving  of  such  a  term. 
Where  a  practice  is  universal  there  is  nothing  immodest  in  it,  and 
it  may  be  quite  consistent  with  morality.  For  instance,  the  Aleu- 
tians, men  and  women,  for  ages  have  been  accustomed  to  bathe 
together  in  the  sea.  They  do  not  think  of  there  being  any  im- 
modesty in  it,  yet  any  immorality  is  exceedingly  rare  among 
them.      Hence  we  should  not  judge  these  people  too  harshly. 

There  is  no  ceremony  connected  with  marriage  among  the 
Innuit,  though  presents  are  often  made  to  the  bride's  parents. 
Intermarriage  between  natives  of  different  tribes  is  frequent.  If 
ill-behaved  or  barren,  the  wife  is  frequently  sent  away,  and  another 
takes  her  place.  Children  are  greatly  prized,  if  boys.  Girls  are 
at  a  discount.  Infanticide  is  common  among  them,  both  before 
and  after  birth.  As  an  excuse,  they  say  that  they  do  not  want 
and  cannot  support  so  many  daughters.  Other  women  do  not 
like  the  trouble  and  care  of  children,  and  destroy  them  for  that 
reason.  The  usual  method  is  to  take  the  child  out,  stuff  its  mouth 
with  grass,  and  desert  it.  I  have  seen  several  children  who  had 
been  picked  up  in  this  condition,  and  brought  up  by  others  than 
their  parents.  The  women  alone  destroy  children,  but  the  men 
seldom  punish  them  for  it,  and  doubtless  acquiesce  in  advance  in 
most  cases.  Sometimes  we  find  females  who  refuse  to  accept 
husbands,  preferring  to  adopt  masculine  manners,  following  the 
deer  on  the  mountains,  trapping  and  fishing  for  themselves. 

The  men  treat  their  wives  and  children  well.  The  latter  are 
never  punished,  and  seldom  need  correction,  being  obedient  and 
good-humored.  The  men  have  their  own  work.  Hunting  the 
deer  and  seal,  building  and  repairing  the  winter  houses,  making 
frames  for  boats,  sleds,  and  snow-shoes,  preparing  sealskins  for  use 
on  boats  or  for  boot-soles,  trapping,  and  bringing  home  the  results 
of  the  chase,  —  in  fact,  all  severe  labor,  — is  performed  by  the 
men.  Snaring  partridges,  drying  and  preparing  fish,  cutting  up 
the  meat  when  brought  into  camp,  picking  berries,  dressing  deer- 
skins and  making  clothing,  cooking,  and  taking  care  of  the  chil- 
dren,—  these  are  solely  feminine  pursuits.  Both  sexes  join  in  pad- 
dling the  oomiaks,  celebrating  their  annual  dances,  bringing  and 
cutting  wood,  and  other  work  of  a  like  nature.  The  women  are 
seldom  beaten,  except  for  ill-temper  or  incontinency.     They  keep 


140 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


their  persons  moderately  clean,  braiding  the  hair  on  each  side, 
and  twisting  beads  or  strips  of  wolfskin  in  with  the  braids  for 
ornament.  They  are  often  of  pleasing  appearance,  sometimes 
quite  pretty.  They  preserve  their  beauty  much  longer  than  In- 
dian women.  Their  clear  complexion  and  high  color,  with  their 
good-humor,  make  them  agreeable  companions,  and  they  are  often 
very  intelligent.  A  noticeable  feature  is  their  teeth.  These  are 
always  sound  and  white,  but  are  almost  cylindrical,  and  in  old 
people  are  worn  down  even  with  the  gums,  producing  a  singu- 
lar appearance.  The  eyes  are  not  oblique,  as  in  the  ^Mongolian 
races,  but  are  small,  black,  and  almost  even  with  the  face.  The 
nose  is  flat  and  disproportionally  small.  Many  of  the  Innuit 
have  heavy  beards  and  mustaches,  while  some  pull  out  the 
former.  The  men  all  wear  the  labrets,  but 
do  not  tattoo.  The  women  generally  have 
a  few  lines  tattooed  on  the  chin,  from  the 
lower  lip  downward.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
Diomede  Islands  tattoo  extensively ;  they  also 
wear  large  labrets  made  of  hypochlorite  and 
finely  polished.  The  tattooing  is  in  spiral 
lines  and  waving  scrolls,  seldom  or  never  rep- 
resenting objects.  The  Norton  Sound  Innuit 
women  never  wear  labrets,*  but  occasionally 
pierce  the  nose  and  ears.  I  have  never  seen  any  ornament 
worn  in  the  nose,  but  ear-rings  are  not  uncommon.  The  fol- 
lowing sketch  represents  the  usual  form.  They  are  carved 
from  beluga  teeth.  Among  the  Mdgeinuts,  a  tribe  to  the 
south  of  the  Yukon-mouth,  the  women  wear  a 
peculiar  labret.  It  is  flat  and  curved,  like  a  bent 
nail,  with  a  broad  head,  which  goes  inside  the 
mouth,  and  prevents  the  labret  from  slipping 
through.  They  are  slightly  carved,  and  orna- 
mented with  dots  and  lines.  The  holes  are 
pierced  through  the  front  of  the  lower  lip  and 
close  together,  not  under  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  as  among  the 
men.  The  curved  ends  stick  out  like  little  horns. 
In  Norton  Sound  the  holes  for  the  labrets  are  not  always  pierced 

*  The  figure  represents  :  a,  the  Magemut  female  labret ;  B,  c,  the  Okeeogemut  ;  the 
rest  are  Norton  Sound  labrets  of  different  patterns. 


Ear-rings. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


141 


in  youth.  Whenever  the  act  is  performed  a  feast  is  given,  and 
the  holes  are  made  by  means  of  an  awl,  with  great  solemnity. 
This  would  indicate  that  originally  the  practice  had  some  greater 
significance  than  mere  ornament.  It  is  now  impossible  to  dis- 
cover what  that  significance  might  have  been.  At  first  a  mere 
ivory  peg  is  inserted  (f,  g)  with  a  hole  in  which  a  small  wooden 
peg  is  put  to  keep  it  in  place.  After  the  opening  has  healed, 
others  a  little  larger  are  inserted,  and  so  on,  until  the  hole 
will  admit  a  peg  of  the  full  size,  and  shaped  more  like  a  but- 
ton or  stud  (d,  e).  Ornaments  carved  from  beluga  teeth  are 
commonly  worn.  They  represent  fig- 
ures of  men,  animals,  or  fish.  These 
are  some  of  them,  representing  a  flat- 
fish, goose,  and  seal.  Walrus  teeth,  ob- 
tained by  barter,  are  also  used  in  carv- 
ing. 

The  dress  of  the  men  has  already 
been  described.  It  reaches  to  the  mid- 
dle  of  the    thigh,   and    is    cut    around 

°  Amulets. 

nearly  or   quite    straight.      The  female 

dress,  on  the  other  hand,  is  continued  in  two  rounded  flaps 
below  the  knees,  before  and  behind.  They  are  trimmed  with 
strips  of  white  deerskin  with  the  hair  cut  short,  separated  by 
narrow  strips  of  dried  fishskin  and  edged  with  strips  of  wolverine 
or  wolf  skin,  so  cut  that  the  long  hair  makes  a  fringe.  The  hood 
is  trimmed  with  a  broad  piece  of  wolfskin,  with  frequently  a 
strip  of  the  white  skin  of  the  arctic  hare  inside  for  warmth. 
The  whole  effect  is  very  pretty,  especially  when  the  parka  is 
made  of  the  tame  Siberian  reindeer  skin,  which  is  mottled  with 
white  and  delicate  shades  of  brown.  The  fishskin  referred  to, 
when  prepared  for  use,  looks  like  brown  marbled  paper.  It  has 
no  scales,  and  I  have  not  seen  the  fish  from  which  it  is  taken. 

The  women  wear  breeches  and  boots  made  in  one  piece,  while 
the  men  use  deerskin  socks,  and  boots  which  are  not  sewed  on 
to  the  breeches.  All  use  a  belt  of  some  kind.  The  favorite 
belt  among  the  women  is  made  of  the  portion  of  the  lower  jaw 
of  the  reindeer  which  contains  the  front  teeth.  This  piece  of  bone 
is  very  small,  —  I  have  counted  the  teeth  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
deer  in  one  belt, — and  these  belts  are  not  uncommon.     They 


42 


THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 


are  sewed  on  a  broad  strip  of  leather,  fastened  with  a  large 
button  or  bead  in  front.  From  the  belt  hangs  the  needle-case, 
usually  made  of  the  humerus  of  a  swan,  plugged  at  one  end  and 


Bone  needle-case. 


having  a  removable  stopper  at  the   other.     It   is  usually  orna- 
mented with  black  lines,  as  in  the  above  example. 

A  man's  wealth  is  frequently  estimated  by  parkies.  They  will 
buy,  with  their  surplus  property,  large  numbers  of  parkies.  Ten 
deerskin,  or  two  mink  parkies,  or  one  sable  parka,  are  equivalent 
to  a  gun.  Sealskins,  sables,  guns,  and  ammunition  are  also  units 
of  value.  They  can  count  up  to  a  hundred,  and  some  of  the 
more  intelligent  to  five  hundred.  They  frequently  keep  accounts 
by  tying  knots  in  a  string  or  notching  a  stick.  They  divide  the 
year  by  the  seasons,  and  time  by  limar  months,  and  days.  They 
can  also  estimate  with  much  accuracy  how  much  of  the  day  has 
passed,  by  the  position  of  the  sun  or  stars.  They  are  very  quick 
at  understanding,  and  can  draw  very  reliable  maps,  the  only 
difficulty  being  that  far-off  distances  are  exaggerated  when 
compared  with  those  laid  down  as  nearer  their  homes.  They 
are  all  provided  with  flint  and  steel  for  lighting  fires,  but  formerly 
used  a  different  apparatus  on  the  principle  of  a  fiddle-bow  drill. 
This  consisted  of  a  mouthpiece  of  bone  or  ivory  with  a  small  hol- 
low in  it,  a  flat  piece  of  very  dry  soft  wood,  a  pencil-shaped 
piece  of  dry  hard  wood,  and  a  bow  with  a  slackened  string.  One 
end  of  the  pencil  fitted  into  the  hollow 
in  the  mouthpiece.  The  latter  is  held 
between  the  teeth.  A  turn  of  the  bow- 
string was  taken  around  the  pencil ;  the 
tablet  of  soft  wood  was  held  in  the  left 
hand.  The  pencil  was  held  firmly  against 
the  tablet  and  the  bow  rapidly  moved 
back  and  forth  by  the  right  hand.  The 
pencil  of  course  revolved  rapidly,  the  fric- 
tion created  a  small  pile  of  dust  on  the 
tablet,  which  was  quickly  ignited  by  the  heat.  A  piece  of  tinder 
preserved  the  light,  and  the  fire  was  obtained. 


^^^ 


Innuit  fire-drill. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  1 43 

Formerly  bows,  arrows,  and  lances  were  their  weapons.  In 
Norton  Sound  they  are  now  supplanted  by  guns  obtained  from 
the  traders.  Iron  was  unknown  among  these  natives  two  genera- 
tions ago.  All  their  weapons  were  of  ivory,  bone,  and  slate, 
except  a  few  native  copper  implements  which  came  from  the 
Indians  of  the  interior.  In  early  times,  the  old  men  say,  a  knife 
or  a  string  of  beads  was  worth  fifty  marten  skins.  A  peculiar 
kind  of  knife,  shaped  like  a  chopping-knife  and  called  a  pigulka, 
is  used  in  cutting  skins.  It  is  made  of  sheet-iron  and  has  a  bone 
handle.  It  is  preferable  to  scissors  in  cutting  furs,  as  it  only  cuts 
the  skin  and  not  the  hair. 

To  this  day  the  Innuit  have  no  knowledge  of  working  iron  by 
means  of  heat,  although  with  the  aid  of  a  file  they 
will  make  quite  useful  knives,  saws,  and  other 
articles,  out  of  scraps  of  old  sheet  or  hoop  iron. 
While  the  ancient  Indians  made  their  cutting 
instruments  and  tools  of  stone  or  native  copper,  p.  ^^^^^ 

the  ancient  Innuit  substituted,  in  many  cases, 
bone  and  ivory.  Stone  arrowheads,  formerly  the  universal 
weapons  among  the  Tinneh,  are  now  rarely  to  be  found.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  ivory  weapons  of  the  Innuit  are  still  in 
use.  The  Indian  discarded  the  stone  arrowhead  entirely,  for  one 
of  iron ;  the  Innuit  retains  the  ivory  head,  merely  adding  to  it  a 
tip  of  iron.  The  Indian  leaves  the  bow  to  the  children;  the  more 
aquatic  Innuit  finds  a  gun  out  of  place  in  his  kyak,  and  still  uses 
the  weapon  of  his  ancestors  to  hunt  the  seal.  Ashore,  his  weapon 
is  usually  a  gun.  The  guns  most  common  among  them  are  very 
light  double-barrelled  Belgian  fowling-pieces,  with  an  average 
bore  of  twenty-eight  or  thirty.  These  are  obtained  from  the 
Kotzebue  Sound  and  Grantley  Harbor  traders.  South  of  Norton 
Sound  the  Innuit  are  provided  with  very  few  guns,  and  these  are 
mostly  long  Hudson  Bay  flintlocks,  obtained  by  trading  with  the 
Tinneh  tribes  of  the  interior. 

Trading  is  carried  on  to  a  large  extent  between  the  Indians 
and  Innuit.  The  former  sell  their  wooden  dishes  and  other 
household  articles,  furs,  wolf  and  wolverine  skins,  to  the  latter  for 
oil,  sealskins,  seal  and  walrus  line,  and  articles  obtained  by  the 
Innuit  from  the  traders.  The  Innuit  again  trade  beaver  skins, 
wooden  dishes,  and  other  articles  of  wood  to  the  Tuski  and  other 


144  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

tribes  of  Bering  Strait,  in  exchange  for  walrus  ivory  and  skins  of 
the  tame  Siberian  reindeer,  which  the  latter  obtain  from  the 
Chukchees.  In  this  way  a  commerce  is  constantly  carried  on 
between  the  interior  tribes  of  America  and  Siberia,  by  means  of 
the  Innuit,  who  act  as  middle-men.  The  bitter  enmity  and  con- 
stant hostility  which  are  found  between  the  northern  and  western 
Eskimo  and  the  Indians  do  not  exist  between  the  latter  and  the 
Innuit  of  the  western  and  southwestern  coast.  It  is  true  that 
both  exhibit  great  jealousy  in  regard  to  their  boundary  lines. 
These  lines  are  generally  formed  by  the  summit  of  the  watershed 
between  the  small  rivers  which  empty  into  the  sea  and  those 
which  fall  into  the  Yukon.  They  coincide  nearly  with  the  line 
of  the  wooded  district  to  which  the  Indians  are  confined.  Any 
man  of  either  race  found  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  line  is  liable  to 
be  shot  at  sight,  and  deaths  occur  every  season  from  this  cause. 
Nevertheless,  a  tacit  arrangement  exists  between  adjoining  tribes 
of  the  two  races,  so  that  an  Innuit  who  kills  a  deer  on  Indian  ter- 
ritory may  retain  the  meat,  provided  he  leaves  the  skin  at  the 
nearest  Indian  village.  The  Indians  cross  the  Ulukuk  portage 
every  winter,  and  trade  at  Unalakh'k  with  the  Innuit.  The  latter 
cross  the  Anvik  portage  at  the  same  season,  and  trade  with  the 
Yukon  Ingaliks.  Great  caution  is  used  by  both  while  in  foreign 
territory,  and  nearly  every  year  a  panic  occurs  on  the  coast  or  in 
the  interior,  from  some  rumor  that  the  hostile  race  are  preparing 
for  invasion  and  war. 

The  Indians  call  the  Innuit  and  Eskimo  Uskcnni,  or  sorcerers. 
Kagiiskecnii  is  the  Innuit  name  for  the  casines  in  which  their 
shamans  perform  their  superstitious  rites.  From  this  root  comes 
the  word  Eskimo.  The  belief  in  shamanism  is  much  the  same 
among  the  Innuit  as  that  which  is  entertained  among  the  In- 
dians, but  the  rites  of  the  Innuit  shamans  differ  in  the  manner 
of  performance  from  those  of  the  other  race,  and  very  much  from 
those  of  the  Chukchees  and  other  inland  races  of  Siberia. 

A  Mahlemut  shaman  covers  his  head  and  the  upper  part  of  his 
body  with  a  kamlayka.  He  holds  a  wand,  often  of  ivory,  in  each 
hand,  and  beats  on  the  floor  of  the  casine,  keeping  time  with  a 
monotonous  chorus.  When  the  frenzy  seizes  him  he  rolls  on  the 
floor  in  violent  convulsions.  His  body  and  face  are  concealed 
beneath  the  kamlayka,  which  rustles  violently  with  his  motions, 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  1 45 

while  all  watch  anxiously  for  any  words  which  may  escape  him 
during  the  fit.  Such  are  regarded  as  omens  of  deep  significance, 
and  the  hearers  are  implicitly  guided  by  them. 

The  totemic  system  is  not  found  among  the  Innuit.  Each  boy, 
when  arrived  at  the  age  of  puberty,  selects  an  animal,  fish,  or  bird, 
which  he  adopts  as  a  patron.  The  spirit  which  looks  after  the 
animals  of  that  species  is  supposed  to  act  henceforth  as  his  guar- 
dian. Sometimes  the  animal  is  selected  in  early  childhood  by 
the  parents.  If  he  has  long-continued  want  of  success  in  his 
pursuits,  he  will  sometimes  change  his  patron.  They  do  not  ab- 
stain from  eating  or  using  the  flesh  and  skin  of  the  animal  which 
they  have  chosen,  as  do  some  tribes  of  Indians.  They  always 
wear  a  piece  of  the  skin  or  a  bone  of  that  animal,  which  they 
regard  as  an  amulet,  and  use  every  precaution  against  its  loss, 
which  would  be  regarded  as  a  grave  calamity.  When  desiring 
assistance  or  advice  they  do  not  themselves  seek  it,  but  employ 
a  shaman  to  address  their  patron  spirit.  These  customs  do  not 
extend  to  females.  The  spirits  of  the  deer,  seal,  salmon,  and  be- 
luga, are  regarded  by  all  with  special  veneration  ;  as  to  these 
animals  they  owe  their  support.  Each  has  its  season,  and  while 
hunting,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  induce  them  to  attempt  any 
other  work,  as  they  seem  to  think  each  spirit  demands  exclusive 
attention  while  he  extends  his  favors.  The  homes  of  these  spirits 
are  supposed  to  be  in  the  north.  The  auroras  are  the  reflections 
from  the  lights  used  during  supposed  dances  of  the  spirits.  Sin- 
gularly enough,  they  call  the  constellation  of  Ursa  Major  by  the 
name  of  Okil-okpuk,  signifying  Great  Bear,  and  consider  him  to 
be  ever  on  the  watch  while  the  other  spirits  carry  on  their  festiv- 
ities. None  of  the  spirits  are  regarded  as  supreme,  nor  have  the 
Innuit  any  idea  of  a  deity,  a  state  of  future  reward  and  pun- 
ishment, or  any  system  of  morality.  Many  of  them  have  been 
christened  by  the  Russian  missionaries,  but  none  have  any  idea 
of  Christianity. 

The  dead  are  enclosed  above  ground  in  a  box,  in  the  manner 
previously  described.  The  annexed  sketch  shows  the  form  of  the 
sarcophagus,  which  in  this  case  is  ornamented  with  snow-shoes, 
a  reel  for  seal  lines,  a  fishing-rod,  and  a  wooden  dish  or  kantag. 
The  latter  is  found  with  every  grave,  and  usually  one  is  placed  in 
the  box  with  the  body.      Sometimes  a  part  of  the  property  of  the 


146 


THE    YUKOxN    TERRITORY. 


grave 


dead  person  is  placed  in  the  cofifin  or  about  it.  Occasionally  the 
whole  is  thus  disposed  of.  Generally  the  furs,  provisions,  and 
clothing  (except  such  as  has  been  worn)  are  divided  among  the 
nearer   relations  of  the   dead,    or   remain    in    possession    of  his 

family  if  he  has  one.  Such  cloth- 
ing, household  utensils,  and  weap- 
ons as  the  deceased  had  in  daily 
use  are  almost  invariably  enclosed 
in  his  coffin.  If  there  are  many 
deaths  about  the  same  time,  or  an 
epidemic  occurs,  everything  belong- 
ing to  the  dead  is  destroyed.  The 
house  in  which  a  death  occurs  is 
always  deserted,  and  usually  de- 
stroyed. In  order  to  avoid  this,  it 
is  not  uncommon  to  take  the  sick 
person  out  of  the  house  and  put  him  in  a  tent  to  die. 

A  woman's  coffin  may  be  known  by  the  kettles  and  other  fem- 
inine utensils  about  it.  There  is  no  distinction  between  the  sexes 
in  method  of  burial.  On  the  outside  of  the  coffin  figures  are  usu- 
ally drawn  in  red  ochre.  Figures  of  fur  animals  indicate  that  the 
dead  person  was  a  good  trapper  ;  of  seal  or  deer,  show  his  profi- 
ciency as  a  hunter  ;  representations  of  parkies,  that  he  was 
wealthy  :  the  manner  of  his  death  is  also  occasionally  indicated. 
For  four  days  after  a  death  the  women  in  the  village  do  no  sew- 
ing, for  five  days  the  men  do  not  cut  wood  with  an  axe.  The 
relatives  of  the  dead  must  not  seek  birds'  eggs  on  the  overhanging 
cliffs  for  a  year,  or  their  feet  will  slip  from  under  them,  and  they 
will  be  dashed  to  pieces.  No  mourning  is  worn  or  indicated,  ex- 
cept by  cutting  the  hair.  Women  sit  and  watch  the  body,  chant- 
ing a  mournful  refrain,  until  it  is  interred.  They  seldom  suspect 
that  others  have  brought  the  death  about  by  shamanism,  as  the 
Indians  almost  invariably  do.  At  the  end  of  a  year  from  the 
death  a  festival  is  given,  presents  are  made  to  those  who  assisted 
in  making  the  coffin,  and  the  period  of  mourning  is  over.  Their 
grief  seldom  seems  deep,  but  they  indulge  for  a  long  time  in  wail- 
ing for  the  dead  at  intervals.  I  have  seen  several  women  who 
refused  to  take  a  second  husband,  and  had  remained  single,  in 
spite  of  repeated  offers,  for  many  years. 


THE   YUKON   TERRITORY.  I47 

Their  habits  are  very  regular.  Every  season  the  same  round 
is  gone  through  as  in  the  previous  one,  only  varied  by  the  difte.r- 
ences  in  temperature  and  in  the  prevalence  of  fish  and  game. 

In  February  they  leave  the  villages  and  repair  to  the  moun- 
tains, with  all  their  families.  They  pursue  the  deer  until  the 
snow  begins  to  melt.  I  am  informed  that  among  the  Mahlemuts, 
near  their  more  inland  villages,  they  will  not  permit  any  water  to 
be  boiled  inside  of  the  houses  while  the  deer  hunt  continues. 
This  is  only  one  of  many  similar  superstitions.  The  deer  are 
stalked  ;  noosed  in  mahout  snares,  set  where  they  are  accustomed 
to  run  ;  or  driven  into  pounds  built  for  the  purpose,  where  they 
are  killed  by  hundreds.  Since  the  introduction  of  fire-arms,  about 
fifteen  years  ago,  the  number  of  deer  has  been  very  greatly 
diminished.  At  the  same  time  the  bow  and  arrow  have  fallen 
into  disuse,  and  it  would  be  impossible  at  present  for  them  to 
obtain  sufficient  food  without  guns  and  ammunition.  The  Kav- 
iak  peninsula  formerly  abounded  with  deer  ;  at  present  none  are 
found  there. 

When  the  snow  melts  and  the  ice  comes  out  of  the  small  rivers, 
the  Innuit  return  to  their  homes.  Myriads  of  water-fowl  ar- 
rive, and  breed  on  the  steep  cliffs  of  Besboro'  Island,  and  similar 
promontories  of  the  coast.  About  this  time  the  young  men 
seek  for  eggs  and  kill  the  parent  birds,  while  the  older  and  more 
wealthy  start  for  Grantley  Harbor  and  Kotzebue  Sound,  where 
the  traders  meet  them  as  soon  as  open  water  affords  opportunity. 
As  June  arrives,  eggs  are  more  abundant,  and  form  for  a  while 
the  chief  article  of  diet.  Gulls'  eggs  are  rejected  by  the  women 
and  children,  who  believe  that  they  will  grow  old  and  decrepit  if 
they  eat  them.  Seal  may  also  be  obtained  in  small  numbers, 
and  immense  schools  of  herring  visit  the  shores,  remaining 
about  ten  days  and  then  disappearing  for  the  season. 

As  July  advances  the  salmon  arrive,  and  every  one  is  found 
upon  the  shore.  Gill  nets  are  stretched  out  from  the  beach,  and 
the  sands  are  red  with  the  fish,  split  and  hung  up  to  dry  ;  dogs 
and  men  have  as  much  as  they  can  eat,  and  large  supplies  of 
ukali  are  laid  in  for  winter  use.  While  the  fishery  lasts  no  wood 
must  be  cut  with  an  axe,  or  the  salmon  will  disappear.  Near 
the  end  of  July  a  small  fleet  of  bidarras  arrive  with  those  who 
have  been  away  trading,  and  a  deputation  of  Tuski  or  Okee- 


148  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

ogemuts  with  walrus  ivory,  whalebone,  and  tame  reindeer  skins 
for  barter. 

In  August  many  of  the  women  repair  to  the  hills,  where  they 
hunt  the  young  reindeer  fawns.  The  latter  are  caught  by  run- 
ning after  them,  or  in  snares.  Their  skins  are  valued  for  cloth- 
ing, and  make  a  very  pretty  light  parka.  They  are  of  a  uniform 
brownish  red,  lighter  on  the  belly,  and  not  spotted  like  the  young 
of  the  red  deer.  The  skins  are  nearly  valueless  until  about  a 
month  old,  and  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  contradict  Zagoskin's 
fables  about  the  unborn  young.  The  latter,  I  believe,  are  not 
eaten  by  the  Innuit ;  at  least,  I  have  frequently  seen  them  thrown 
to  the  dogs.  The  stomach  of  the  adult  deer,  filled  with  half- 
digested  willow-tips,  is  regarded  as  a  delicacy,  and  eaten  as  we 
do  salad.  The  supply  of  backfat  is  also  laid  in  at  this  season; 
later  it  disappears. 

In  September  many  repair  to  Pastol  Bay  and  Norton  Bay, 
where  they  kill  the  beluga,  left  in  shallows  by  the  tide.  The 
seal  fishery  is  at  this  time  in  full  blast,  and  the  natives  will  not 
work  on  the  frames  of  boats  or  kyaks.  As  the  cold  weather 
comes  on,  the  rutting  season  of  the  deer  comes  with  it,  and  most 
of  the  Innuit  repair  to  the  mountains  after  them.  At  this  season 
the  supplies  of  deerskins,  sinews,  and  meat  are  laid  in  for  the 
winter.  About  the  middle  of  October  the  shores  of  the  Sound  are 
girded  with  ice.  The  seal  disappear,  but  myriads  of  a  small  fish, 
\  like  tom-cod,  are  found  all  along  the  shores,  and  are 

fished  for  through  holes  in  the  ice.     The  hook  is  pe- 
culiar.    It  is  made  of  a  small  oval  piece  of  bone  with 
a  sharp  pin  inserted  into  it  diagonally.     It  is  not  baited, 
as  the  fish  bite  at  the  ivory,  which  is  tied  on  a  whale- 
bone thread,  whose  elasticity  gives  the  hook  a  tremu- 
lous motion  in  the  water.     The  sinker  is  also  an  oval 
piece  of  bone  or  ivory.     These  little  fish  are  excellent 
eating,  and  are  caught  by  thousands  at  Unalakli'k. 
By  this  time  the  majority  have  returned  to  the  villages, 
fish-hook     and  trapping  commences.      1  he  women  are  at  work  on 
and  sinker,    fj^g  wintcr  clothing,  and  the  season  of  festivity  sets  in. 
The  greater  part  of  November  and  half  of  December  is  occu- 
pied by  dances  and  festivals.     About  January  the  trade  with   the 
Indians  commences,  and  in    February   they  again   repair  to  the 


THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 


49 


mountains  as  before.  This  gives  a  sketch  of  their  mode  of  hfe 
during  the  year.  The  dances  and  winter  festivities  deserve  more 
minute  description. 

All  the  Innuit  are  fond  of  dancing  and  singing  together.  The 
principal  point,  in  both  Innuit  and  Indian  dances,  is,  to  make  as 
many  difTerent  kinds  of  motion  with  the  body  and  arms  as  pos- 
sible, always  keeping  the  most  exact  time  with  the  chorus  and 
with  each  other.  The  dances  take  place  in  the  casine  of  the  vil- 
lage, and  time  is  kept  by  a  number  of  old  men,  who  lead  the 
chorus  and  beat  time  with  an  elastic  wand  on  a  sort  of  large 
tambourine.  Their  festivals  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  — 
one  where  they  meet  simply  to  dance  and  sing,  and  the  other  when 
there  are  also  other  ends  in  view.  In  the  former  the  singers  con- 
fine themselves  strictly  to  the  chorus  "  Ung  hi  yah,"  &c.,  which 
has  previously  been  described.  These  dances  are  held  whenever 
a  sufficient  number  happen  to  meet  in  the  casine  and  desire  it,  but 
always  in  the  evening.  The  other  festivals  also  take  place  in  the 
evening,  and  are  of  different  kinds.  First,  there  is  the  opening 
festival  of  the  winter,  which  differs  from  all  the  others.  Then 
there  are  festivals  at  which  the  givers  desire  to  indicate  their 
friendship  for  each  other  by  making  presents  in  a  manner  which 
will  be  afterwards  described.  A  third  kind  of  festival  is  given  a 
year  after  the  death  of  a  relation.  A  fourth,  when  a  wealthy  man 
wishes  to  make  himself  the  reputation  of  a  public  benefactor.  A 
fifth,  when  a  man  wishes  to  redress  an  injury  which  he  has  done 
to  another,  and  a  sixth,  when  the  village  unites  in  inviting  the 
inhabitants  of  another  village  to  partake  of  their  hospitality. 

The  opening  festival  of  the  season  is  usually  held  early  in 
November.  No  women  participate,  except  as  spectators.  The  in- 
variable chorus  is  begun,  and  kept  up  until  all  the  young  male  in- 
habitants are  collected  in  the  casine.  As  soon  as  all  are  present, 
dishes  of  charcoal  ground  up  with  oil  are  brought  in  ;  all  the  young 
men  strip  themselves  and  proceed  to  paint  their  faces  and  bodies. 
No  particular  pattern  is  followed,  but  each  one  suits  his  own  fancy. 
When  all  are  duly  adorned  they  leave  the  casine  in  single  file,  end- 
ing with  the  boys.  Attired  in  Adam's  original  costume,  they  visit 
every  house  in  the  village,  chanting  as  they  go.  Each  family  has 
prepared  dishes  of  eatables  according  to  their  means.  These  are 
given  to  the  performers;  and  when  all  the  houses  have  been  visited, 


150  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

—  the  atmosphere  meanwhile  perhaps  many  degrees  below  zero,  — 
they  return  laden  to  the  casine.  Passing  under  the  floor,  each  one 
stands  a  moment  in  the  central  opening,  chants  for  a  few  seconds 
while  the  old  men  beat  the  drums,  and  then  springs  out  and  de- 
posits on  the  floor  the  dish  he  carries.  When  all  have  come  in 
they  form  in  a  hollow  square,  each  one  holding  a  dish  in  both 
hands.  A  peculiar  chant  is  begun  by  one  of  the  old  men,  and  the 
others  join  in  with  him;  they  then  turn  towards  the  north  corner 
of  the  building,  chanting,  and  at  a  given  signal  all  raise  the  dishes 
of  food  which  they  carry,  above  their  heads  in  a  northerly  direc- 
tion, at  the  same  time  looking  down  and  uttering  a  hissing  sound. 
This  is  repeated  several  times  ;  the  chant  then  continues  for  a 
few  minutes,  when  they  turn  to  the  east  and  repeat  the  perform- 
ance ;  and  again  to  the  south  and  west.  This  is  to  exorcise  evil 
spirits.  This  being  done,  all  set  to  and  dispose  of  the  eatables. 
When  the  feast  is  over  they  proceed  to  wash  oft'  the  paint,  at 
which  stage  of  the  performance  most  civilized  spectators  are 
obliged  by  the  odor  to  retire.  After  the  washing  is  concluded 
all  join  in  the  ordinary  chorus  and  disperse  to  their  homes. 

The  third  kind  of  festival  is  given  by  the  relatives  of  the  dead, 
both  male  and  female.  They  appear  by  the  underground  passage, 
carrying  food  and  presents.  Placing  them  on  the  floor,  they  join 
in  the  usual  chorus.  The  motions  of  the  females  are  graceful  and 
easy.  The  men  strive  to  outdo  each  other  in  jumping  and  ex- 
treme exertions  of  every  muscle  of  the  body,  always  keeping 
perfect  time.  Between  the  meaningless  syllables  of  the  chorus, 
words  are  interpolated,  eulogizing  the  virtues  of  the  deceased  and 
relating  his  exploits  in  hunting  and  fishing.  The  men  imitate  in 
their  actions  the  motions  of  approaching  the  deer,  of  shooting, 
pursuing,  and  of  taking  off"  the  skin.  The  same  dumb  show  is  car- 
ried out  until  the  relation  of  the  history  of  the  dead  man  is  com- 
pleted. The  women  then  distribute  the  eatables  to  the  friends  of 
the  family.  The  men  distribute  the  presents.  Some  trifle,  such 
as  a  leaf  of  tobacco  or  a  pair  of  sealskin  boot-soles,  is  given  to 
every  spectator.  A  handsome  gift  falls  to  him  who  made  the 
coffin,  and  smaller  presents  to  others  who  assisted  at  the  inter- 
ment. After  this  is  over  a  more  lively  chant  begins,  indicating 
that  the  season  of  mourning  is  over,  and  that  the  relatives  have 
performed  their  duty.     With  this  the  exhibition  closes. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


151 


The  fourth  festival  is  not  a  very  common  one,  and  is  more  prac- 
tised among  the  tribes  of  the  Yukon-mouth  and  to  the  southward. 
The  man  who  proposes  to  give  it  often  saves  up  his  property  for 
years,  and  retains  nothing,  being  reduced  to  poverty  by  the  festi- 
val. He  accumulates  deerskins,  beaver,  sealskins  and  furs,  beads, 
and  other  articles  ot  value.  He  exerts  himself  to  the  utmost  in 
preparing  food  for  his  guests.  When  the  preparations  are  com- 
plete he  sends  to  all  the  natives  of  the  vicinity,  who  crowd  to  the 
feast.  It  begins  with  dancing  and  singing,  each  guest  doing  his 
utmost  to  excel  in  each  and  do  honor  to  the  occasion.  The  festi- 
val lasts  as  many  days  as  the  provisions  will  hold  out.  On  the 
last  day  the  host,  dressed  in  a  new  suit,  welcomes  his  friends  in 
the  casine.  To  each  he  gives  presents  of  whatever  he  may  like 
best ;  when  all  the  store  of  gifts  is  exhausted  the  host  strips  him- 
self, replacing  the  new  clothing  by  the  poorest  rags,  and  gives  the 
former  to  whoever  has  not  previously  received  a  gift.  His  wife 
does  the  same.  The  guests  put  on  their  new  clothing  on  the 
spot  in  silence.  The  host  then  addresses  them,  saying  that  he 
has  nothing  left,  and  depreciating  his  own  generosity  as  much  as 
possible.  He  then  dismisses  the  assembly,  who  go  back  to  their 
homes.  No  return  is  asked  or  expected,  and  the  host  is  often 
reduced  to  extreme  destitution,  which  he  regards  as  a  slight 
matter  compared  with  the  reputation  which  the  festival  has  given 
him.  At  some  of  these  feasts  ten  guns,  two  hundred  beaver,  a 
hundred  sealskins,  fifty  deerskins,  five  hundred  sable,  two  hundred 
fathoms  of  strung  beads,  ten  wolf  or  wolverine  skins,  and  as  many 
suits  of  clothing  and  blankets,  have  been  given  away  by  one  man. 
StepanofF  told  me  of  a  man  who  saved  for  fifteen  years,  until  he 
accumulated  such  a  store  of  valuables,  and  then  made  a  feast  and 
gave  everything  away. 

The  fifth  kind  of  festival  is  also  of  rather  rare  occurrence.  I 
witnessed  but  one.  The  man  who  had  originated  the  quarrel 
sent  a  messenger  some  seventy  miles  to  the  man  who  had  been 
injured  or  offended.  The  messenger  was  dressed  in  a  new  suit, 
with  a  red  shirt,  and  carried  a  wand  ornamented  with  feathers  in 
his  hand.  Intimation  of  the  intention  had  of  course  reached  the 
recipient  in  advance.  The  messenger  found  him  at  his  work. 
Chanting  as  he  approached,  he  made  known  his  errand,  striking 
the  receiver  with   his  wand  ;  and   suddenly   seizing   a  knife,   he 


152  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

grasped  him  by  the  neck  and  brandished  it  abov^e  his  head.  The 
other,  understanding  the  intention,  made  no  resistance  ;  and  con- 
cluding his  chant,  the  messenger  inquired  what  restitution  was 
desired.  The  other  told  what  he  wished  for,  and  the  messenger 
informed  him  where  and  when  it  would  be  made.  The  herald 
then  returned  to  him  who  sent  him,  and  his  errand  was  done. 
Several  weeks  later  the  feast  was  given.  The  required  restitu- 
tion and  much  more  was  presented  to  the  offended  party,  who,  as 
well  as  the  offender,  was  dressed  in  an  entirely  new  suit  of  clothes. 
After  the  gifts  had  been  accepted  the  two  stood  up  and  danced 
together,  keeping  time  with  the  drums.  They  then  exchanged 
clothing,  as  a  sign  that  they  were  friends  again,  and  the  person 
who  received  the  presents  divided  tobacco  and  sealskins  among 
the  spectators,  which  finished  the  ceremony. 

The  sixth  sort  of  festival  is  frequent.  Every  winter  several 
take  place.  In  December,  1867,  the  Mahlemuts  residing  at  Una- 
lakli'k  invited  the  Mahlemuts  of  Shaktolik  to  participate  in  a 
festival  at  the  former  place.  The  guests  arrived  about  the 
middle  of  the  month,  and  were  quartered  in  the  different  houses 
in  the  village.  On  the  opening  of  the  performances  all  gathered 
in  the  casine.  The  guests  were  merely  spectators.  The  princi- 
pal men  of  the  Unalakli'k  village,  eight  in  number,  appeared  by 
the  subterranean  passage  and  formed  in  line  on  the  floor.  Six 
women,  the  best  dancers  in  the  place,  took  their  places  opposite. 
Alluianok  and  one  or  two  old  men,  whose  age  forbade  their  join- 
ing in  the  dance,  took  the  drums  and  led  the  chorus.  The  men 
were  stripped  to  the  waist.  They  wore  breeches  of  tame  rein- 
deer skin,  and  had  each  a  tail  of  wolf  or  wolverine  attached  to 
the  belt  behind.  They  had  on  gloves  trimmed  with  wolverine 
skin,  and  boots  ornamented  with  strips  of  fur  and  marten  tails. 
Around  the  head  each  had  a  fillet  of  deerskin  ornamented  with 
feathers,  which  came  down  on  the  shoulders  behind.  The  women 
were  provided  with  long  shirts  made  of  the  intestines  of  the 
seal,  cleaned,  split,  and  sewed  together.  These  shirts  were  trans- 
lucent, embroidered  with  bits  of  colored  worsted,  and  orna- 
mented with  short  pendent  strings  of  beads.  Through  the  semi- 
transparent  dress  the  motions  of  the  body  were  perceptible. 
Their  breeches  were  of  the  white  Siberian  reindeer,  embroidered, 
decorated    with   strips   of   wolfskin,    and    made   to   fit    the   limbs 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY 


153 


perfectly.  The  upper  dress  came  a  little  below  the  knees. 
Their  hair  was  arranged  and  braided  on  each  side,  with  the 
greatest  care.  Strips  of  white  wolfskin  and  strings  of.  beads 
were  incorporated  with  the  braids,  and  pendants  of  beads  and 
bead  necklaces  ornamented  the  shoulders.  Their  hands  were  en- 
cased in  snow-white  gloves,  fitting  closely  and  made  with  great 
care  from  the  tender  skin  of  the  reindeer  fawn.  These  were 
trimmed  around  the  wrist  with  a  fringe  of  wolfskin.  In  each 
hand  they  held  long  eagle  feathers,  to  the  edges  of  which  tufts 
of  swan's-down  were  attached.  The  opening  chant  was  slow  and 
measured.  The  motions  of  the  dancers  were  modest  and  pleas- 
ing ;  the  extreme  gracefulness  of  the  women,  especially,  would 
have  excited  admiration  anywhere.  They  kept  the  most  perfect 
time  with  the  chorus  and  drum  taps.  Between  the  syllables  of 
the  former,  words  of  welcome  to  the  strangers  were  interpolated 
in  such  a  way  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  rhythm.  The  slowly 
waving  feathers  and  delicate  undulations  of  the  dancers  rendered 
the  scene  extremely  attractive. 

As  the  performance  went  on,  the  spectators  joined  in  the 
chorus,  which  became  more  animated.  Other  villagers  entered 
into  the  dance,  and  all  joined  in  dumb  show  to  imitate  the  opera- 
tions of  daily  life.  New  songs,  invented  for  the  occasion,  de- 
scriptive of  hunting  the  deer,  bear,  and  fox,  of  pursuing  the  seal 
in  kyaks,  of  travelling  in  the  oomiaks,  of  fishing  and  other  pur- 
suits, were  introduced  in  the  chorus.  The  excitement  increased, 
and  was  added  to  by  the  applause  of  the  spectators.  All  en- 
tered freely  into  the  enjoyment  of  the  hour.  Children  appeared 
from  below,  dressed  in  new  and  beautifully  decorated  clothing. 
With  the  greatest  gravity,  and  keeping  time  in  all  their  motions 
with  the  song,  they  deposited  on  the  floor  dishes  of  boiled  fish, 
meat,  oil,  and  reindeer  marrow ;  berries  in  a  cream-like  mixture 
of  snow,  oil,  and  fat ;  and  other  delicacies.  This  done,  they 
scampered  out,  to  return  again.  The  dance  came  to  a  close,  and 
the  feast  began.  That  over,  all  joined  in  a  lively  chorus,  to- 
bacco was  distributed  to  the  spectators,  and  the  performance 
closed  for  the  night.  The  next  evening  a  similar  exhibition  took 
place,  which  was  repeated  every  night  for  a  week.  The  best 
dancers  took  occasion  to  exhibit  their  proficiency  singly ;  new 
and   original  songs  and    symbolic   pantomimes   were  introduced 


154  '^^^   YUKON    TERRITORY. 

every  evening.  During  the  whole  of  the  festival  only  the  mosi 
necessary  labor  was  performed,  and  it  would  have  been  quite 
impossible  to  induce  anybody  to  do  any  outside  work.  When 
it  came  to  an  end  the  guests  departed,  to  reciprocate  another 
winter  at  Shaktolik.  In  this  way  the  hospitable  Innuit  vary  the 
monotony  of  their  existence,  and  by  constant  interchange  of 
hospitalities  produce  the  most  friendly  feelings  between  differ- 
ent tribes.  Those  about  the  Yukon-mouth  seldom  take  part 
in  these  festivities  on  Norton  Sound.  The  latter  embrace  the 
different  tribes  from  Pastolik  to  Kotzebue  Sound  and  Bering 
Strait. 

The  dialects  of  those  to  the  southward  are  so  different  that  they 
would  have  difficulty  in  intercourse  with  the  former,  which  is 
probably  the  reason  of  their  absence  ;  but  among  themselves  they 
carry  on  an  equal  amount  of  such  festivities.  The  semi-re- 
ligious masked  dances  and  midnight  mysteries  of  the  ancient 
Aleutians  find  no  counterpart  among  the  Innuit  of  Norton 
Sound. 

It  is  impossible  to  doubt  that,  among  all  American  aborigines, 
much  in  their  mode  of  life,  customs,  and  ceremonials  is  of  a  local 
nature,  and  due  to  extraneous  circumstances.  Much  is  also  due, 
unquestionably,  to  the  similarity  of  thought  and  habit  which  must 
obtain  among  human  beings  of  a  low  type,  and  who  gain  their 
living  by  similar  means.  Hence,  a  general  similarity  of  many 
customs  may  naturally  be  expected  between  both  Innuit  and  In- 
dians, as  well  as  far-distant  aborigines  of  different  parts  of  the 
world,  and  this  similarity  can  afford  no  basis  for  generalizations 
in  regard  to  their  origin. 

Popoff  and  myself  determined  to  join  in  giving  a  festival  of  the 
second  class,  which  has  not  yet  been  described.  Myunuk  was 
chosen  as  the  messenger.  He  was  dressed  in  a  new  suit  of  clothes, 
which  was  his  perquisite  ;  he  wore  a  fillet  of  wolfskin  around  his 
head  and  carried  a  wand  in  his  hand.  This  was  about  six  feet 
long,  and  curiously  ornamented  and  carved,  somewhat  resembling 
the  Roman  palms  carried  in  procession  by  high  dignitaries  of  the 
Catholic  Church  on  Palm-Sunday.  He  received  his  messages  and 
departed.  Popoff  had  designated  Alluianok  as  the  one  whom  he 
desired  to  honor.  I  chose  Ark-napyak,  another  chief;  and  Os- 
trofskoi  another,  called  Andre. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


155 


The  messenger,  first  finding  where  the  person  indicated  is,  runs 
at  the  top  of  his  speed.  On  approaching  him  he  shouts,  "Oh  !  oh  !" 
as  loudly  as  possible,  and  chants  a  lively  chorus.  At  the  same  time 
he  delivers  his  message,  waving  his  wand  about  the  head  of  the 
other,  and  tells  him  that  Popotf,  or  whoever  it  may  be,  is  desirous 
of  giving  a  festival,  and  having  selected  him  as  a  suitable  person 
to  honor,  desires  to  know  what  would  be  acceptable  to  him  as  a 
present.  The  other  replies  that  he  will  accept  the  honor,  and 
mentions  whatever  he  may  want.  In  this  case,  Alluianok  asked 
for  tobacco  and  a  new  shirt,  Andre  for  wolverine  skin,  and  Ark- 
napyak  for  a  glass  of  water,  meaning  liquor.  A  day  was  set  for 
the  festival ;  all  who  chose  to  come  were  welcome.  We  had  a  large 
kettle,  containing  some  ten  gallons  of  rice,  cracked  wheat,  and 
oil,  boiled  into  a  general  mush,  and  flavored  with  molasses ;  and 
another  full  of  tea.  Each  guest  was  served  with  the  former,  and 
received  with  the  latter  a  slice  of  bread  and  a  lump  of  sugar. 
The  presents  were  then  given,  and  the  practice  is  to  give  as  much 
as  possible  over  and  above  what  was  asked  for.  Being  without  the 
liquor  which  was  so  much  desired,  I  chose  to  understand  the  request 
literally,  and  presented  Arknapyak  with  a  large  bowl  full  of  scarlet 
beads,  much  coveted  by  the  Innuit,  and  filled  up  with  water. 
Powder,  lead,  caps,  drill,  and  a  little  case  of  portable  tools  made  up 
his  present,  and  after  the  others  had  received  theirs,  I  distributed 
among  the  guests  small  pieces  of  black  tobacco,  careful  that  none 
should  be  overlooked.  If  the  festival  had  been  given  by  natives 
only,  dances  and  the  chorus  would  have  preceded  the  feast,  but 
the  casarmer  of  the  fort  was  unsuitable  for  dancing.  The  assem- 
bly then  dispersed,  and  we  were  notified  to  attend  at  the  next 
stage  of  the  proceedmgs,  in  the  casine  of  the  village. 

A  day  or  two  after,  the  messenger  came  to  us  to  know  what  we 
desired  in  return,  using  the  ceremonial  previously  described.  One 
of  the  points  which  give  zest  to  these  festivals  is  the  practice  of 
asking  for  the  thing  of  all  others  most  difficult  to  obtain.  It  is  a 
point  of  honor  with  the  giver  to  procure  it  at  any  price  or  risk. 
In  some  cases  couriers  are  sent  hundreds  of  miles,  and  the  festival 
is  prolonged  until  their  return,  in  order  that  the  honor  of  the  host 
may  be  untarnished.  I  asked  for  a  live  seal,  knowing  very  well 
that  the  seal  had  left  the  coast  at  least  three  weeks  before,  and 
that  no  amount  of  trouble  would  obtain  one.     Popofif  asked  for 


156  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

foxskins  and  beaver ;  Ostrofskoi,  for  a  tame  reindeer  parka,  and 
wolfskin  for  collars. 

The  next  day  we  repaired  to  the  casine  in  the  evening.  The 
custom  is  for  those  who  bring  presents  to  approach  by  the  under- 
ground passage.  We  sat  on  the  floor  around  the  aperture,  and 
Myunuk  appeared  and  distributed  tobacco  to  those  present,  a 
beaver-skin  to  Popoff,  and  a  pair  of  walrus  tusks  to  me.  The 
giver  stands  in  the  aperture  and  dances  and  sings  there  for  a  few 
moments,  the  old  men,  meanwhile,  keeping  time  on  the  drums. 
Alluianok  came  up  and  presented  Popoff  with  three  fine  red 
foxes.  The  giver  always  depreciates  his  present,  and  says  there 
are  no  more  to  be  had,  after  which  he  stoops  down  and  pulls  out 
something  more,  repeating  the  remarks  until  his  supply  is  ex- 
hausted. Arknapyak  brought  me  a  fine  pair  of  winter  boots 
ornamented  with  wolverine  skin,  a  dish  of  deer  fat,  two  marten 
skins,  a  bundle  of  boot-soles  and  some  berries.  Andre  offered 
fat,  berries,  a  fine  kamlayka,  wolfskin  for  collars,  half  a  sealskin 
for  boot-soles,  meat,  reindeer  tongues,  sinew,  and  a  fine  pair  of 
tame  reindeer  breeches.  Each,  after  giving  all  his  presents, 
howled  once  or  twice,  danced  in  the  aperture,  and  finally  jumped 
out  to  one  side.  The  old  men  kept  up  a  persevering  drumming 
and  chorus.  We  distributed  the  tobacco  and  fat  among  them 
and  returned  to  the  fort.  Arknapyak  said  that  his  men  had  gone 
to  the  edge  of  the  ice  after  seal,  and  he  could  not  yet  fulfil  all 
of  his  duty,  but  would  do  so  before  the  festival  was  over.  It  was 
again  the  turn  of  the  Innuit,  and  hoping  to  find  me  unprepared, 
he  asked  for  a  plane,  which  of  all  things  is  most  difficult  to  obtain 
in  this  part  of  the  world.  I  was  fortunate  enough  to  find  one  in 
the  tool-box  which  I  bought  of  Popoff.  It  was  duly  presented  at 
the  next  meeting,  which  was  similar  to  the  one  already  described, 
and  in  return  I  asked  for  a  good  tame  reindeer  suit  for  my  ethno- 
logical collection.  The  closing  evening  of  the  festival  arrived, 
and  after  the  preliminary  dances  and  singing  were  concluded, 
the  head  of  a  seal  appeared  in  the  opening  of  the  floor,  the  body 
followed,  and  it  began  to  move  about,  pulled  by  strings  in  the 
hands  of  bystanders  stationed  for  the  purpose.  It  was  dead,  but 
complete  and  frozen  in  a  natural  attitude.  As  it  was  jerked 
about  the  Innuit  imitated  the  cry  of  the  seal,  much  to  everybody's 
amusement.     Arknapyak  then  appeared  and  stated  that  owing  to 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  1 57 

the  lateness  of  the  season  he  was  unable  to  procure  a  more  lively- 
seal  for  the  purpose,  and  hoped  that  this  one  would  prove  satis- 
factory. He  added  that  it  would  not  bite.  His  explanation  was 
received  with  applause,  and  he  added  many  other  acceptable 
articles  to  his  present.  The  old  men  rose,  and  Alluianok  the 
senior  chief  then  declared  that  the  festival  had  been  properly 
carried  out  and  every  one  satisfied.  He  thanked  us  for  joining 
with  them  in  such  a  cordial  manner,  and  proclaimed  that  the 
feast  was  at  an  end.  It  was  the  first  time  on  Norton  Sound  that 
white  men  had  joined  with  the  Innuit  in  celebrating  these  games, 
although  Stepanoff  had  several  times  done  so,  when  on  trading 
expeditions  among  the  more  southern  Innuit. 

While  collecting  on  the  beach  west  of  the  river  on  the  i8th 
of  October,  I  met  a  native  who  said  that  he  had  come  up  in  my 
new  bidarra  from  the  Redoubt.  The  stormy  weather  had  de- 
layed it.  The  next  day  it  arrived  at  the  fort,  in  charge  of  I'chuk 
Koliak,  a  trustworthy  Mahlemut,  who  on  many  occasions  had 
been  extremely  useful  to  our  parties.  His  only  fault  was  a  pre- 
dilection for  liquor.  He  was  honest,  straightforward,  and  very 
intelligent.  He  had  received  the  name  of  Isaac  from  some  of  the 
traders,  who  had  also  taught  him  to  write  his  name  legibly,  but 
the  Innuit  had  corrupted  Isaac  into  Ichuk. 

Ingechuk  and  Andrea  having  arrived  from  Ikti'galik,  I  endeav- 
ored to  engage  them  to  take  the  bidarra  up  to  that  place  while 
the  Unalaklik  River  was  still  unfrozen.  They  agreed,  but  put  off 
starting  until  the  next  day.  When  the  morning  had  arrived  we 
provided  bread  and  ukali  for  them,  when  I  discovered  that  the 
brave  Ingaliks  expected  me  to  hire  somebody  to  row  them  up  the 
river  !  After  expressing  my  opinion  very  freely  of  their  laziness 
and  general  worthlessness,  I  hired  three  Mahlemuts  to  take  their 
places.  That  afternoon  I  was  seized  with  violent  pain  in  my 
neck  and  back,  accompanied  by  fever,  probably  caused  by  camp- 
ing on  the  river.  On  examining  my  boxes  I  was  astounded  to 
find  that  the  small  supply  of  medicine  had  been  left  at  the  Re- 
doubt. I  felt  that  the  case  admitted  of  no  delay.  Although  the 
20th  of  October,  the  air  was  mild  and  pleasant.  Not  a  particle 
of  ice  was  to  be  seen  on  the  river  or  along  the  seashore.  I  went 
up  to  the  village,  and  through  Isaac's  mediation  obtained  two 
men.     Putting  a  little  tea,  sugar,  and  two  loaves  of  bread,  with 


158  THE    YUKOxM    TERRITORY. 

half  a  dozen  salt  salmon-trout,  into  the  three-holed  bidarka,  in 
half  an  hour  I  had  started  for  the  Redoubt,  a  journey  as  unex- 
pected as  it  was  sudden.  Another  day,  if  the  weather  continued 
fine,  would  bring  us  there.  We  camped  at  Fossil  Creek  near 
Topanika,  but  I  passed  a  sleepless  and  painful  night.  The  next 
morning  we  were  off  again  early  and  plied  our  paddles  vigor- 
ously, hoping  to  reach  Pallonoi  Point.  The  waves  rose  very 
high,  however,  showing  heavy  weather  to  the  westward,  and  the 
wind  began  to  freshen.  The  rollers  became  so  large  that  we  were 
obliged  to  put  on  our  kamlaykas  and  tie  them  round  the  holes. 
The  bidarka  was  frequently  buried  in  the  water,  and  as  she  was 
very  old  I  was  obliged  for  safety  to  put  in  at  Kegiktowruk.  My 
situation  may  be  imagined,  burning  with  fever  and  impatience  at 
the  delay.  There  was  no  help  for  it,  however.  Four  days  I  lay 
in  the  casine,  suffering  from  anxiety  quite  as  much  as  from  the 
pain,  which  however  grew  no  worse.  We  got  out  of  provisions 
the  second  day,  as  I  had  not  anticipated  such  delay.  I  cut  the 
last  loaf  into  three  parts  and  divided  equally  with  my  men.  There 
was  nothing  else  but  seal  meat  obtainable.  I  tried  the  heart  and 
liver,  which  were  not  objectionable,  but  the  flesh  impregnated 
with  the  oil  was  positively  revolting.  The  blubber,  when  per- 
fectly fresh,  has  a  taste  exactly  resembling  the  smell  of  the  old- 
fashioned  lamp  oil.  Certain  arctic  explorers  have  pronounced 
this,  as  well  as  the  raw  entrails  of  the  seal,  to  be  "  delicious  !  " 
I  can  regard  this  statement  only  as  the  result  of  a  depraved  appe- 
tite goaded  by  hunger.  The  blubber  of  the  beluga  and  whale, 
and  even  the  flesh  of  the  walrus,  sea  lion,  and  fur  seal,  is  eatable. 
When  fresh  the  taste  is  but  moderately  disagreeable  and  is  easily 
conquered  by  hunger.  But  the  flesh  and  oil  of  the  leopard-seal 
are  always  extremely  repulsive,  and  cannot  to  the  civilized  palate, 
by  any  stretch  of  the  imagination,  be  considered  otherwise. 
Whale-blubber  is  a  luxury  compared   to  it. 

I  could  not  force  myself  to  do  more  than  taste  it,  and  the  result 
was  immediate  nausea.  Fortunately,  in  the  evening  I  obtained  a 
small  supply  of  venison  and  a  deer's  tongue.  The  latter  dried  or 
frozen  is  a  great  delicacy,  and  has  the  flavor  of  chestnuts.  This 
flavor  is  lost  in  great  part  by  cooking.  In  any  shape  there  is  no 
other  kind  of  tongue  which  will  bear  comparison  with  it. 

Towards  night  of  the  24th   the  waves  fell   somewhat.     About 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  1 59 

midnight  I  stepped  out  to  look  at  the  weather:  snow-clouds  were 
driving  across  the  sky,  the  surf  roared,  and  billows  dashed  upon 
the  rocky  islets.  About  five  o'clock  in  the  morning  I  rose  and  took 
another  look.  The  wind  had  subsided,  but  no  boats  would  leave 
that  cove  for  six  months.  The  weather  was  icy  cold.  As  far  as 
the  eye  could  reach  seaward  was  a  sheet  of  ice  !  Aided  by  the 
snow,  the  intense  cold  in  five  hours  had  covered  the  entire  coast 
of  the  Sound  with  ice.  It  was  not  clear,  smooth,  and  solid,  such 
as  makes  in  calm  weather,  but  a  white,  frothy,  rough  substance, 
looking  like  the  white  slag  from  an  iron-furnace.  Close  in  shore 
it  was  several  feet  thick,  but  soft  and  unsafe,  with  occasional 
pools  of  water.  The  Russians,  who  often  have  a  substantive  name 
for  conditions  of  things  which  we  describe  by  means  of  adjectives, 
call  it  sJiiigdh,  in  distinction  from  clear,  solid  ice,  which  is  loJit. 

I  dismantled  the  biddrka,  raised  her  on  a  stage  out  of  reach  of 
the  dogs,  made  up  three  packs  of  about  fifty  pounds  each,  and 
about  ten  o'clock  started  with  my  men  for  the  Redoubt  on  foot. 
The  travelling  was  exceedingly  hard  ;  we  had  to  step  from  one 
tussock  to  another,  which  often  gave  way,  striking  the  toes  against 
the  frozen  ground.  I  had  only  one  light  parka  without  a  hood, 
and  the  wind  was  very  cold.  By  constant  exercise  I  managed  to 
keep  warm,  and  about  nightfall  caught  sight  of  the  hut  on  the 
knoll  at  the  Major's  Cove.  I  told  the  men  we  would  camp  here, 
and  they  received  the  information  with  exclamations  of  thankful- 
ness. The  house  was  a  wretched  one,  much  out  of  repair,  and  in 
consequence  smoky.  My  bread  was  exhausted  ;  we  had  fortunately 
one  drawing  of  tea,  but  no  sugar,  and  only  a  small  fragment  of 
frozen  deer  meat.  One  of  my  men  opened  his  pack  and  com- 
menced unrolling  a  small  bundle.  First  a  piece  of  paper,  next  a  bit 
of  sealskin,  and  so  on,  until  about  ten  wrappers  had  been  removed. 
To  my  surprise  it  was  the  bread  I  had  given  him  several  days  be- 
fore. I  praised  his  economy,  but  he  interrupted  me,  saying,  "  Take 
it ;  you  want  it  more  than  I  do,"  and  insisted  upon  my  accepting 
it.  The  other,  who  was  almost  a  boy,  seeing  the  bruised  and 
battered  condition  of  my  feet,  brought  out  some  pieces  of  cotton 
drill,  which  he  asked  me  to  use  as  "  nips  "  and  to  return  to  him 
at  some  future  time.  These  instances  of  kind-heartedness  are 
worthy  of  being  remembered.  They  give  a  glimpse  of  character- 
istics we  never  found  among  the   Indians,  and  which  eminently 


l6o  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

distinguish  the  Innuit.  Several  similar  instances  were  related 
by  members  of  Major  Kennicott's  party.  Mahlemuts  in  their 
employ,  during  a  scarcity  of  provisions,  denied  themselves  in 
order  that  others  might  not  suffer. 

The  next  day  we  boiled  our  tea-leaves  over  again,  and  made  the 
best  of  our  way  over  the  ice  along  shore.  The  mouth  of  the  Canal 
was  frozen,  as  I  had  hoped,  and  with  care  we  crossed  safely,  and 
reached  the  Redoubt  just  as  the  service  was  over  and  the  inhab- 
itants were  coming  out  of  church.  Stepanoff,  who  with  astonish- 
ment had  watched  us  crossing  the  new  ice,  received  me  hospita- 
bly. I  obtained  the  necessary  medicines,  and,  by  heroic  doses  of 
calomel  and  quinine,  succeeded  in  quelling  the  disorder. 

Four  days  after,  though  quite  weak  and  still  far  from  well,  I 
started  on  my  return  with  a  Russian  Creole,  named  Goldsen,  a 
sled  with  six  dogs,  and  three  natives.  I  had  obtained  some  sugar 
from  Stepanoff,  to  make  up  my  loss,  and  a  good  parka,  with  other 
necessary  articles.  The  weather  was  about  twelve  below  zero, 
and  rather  windy.  We  kept  on  the  ice  beyond  the  Major's  Cove, 
but  as  it  was  untrustworthy  we  were  obliged  to  take  to  the  bank. 
Here  the  going  was  very  bad,  as  previously  mentioned.  There 
was  no  snow,  and  we  stumbled  over  the  frozen  hillocks  until  our 
feet  ached  again.  We  arrived  safely  at  Kegiktowruk  in  the  even- 
ing. Here  we  took  on  the  tent  and  other  things  which  I  had 
been  obHged  to  leave  behind. 

The  next  day  the  travelling  was  even  worse.  In  many  places 
we  had  to  cut  our  way  through  low  but  heavy  willow  brush,  which 
grows  along  small  watercourses.  We  camped  in  a  ravine  near 
the  two  islands.  In  the  evening  the  wind  fairly  howled,  and  it 
began  to  snow.  The  air  was  full  of  fine  snow,  which  the  strong 
wind  drove  into  the  eyes.  Travelling  under  such  conditions  is 
almost  impossible  and  very  dangerous.  The  Russians  call  this 
poorga.  It  is  in  such  storms  that  travellers  lose  their  way,  and 
are  frozen  to  death.  Clear  cold,  however  great,  can  always  be 
borne,  with  proper  clothing  and  exercise,  but  the  poorga,  penetrat- 
ing to  the  bone,  first  blinds,  then  chills,  and  finally  exhausts  the 
hapless  traveller,  who  no  sooner  falls  than  he  is  covered  by  the 
snowdrift. 

The  next  morning  was  more  pleasant.  We  passed  Golsova 
River  about  eleven.     In  the  middle  of  the  afternoon  we  saw  a 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  l6l 

herd  of  deer  feeding  among  the  willow  brush.  The  dogs  started 
off  on  a  full  gallop,  sleds  and  all,  and  it  was  with  the  greatest  dif- 
ficulty that  we  checked  them.  I  started  in  one  direction,  and 
Goldsen  in  another.  A  doe  with  her  fawn  passed  near  me.  I 
fired,  and  she  sprang  into  the  air  and  came  down  full  on  her 
horns.  A  few  struggles,  and  she  was  dead.  The  others,  alarmed 
by  the  shot,  were  off  at  full  speed.  On  examination  I  found  that 
one  of  the  buckshot  with  which  the  gun  was  loaded  had  struck 
her  on  the  leg.  Falling  on  her  horns,  she  had  come  down  with 
such  force  as  to  break  open  the  skull  and  pierce  the  brain.  This, 
and  not  the  shot,  had  killed  her.  On  skinning  her  we  found  the 
udder  full  of  milk,  which  we  saved  in  a  tin  cup.  It  was  thick 
and  rich,  like  cream.  The  winter  coat  of  the  reindeer  is  gray, 
with  long  white  hair  on  the  throat.  It  is  a  very  awkward- 
looking  animal  when  in  motion,  reminding  one  of  a  cow.  The 
eye  is  large  and  black.  We  cached  the  meat  and  skin,  taking 
only  the  heart  and  liver.  We  hung  up  a  handkerchief  on  a  snow- 
shoe,  and  poured  powder  in  a  wide  circle  around  it  to  keep  off 
the  foxes.  Pushing  on,  we  crossed  Tolstoi  Point,  and  camped  in 
the  house  at  Topanika.  To  reach  it  we  were  obliged  to  unload 
the  sled,  and  carry  every  article,  as  well  as  the  dogs,  through  the 
water  around  two  points  of  rock.  The  ice  was  rotten,  and  there 
was  a  strip  of  open  water  ten  yards  wide  between  it  and  the 
shore.  That  night  we  had  milk  in  our  tea,  the  only  time  during 
my  stay  in  Russian  America.  The  house  at  Topanika,  though 
well  built,  is  very  smoky,  so  much  so  that  in  good  weather  it 
is  better  to  camp  out  of  doors. 

The  next  day  we  started  for  Unalaklik  about  eight  o'clock. 
We  had  broken  all  the  bone  off  the  runners,  and  the  sled 
moved  slowly.  I  pushed  on  ahead,  and  reached  Unalaklik  about 
two  o'clock  ;  the  dogs  arrived  about  two  hours  afterward. 

The  annual  rumor  of  a  proposed  invasion  by  the  Shageluk  In- 
galiks  had  reached  Unalaklik  during  my  absence,  and  after  two 
days'  excitement  had  been  forgotten. 

November  3d,  Isaac's  brother  arrived  from  Kotzebue  Sound 
with  two  kegs  of  rum,  bought  from  the  traders.  The  whole 
village  was  in  an  uproar  very  soon,  and  the  Russians  barred  the 
doors  and  loaded  their  guns,  shaking  in  their  shoes  with  fear. 
Poor  Isaac  came  up  to  the  fort,  without  a  weapon  of  any  kind, 
II 


1 62  THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 

and  the  Russians  seized  him,  tied  him  with  ropes,  and  beat  him 
dreadfully  with  dog-whips.  I  remonstrated,  but  they  paid  no 
attention  to  it,  and  when  weary  of  abusing  him  they  turned  him 
out  of  the  fort,  half  naked,  and  blind  with  the  treatment  he  had 
received.  As  soon  as  it  became  known  in  the  village  the  women 
united  in  bewailing  the  misfortune,  and  the  wind  brought  the'r 
cries  distinctly  to  our  ears.  Isaac's  wife  came  up  to  the  window 
of  the  bidarshik's  room  and  cried,  "  We  will  tell  the  Americans 
when  they  come  back,  and  they  will  not  forget  us,"  but  she  was 
only  answered  with  curses.  More  brutality  joined  to  greater 
cowardice  I  hope  never  to  witness. 

The  storm  blew  over  in  time,  though  the  hatred  which  all  the 
natives  bore  the  Russians  was  much  increased.  Isaac  was  very 
popular  among  the  Innuit,  and  had  never  injured  the  Russians 
in  any  way.  I  took  some  medicine  and  went  down  to  the  village 
next  day,  and  dressed  his  wounds  and  bruises,  but  the  Russians 
were  afraid  to  leave  the  fort  for  a  week. 

On  the  8th  of  November  an  old  woman  died  very  suddenly 
in  the  village.  The  warm  weather  in  October  had  occasioned 
much  sickness  everywhere  among  the  natives.  Pleurisy  and  bron- 
chitis were  very  prevalent ;  many  were  sick,  and  all  much  alarmed. 
By  the  liberal  use  of  mustard  I  assisted  many  of  them,  and  my 
attempts  to  cure  them  met  with  the  utmost  gratitude  from  the 
poor  people.  The  weather  was  very  cold,  and  a  piercing  east 
wind  prevailed,  which  did  not  help  matters. 

Near  the  fort  is  a  small  village  of  Kaviaks  ;  their  chief,  named 
Kamokin,  had  been  of  much  assistance  to  Captain  Pim  and  other 
explorers  in  search  of  Franklin.  He  was  always  harping  on 
this  subject,  and  brought  it  forward  on  every  occasion.  A  more 
persevering  old  beggar  I  never  saw,  nor  were  any  of  the  others  so 
unreliable  or  so  mean.  A  fierce  bulldog  given  him  by  the  English 
was  a  perfect  nuisance  in  the  village.  One  of  his  workmen  was 
sick  with  pneumonia,  but  not  dangerously  ;  he  was  in  a  fair  way 
to  recover  when  the  old  woman  died.  Fearful  that  this  man 
would  die  in  the  house,  which  must  then  be  deserted,  Kamokin, 
with  the  greatest  barbarity,  and  deaf  to  our  remonstrances,  put 
him  out  of  doors  in  a  cotton  tent,  without  food,  blanket,  or  fire. 
Of  course,  in  two  days,  with  the  temperature  thirty  below 
zero  and  a  sharp  wind,  the  poor   fellow   died.     His    body  was 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  163 

dragged  a  short  distance,  wrapped  in  a  piece  of  sealskin,  covered 
with  one  or  two  logs,  and  all  his  little  property,  including  his  gun, 
scattered  about  on  the  ground.  Left  in  this  way,  the  dogs  soon 
attacked  it,  and  it  was  only  by  threatening  Kamokin  that  we 
would  take  the  body  and  throw  it  into  his  house  through  the 
smoke-hole,  that  we  finally  induced  him  to  give  it  decent  burial. 

The  cold  weather  continued,  and  we  expected  Kun'lla  with  the 
dogs  every  day.  Meanwhile  I  had  a  number  of  women  set  at 
work  making  new  harness,  as  the  old  was  worn  out,  and  we  should 
need  a  double  supply.  These  harnesses  are  made  with  two  bands 
over  the  back,  sewed  on  each  side  to  a  broad  band  which  passes 
around  the  chest  and  is  prolonged  into  two  traces.  Beneath,  a 
belly-band  with  a  button  and  loop  holds  it  on.  A  single  small 
sealskin  will  make  a  dozen  good  harnesses.  The  thicker  skins 
make  the  best,  and  they  are  often  ornamented  with  red  flannel 
and  bright  buttons. 


CHAPTER    V. 

Arrival  of  Kurilla  and  the  dogs.  —  Departure  from  Unalaklik.  —  Various  kinds  of 
sledges.  —  Arrival  at  Iktigalik.  —  Series  of  detentions.  —  Indian  avarice.  —  At 
Ulukuk  and  across  the  portage.  —  Comparative  merits  of  different  sledges.  —  Wol- 
asatux.  —  Arrival  at  Nulato.  —  Sham  hysterics.  —  Fish-traps.  —  Kurilla's  return.  — 
Journey  to  the  Kaiyuh  River.  —  Housekeeping.  —  Christmas  and  New- Year's.  — 
Snaring  grouse.  —  Yukon  fish. — Continued  sickness.  —  Arrival  of  the  mail. — 
Start  for  the  Redoubt.  —  How  the  Russians  travel  z's.  how  the  Americans  travel. 
—  Arrival  at  the  Redoubt.  —  Return  to  Iktigalik.  —  Break-down  and  repairs.  —  Dog- 
driving,  and  camp  life  in  the  Yukon  territory.  —  Snowshoes.  —  Arrival  at  Nulato.  — 
Expeditions  among  the  Nulato  Hills.  —  Hostile  Koyukuns.  —  Reasons  for  their  hos- 
tility.—  Character  of  the  western  Tinneh.  —  Endurance. —  Prevalent  diseases. — 
Snow-goggles.  —  Totems.  —  Dances  and  songs.  —  Arms.  —  Habits  of  life.  —  Ad- 
ditional notes  on  the  Kutchin  tribes.  —  Making  shot.  —  Attack  on  Tekunka  and  the 
result.  —  Arrival  of  swallows  and  geese.  —  Break-up  of  the  ice.  —  Narrow  escape.  — 
Non-arrival  of  Indians.  —  Pavloff 's  departure. 

EARLY  in  the  forenoon  of  November  I2th  I  was  called  out 
by  a  cry  that  dogs  were  coming.  On  reaching  the  river- 
bank  I  saw  the  tall  form  of  the  indefatigable  Kurilla  behind  a 
rapidly  advancing  sled.  He  had  hardly  reached  the  fort  when 
Pavloff,  Paspi'lkoff,  Peetka,  and  Ivan  the  tyone  came  in  sight 
with  two  other  sleds.  All  was  as  usual  at  Nulato,  and  there  was 
a  fair  prospect  of  abundance  of  fish  in  the  coming  winter.  We 
greeted  them  heartily,  and  were  soon  seated  around  the  steaming 
samovar.  They  were  eight  days  from  Nulato,  and  had  found  the 
ice  on  the  Yukon  in  good  condition,  though  there  were  still  open 
places  in  it.  The  Russians  were  bound  for  the  Redoubt,  and 
Ivan  had  come  to  Unalaklik  to  buy  oil. 

The  14th  was  stormy,  and  on  the  15th  I  arranged  to  start  for 
Ulukuk.  I  was  short  of  dogs,  as  S'Lcpanoff  had  taken  all  the  dogs 
belonging  to  the  Telegraph  Company,  except  those  which  Kurilla 
had  brought  from  Nulato.  I  was  able  to  secure  nine  from  the 
Unalaklik  village,  and  hired  three  Mahlemuts  10  assist  us  as  far  as 
Ulukuk  and  perhaps  to  Nulato.  I  obtained  two  Innuit  sleds, 
which  would  be  available  only  as  far  as  Ulukuk.     '^^hese  sleds  are 


THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 


165 


admirably  suited  for  travelling  over  the  ice,  but  are  too  heavy  to 
use  on  a  portage.  They  are  made  of  spruce  wood,  with  the  run- 
ners shod  with  bone  cut  from  the  upper  edge  of  the  jawbone  of 
the  whale,  and  pegged  on  with  birch  pegs.  They  are  brought  from 
Bering  Strait,  and  good  ones  are  worth  ten  sables  a  pair.  The 
sled  is  furnished  with  a  flat  bottom  made  of  slats,  on   which  the 


lunuit  sled  of  Norton  Sound. 

load  is  laid,  and  with  a  low  horizontal  rail.  We  were  accustomed 
to  lash  a  pole  on  each  side,  projecting  behind  the  sled  at  an  angle 
of  fifty  degrees  with  the  runner  These  poles,  strengthened  with 
a  cross-bar,  assisted  materially  in  pushing  and  guiding  the  sled 
and  in  lifting  it  up  and  down  steep  banks. 

We  had  brought  down  from  Fort  Yukon  to  Nulato,  the  previous 
summer,  two  Hudson  Bay  sledges  and  a  set  of  harness.     They  are 


Hudson  Bay  sled,  loaded. 


made  of  three  birch  boards  about  twelve  feet  long.  These  are  cut 
thin  at  one  end,  about  three  feet  of  which  is  bent  over,  lashed  and 
covered  with  rawhide  to  keep  it  in  place.  Inside  of  this  curve  the 
voyageur  carries  his  kettle.  The  boards  are  secured  to  each  other 
by  crosspieces  well  lashed  on.  The  load  is  placed  inside  of  a  large 
bag  as  long  as  the  sled,  and  made  of  dressed  mooseskin.  It  is  then 
covered  over  and  firmly  lashed  by  means  of  a  rawhide  line  and 
netting  attached  to  each  side  of  the  sled.  A  piece  of  mahout, 
known  as  the  tail-line,  passes  through  a  loop  in  the  head  of  the  sled 
and  is  tied  to  the  lashings  over  the  load,  binding  it  all  firmly  to- 
gether.   The  preceding  sketch  shows  the  appearance  of  the  loaded 


1 66 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


sled.  The  harness  is  furnished  with  a  padded  collar,  like  a  horse- 
collar,  but  rounded,  which  goes  over  the  neck  of  the  dog,  and  the 
traces  are  long.  The  dogs  are  harnessed  tandem,  and  three  good 
ones  make  a  team.  The  traces  are  buckled  on  each  side  of  the 
dog  behind,  so  that  the  strain  all  comes  on  the  load  and  no  power 
is  wasted.  I  found  it  advantageous  to  lash  two  poles  to  the  load 
behind,  as  already  described,  as  it  is  very  hard  work  controlling 
the  motions  of  the  sled  by  means  of  the  tail-line  alone. 

The  Indian  sled  of  the  country  is  much  lighter.  It  is  made  of 
birch,  with  thin,  broad  runners,  which  bend  with  the  inequalities 
of  the  road.     The  accompanying  picture  will  give  a  better  idea 


Ingalik  sled  of  the  Yukon. 

of  it  than  a  description.  There  are  no  nails  or  pins,  the  whole 
being  lashed  together  by  means  of  rawhide  thongs.  The  load  is 
usually  covered  with  cotton  cloth,  and  firmly  lashed  to  the  sides 
and  rail  of  the  sled.  The  dogs  are  harnessed  two  and  two,  with 
a  leader,  to  a  single  line  in  front  of  the  sled.  The  traces  are  tied 
together,  and  attached  by  a  short  cord  to  the  sled-line.  The  har- 
ness was  described  in  the  last  chapter. 

We  had  had  many  discussions  during  the  past  season,  in  regard 
to  the  respective  merits  of  the  different  kinds  of  sleds,  and  I  was 
very  glad  of  the  opportunity  of  thus  putting  them  to  a  practical 
test.  The  Hudson  Bay  sled  is  the  only  one  used  by  their  voy- 
ageurs  ;  while  the  Russians  use  a  sled  similar  to  the  Indian  one, 
but  broader  and  more  strongly  made. 

We  started  for  Ulukuk  about  noon  of  the  15th.  Our  loads 
were  unusually  heavy  and  the  teams  small.  On  each  of  the  Hud- 
son Bay  sleds  I  placed  about  four  hundred  pounds,  and  gave  them 
three  good  dogs  apiece.  The  Indian  sled  took  about  the  same 
load  with  four  dogs,  and  the  Innuit  one  had  about  seven  hundred 
with   five   dogs.     The  latter,  being   shod  with  bone,  will  carry  a 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  167 

very  heavy  load  over  smooth  ice  with  ease.  I  took  one  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  sleds,  as  I  always  made  it  a  rule  to  take  as  heavy  a 
sled  as  any  man  in  the  brigade.  With  this  arrangement  no  man 
could  complain  of  the  excessive  weight  of  his  load,  and  laziness 
was  left  without  an  excuse.  A  light  sled  should  always  lead,  and 
break  the  road.  This  was  Kurilla's  post ;  I  brought  up  the  rear, 
to  prevent  the  natives  from  needlessly  lagging  behind.  When 
sure  of  my  men  and  with  a  good  road,  I  always  took  the  lead.  It 
is  a  good  plan  for  the  leader  to  carry  the  blankets,  chynik,  and 
axes  ;  for  if  a  storm  should  come  up,  and  the  others  .should  drop 
behind,  they  cannot  camp  until  the  day's  work  is  finished,  and 
they  have  caught  up  their  lost  ground. 

We  found  the  going  moderately  good,  and  camped  a  short  dis- 
tance below  Iktigalik  about  six  o'clock.  The  days  were  begin- 
ning to  be  short.  The  sun  rose  about  ten  o'clock,  and  by  three 
in  the  afternoon  had  again  reached  the  horizon.  His  highest 
elevation  was  far  below  the  zenith. 

We  reached  Iktigalik  early  the  next  day.  Here  we  camped, 
bought  dog-feed,  and  rearranged  the  loads,  substituting  an  In- 
dian sled  for  the  Innuit  one,  which  was  of  no  further  use,  as  we 
were  about  to  make  portages.  Matfay  had  promised  me  a  new 
sled  and  the  use  of  his  dogs,  for  which  I  had  paid  him  in  advance. 
Now,  the  old  ruffian  refused  to  let  his  dogs  go  at  all,  and  gave  us 
a  weak  and  almost  worthless  old  sled.  Ami'lka  and  others  had 
built  some  new  winter  houses  near  Nuk'koh,  and  had  deserted 
Uliikuk  entirely,  only  one  house  there  being  still  inhabited.  All 
the  Ingaliks  were  going  to  the  Kaiyuh  River  a  little  later  in  the 
season.  Here  Tekunka  had  announced  that  he  would  hold  a  fes- 
tival. He  was  now  on  his  way  to  Unalakli'k  to  purchase  oil.  We 
were  delayed  the  next  day,  having  to  patch  up  the  old  sled,  but 
got  off  about  ten  o'clock.  We  had  not  proceeded  far  before  three 
of  the  knees  on  one  side  broke.  After  making  the  best  repairs 
in  our  power  we  pushed  on,  and  about  noon  reached  the  new 
village. 

Here  we  found  a  large  number  of  Indians.  There  was  a  new 
sled  there,  and  the  owner  asked  for  it  a  can  (i  lb.)  of  powder,  ten 
balls,  and  ten  percussion-caps.  The  usual  cost  of  a  sled  is  twenty 
balls  ;  yet  I  would  have  purchased  it,  even  at  the  outrageous 
price  he  named  ;  but  after  paying  him  he  stooped  down  and  be- 


1 68  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

gan  to  strip  off  the  lashings,  saying  that  the  remni  belonged  to 
another  man.  At  this  my  temper,  which  had  been  at  the  boiling- 
point  ever  since  I  left  Matfay,  gave  way,  and  I  expressed  my  de- 
cided opinion  of  him  as  thoroughly  as  my  vocabulary  permitted 
me.  Leaving  the  sled  and  reclaiming  the  price,  I  pushed  on,  de- 
termined not  to  submit  to  such  an  imposition.  About  a  mile 
beyond  the  village  the  old  sled  gave  out  entirely.  This  was  the 
last  drop.  I  said  nothing,  but  took  out  my  pipe  and  sat  down  to 
calm  my  nerves.  The  others  did  the  same,  and  finally  Kun'lla 
spoke  up  and  said  that  we  must  go  back  and  buy  the  sled  pre- 
viously spoken  of.  He  suggested  that  he  had  a  small  tin  which 
held  only  half  a  pound  of  powder,  and  if  that  were  presented  to 
the  man  he  might  not  detect  the  difference :  in  this  way  we 
might  get  even  with  him.  We  had  plenty  of  mahout  to  lash  the 
sled  again.  I  told  him  he  might  try,  and  he  went  off  and  soon 
returned  with  the  sled.  We  had  meanwhile  boiled  the  chynik. 
and  now  took  our  tea,  after  which  we  reloaded.  One  of  our 
dogs  had  taken  the  opportunity  to  gnaw  off  his  harness  and  dis- 
appear in  the  woods.  Meanwhile  it  had  become  almost  dark, 
and  the  men  were  grumbling,  and  wanted  to  go  back  and  spend 
the  night  at  the  village.  They  invented  stories  about  there  be- 
ing no  ice  in  the  Uliikuk  River,  and  went  grudgingly  to  their 
work  when  I  told  them  that  stopping  was  out  of  the  question, 
and  we  should  sleep  only  on  our  arrival  at  Ulukuk.  This  day's 
adventures  are  fair  specimens  of  the  annoyances  sometimes  ex- 
perienced in  travelling,  and  which  only  patience  and  energy  can 
overcome.  The  dogs  are  given  to  running  away  when  most 
wanted,  and  light  steel  collars,  and  chains  such  as  horses  are 
hitched  with,  would  be  a  very  valuable  addition  to  any  traveller's 
equipment. 

We  arrived  in  good  order,  but  some  time  after  dark,  and 
camped  in  one  of  the  winter  houses.  There  we  found  a  few 
Indians,  and  obtained  abundance  of  trout,  fresh  from  the  river, 
with  which  we  fed  ourselves  and  the  dogs,  reserving  the  lighter 
ukali  for  the  road.  A  small  Indian  cur  occasioned  great  con- 
fusion during  the  night,  howling  and  fighting,  and  started  at 
last  for  the  woods,  with  several  of  our  dogs  in  pursuit.  I  had 
reckoned  that  old  Ami'lka  would  be  willing  to  lend  us  his  fine 
team,  but  he  refused;  —  such   is  life  among  the   Indians! 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  1 69 

The  next  day  was  occupied  in  repairing  damages,  reloading, 
and  recovering  our  runaway  dogs.  The  weather  was  disagree- 
ably windy,  with  snow. 

On  the  19th  we  started  very  early.  A  few  miles  from  Uliikuk 
we  were  astonished  to  see  dogs  coming,  and  in  a  few  moments 
the  previously  mentioned  cur  appeared,  with  Amilka's  three  dogs 
in  hot  pursuit.  These  were  immediately  impounded  and  pressed 
into  the  service,  forming  an  exceedingly  acceptable  addition  to 
our  insufficient  teams.  Even  the  cur  was  made  to  contribute,  by 
tying  her  to  the  foremost  sled  as  leader. 

In  crossing  one  of  the  gullies  by  which  the  tundra  is  inter- 
sected, the  new  sled  was  broken  beyond  repair.  The  Indians 
were  in  despair ;  but,  by  cutting  off  about  three  feet  of  the  other 
runner,  I  made  a  short  sled,  in  which  two  dogs  could  haul  our 
blankets  and  other  light  but  bulky  articles.  The  remainder  of 
the  load  and  team  was  distributed  among  the  other  sleds.  Ow- 
ing to  this  delay  we  were  obliged  to  camp  near  the  Vesolia 
Sopka.  These  repeated  stoppages  were  the  more  annoying  as 
our  dog-feed  was  short. 

The  next  day  we  made  better  time,  and  camped  near  Beaver 
Lake.  Many  deer  tracks  were  visible,  and  there  were  evidently 
herds  in  the  vicinity. 

The  following  morning  we  passed  Beaver  Lake  and  One-Tree 
Camp.  The  wind  and  snow  were  blowing  just  as  they  were  the 
year  before,  when  I  was  travelling  with  Mike.  I  little  thought 
at  that  time  that  my  next  journey  on  that  road  would  be  taken 
alone.  Facing  the  keen  wind,  I  got  my  nose  and  cheeks  some- 
what frostbitten,  but  soon  restored  them  by  rubbing  with  snow. 
It  has  been  said  that  freezing  is  unaccompanied  by  pain,  but  my 
experience  does  not  confirm  it.  The  feeling  is  as  if  a  thousand 
red-hot  needles  were  being  driven  into  the  flesh.  Of  course, 
after  it  is  frozen  beneath  the  skin,  there  is  no  further  pain.  Im- 
mediate application  of  snow  will  relieve  it,  and  the  usual  effects 
are  slight.  The  skin  peels  off  and  leaves  a  brown  stain  resem- 
bling sunburn,  and  quite  as  ephemeral.  Fire  and  warmth  should 
be  avoided,  as  they  produce  an  intense  burning  pain  attended 
with  inflammation.  The  best  plan  in  cold  weather  is  to  face  the 
wind  boldly ;  after  a  while  the  skin  will  become  inured  to  it. 
Arriving  at  Perivalli,  we  camped,  making  our  supper  of  likali 
and  tea. 


170  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

The  next  morning  we  started  with  the  twiHght.  The  valley 
through  which  we  had  been  passing  is  of  an  hour-glass  shape. 
The  narrowest  part  is  near  a  round,  abrupt  hill,  called  by  the 
Russians  the  Ass's  Head.  It  widens  toward  Ivan's  barrabora 
and  Kaltag.  We  camped  not  far  from  the  latter  place.  For  the 
last  three  days  we  had  been  on  snowshoes,  and  the  road  was  far 
from  good. 

In  the  following  morning  early  we  reached  the  Yukon,  and 
crossed  to  the  village  on  the  left  bank.  Here  I  bought  some  dog- 
feed  and  a  couple  of  rabbits.  There  were  many  fresh  marten  and 
fox  skins  on  the  caches,  and  most  of  the  men  were  away  trapping. 
At  this  season  the  fur  is  the  best ;  toward  spring  it  becomes  faded 
by  the  sunlight.  The  next  day  we  continued  on  our  way,  reach- 
ing Wolasatux'  barrabora  in  the  afternoon.  Dog-feed  was  very 
scarce,  and  I  was  obliged  to  give  them  only  half  a  fish  apiece, 
instead  of  a  whole  one,  which  is  the  usual  ration.  I  found  my- 
self very  tired,  having  worked  with  a  Hudson  Bay  sled  all  day, 
and  with  a  very  heavy  load.  I  came  to  a  conclusion  about  the 
sleds,  which  I  have  not  yet  seen  any  reason  to  change. 

The  virtues  of  the  Hudson  Bay  style  are,  that  it  will  carry  very 
heavy  loads  without  breaking  ;  that  it  will  make  fair  time  on  level, 
hard  snow  ;  that  the  method  of  harnessing  is  good  ;  and  with 
first-class  dogs  it  will  do  good  service.  Its  faults  are,  that  it  will 
not  carry  as  large  a  load  of  light  baggage,  dog-feed,  &c.,  as  the 
Russian  style  ;  that  it  is  much  harder  to  guide  ;  that  it  is  ex- 
tremely hard  work  to  take  it  up  hill  ;  that  on  a  side-hill  it  keeps 
sliding  down,  unless  a  level  road  is  beaten  for  it  ;  finally,  that  it  is 
almost  immovable  in  soft  snow,  a  large  pile  of  snow  always  form- 
ing under  the  head  of  the  sled. 

For  the  Russian  style  it  may  be  said,  that,  while  more  liable  to 
fracture,  it  is  much  lighter  ;  it  will  carry  an  equally  heavy  load, 
with  the  same  dogs,  as  the  other  style,  and  the  load  is  above  the 
surface,  and  not  so  liable  to  injury  from  water  or  snow ;  it  rides 
much  more  easily  on  a  hillside  and  in  soft  snow,  and  the  driver 
can  help  the  dogs  much  more  effectually.  The  Hudson  Bay  style 
is  the  best  for  carrying  such  loads  as  oil,  fresh  meat,  flour,  and 
hardware  ;  and  the  other  for  all  lighter  loads.  The  Hudson  Bay 
harness  is  decidedly  the  best,  but  not  suitable  for  a  large  team, 
which  would  infallibly  tangle  at  every  declivity.     The  Innuit  sled 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  171 

is  superior  to  both  on  the  ice,  and  far  inferior  everywhere  else. 
The  Hudson  Bay  dogs  are  swifter  and  better  trained,  but  not  so 
enduring  or  tough  as  the  dogs  of  the  coast. 

Wolasatux,  poor  man,  was  in  great  tribulation.  His  eldest  son, 
a  bright-eyed,  intelligent  boy  of  twelve,  was  evidently  dying. 
The  child  was  wasted  to  a  skeleton  ;  his  cheeks  burned  with  fever; 
his  stomach  alone  protruded.  The  old  man  and  his  wife  were 
both  laid  up  with  pneumonia,  and  his  breast  was  covered  with 
scars,  where  he  had  applied  the  actual  cautery.  I  left  as  much 
bread  as  I  could  spare,  and  some  pieces  of  backfat  for  the  sick 
boy,  who  brought  out  from  its  hiding-place  the  skin  of  a  lemming, 
which  he  had  prepared  for  me  the  previous  summer.  I  made  the 
old  man  a  liberal  present,  for  he  was  a  very  generous  and  kind- 
hearted  old  fellow. 

About  noon  the  following  day  we  reached  Nulato.  Only  three 
Russians  were  there.  The  house  in  which  I  proposed  to  winter 
was  unfit  for  occupancy,  being  without  windows.  It  had  been 
repaired  according  to  my  orders,  and  I  occupied  a  corner  in  the 
bidarshik's  house  until  my  own  should  be  ready.  Several  of  my 
dogs  had  been  taken  to  feed  during  the  past  summer  by  Indians, 
who  had  failed  to  return  them  in  the  fall.  I  sent  a  man  to  Koyu- 
kuk,  where  a  great  festival  was  being  held,  to  procure  the  missing 
animals.  Fish  was  very  scarce,  the  traps  catching  very  little,  as 
the  water  continued  high  in  the  river.  The  next  day  two  dogs 
arrived,  but  a  third  had  been  killed  in  a  rage  by  the  Indian  who 
had  it  in  charge,  as  he  had  hoped  to  keep  it  permanently.  The 
dogs  and  sleds  were  prepared  for  another  journey  to  Ulukuk,  to 
bring  up  the  remaining  goods.  On  the  28th  of  November  the 
brigade  started,  in  charge  of  Kurilla,  Johnny  accompanying  him, 
with  two  Indians  and  the  Mahlemuts.  The  Russians  got  after 
my  alcohol  for  collecting,  and  I  was  obliged  to  poison  it.  I  set  to 
work  making  windows,  and  laying  my  plans  for  putting  down  a 
fish-trap  on  my  own  account.  The  idea  of  being  dependent  on 
the  Russians  for  fish  was  repugnant  to  me,  and  I  knew  very  well 
that  they  were  often  without  fish  for  their  own  use. 

Several  of  the  Indians  at  the  fort  had  been  attacked  by  a  kind 
of  fit,  and  one  of  these  occurred  in  my  presence.  The  Russians 
consulted  me  as  to  some  means  of  cure.  The  patient  fell  in  a 
sort  of  convulsion,   struggling  violently,   appearing  unconscious, 


1/2  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

tearing  the  clothing,  and  breaking  everything  within  reach. 
There  were  no  symptoms  of  any  disease,  and  the  fits  were  epi- 
demic, seizing  one  after  another  at  short  intervals.  The  cases 
resembled  the  descriptions  of  those  people  who  were  supposed  in 
ancient  times  to  be  bewitched,  and  also  some  of  those  appear- 
ances which  have  accompanied  cases  of  semi-religious  mania  in 
Europe  in  modern  times.  Suspecting  the  cause  of  the  symptoms, 
I  recommended  the  application  of  a  birch  twig,  well  laid  on :  the 
result  exceeded  my  anticipations.  The  patients  arose  in  a  rage, 
and  the  epidemic  was  efiectually  checked.  The  reason  for  such 
behavior  was  inexplicable,  and  is  one  of  the  mysteries  peculiar  to 
the  Indian  mind.  It  is  probable  that  in  the  course  of  time  these 
fits,  at  first  wilful,  became  in  a  measure  involuntary. 

Having  finished  the  windows,  I  began  to  put  the  house  in 
order,  and  it  soon  assumed  a  habitable  appearance.  My  fever, 
which  I  had  hoped  was  thoroughly  conquered,  returned,  and  I 
felt  anything  but  well. 

On  the  4th  of  December,  Pavloft"  and  his  companions  returned 
from  the  Redoubt.  They  brought  discouraging  reports  from 
Kun'lla,  whom  they  represented  as  without  dog-feed.  They 
strongly  opposed  my  putting  down  an  independent  fish-trap,  say- 
ing that  it  would  cost  me  a  great  deal,  that  I  should  catch  no 
fish,  and  that  they  could  furnish  me  with  all  I  required  ;  but  I  de- 
termined to  persevere  in  my  own  plan.  These  fish-traps  are  the 
sole  dependence  of  the  Russians  and  Yukon  Indians  in  winter, 
for  a  regular  supply  of  food.  They  are  made  in  the  following.man- 
ner.  Green  spruce  trees,  straight-grained  and  without  knots,  are 
selected.  It  is  often  a  matter  of  great  difficulty  to  find  them. 
When  obtained  they  are  repeatedly  split  by  means  of  wedges, 
until  the  wood  is  reduced  to  strips  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter and  twelve  feet  long.  The  tough  green  wood  does  not  break. 
These  strips  are  for  the  basket  and  funnel.  Thicker  ones  are 
used  for  making  the  fences  or  mats.  The  former  are  carefully 
trimmed  until  cylindrical.  The  latter  are  tied  together  with 
osiers  until  a  sheet  of  network  is  formed,  with  the  strips  crossing 
each  other  at  right  angles,  and  the  meshes  about  two  inches 
long  and  one  high.  These  sheets  are  eight  feet  high  and  ten 
long.  The  basket  is  twelve  feet  long,  cylindrical,  tapering  nearly 
to  a  point  at  one  end,  and  open  at  the  other.     The  aperture  in  the 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  I  73 

point  is  about  eight  inches  in  diameter,  and  is  closed  by  a  small 
cover.  The  cylinder  is  about  two  feet  in  diameter.  A  large 
funnel  of  similar  network  is  made.  The  mouth  of  it  is  eight  feet 
square,  and  it  tapers  to  a  very  small  aperture,  just  large  enough 
to  admit  a  fish  The  point  is  inserted  into  the  open  end  of  the 
cylinder,  and  the  whole  is  tied  together.  The  network  of  both  is 
fastened  with  strong  twine  of  hemp,  or  the  inner  bark  of  the  wil- 
low. Holes  are  cut  into  the  ice,  uprights  driven  into  the  mud  at 
the  bottom  of  the  river,  and  the  mats  are  tied  strongly  to  them. 
In  this  way  a  T-shaped  fence  is  made,  extending  at  right  angles 
to  the  current  out  into  the  stream,  to  a  point  where  it  is  about  eight 
feet  deep.  The  funnels,  with  baskets  attached,  are  fastened  to  the 
ears  of  the  cross-stroke  of  the  T,  one  basket  pointing  up  stream 
and  the  other  down.  They  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  be 
lifted  to  the  surface  and  out  of  the  water.  The  ice  above  them 
is  broken  away  by  means  of  four-sided  chisels  made  for  the  pur- 
pose. As  they  are  raised  every  other  day  it  does  not  form  to  any 
great  thickness.  The  baskets  are  kept  in  place  by  sharp  poles 
attached  to  the  point  and  to  the  sides  of  the  funnel,  and  pushed 
down  into  the  mud.  Fish  going  up  or  down  stream  follow  the 
shore  until  they  come  to  the  fence,  which  guides  them  to  the 
mouth  of  the  funnel,  when  they  enter  the  basket,  from  which  they 
cannot  escape.  The  water  passes  freely  through  the  network,  and 
keeps  them  alive  for  any  length  of  time.  As  the  water  falls,  the 
fence  is  extended,  and  baskets  moved  out  or  new  ones  put  down. 
It  is  a  work  of  no  little  labor  to  cut  through  the  ice  and  put  down 
the  trap,  or  zapor,  as  the  Russians  call  it.  This  trap  was  original 
with  the  Yukon  Indians,  but  is  found  only  below  Koyukuk.  The 
upper  Indians  and  the  Hudson  Bay  people  know  nothing  of  it. 
Yagorsha  informed  me  that  the  Yakuts  had  a  similar  custom. 
Without  it,  in  winter,  starvation  would  reign  on  the  Lower  Yukon. 
Similar  traps  are  used  in  summer  and  raised  by  means  of  boats. 
The  slender  network,  exceedingly  frail  when  dry,  is  very  tough 
when  wet.  The  fish  are  shaken  out  by  opening  the  cover  at  the 
point  of  the  basket.  I  had  great  difficulty  in  getting  suitable 
wood,  and  had  to  send  six  or  eight  miles  from  Nulato  for  it.  I  cut 
the  willows  on  the  island  myself,  to  be  ready  for  work  when  Ku- 
ri'lla  returned. 

Metrikoff,  the  bidarshik  of  Nulato  before  Pavloft",  died  suddenly, 


174  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

leaving  two  bright,  intelligent  children.  The  Russians  had  re- 
tained them  on  sufferance  until  the  Governor  could  be  heard  from 
in  regard  to  them.  Maksutoif's  reply  was,  that  the  Company- 
would  do  nothing  for  them,  and  they  had  better  be  given  to  the 
Indians !  Their  mother  was  dead,  and  the  recommendation  of 
the  hard-hearted  Russian  was  carried  into  effect.  Ingechuk,  who 
was  a  relation  of  the  mother,  came  and  took  them  to  Ulukuk.  It 
was  hard  to  see  two  such  boys  deprived  of  all  prospect  of  educa- 
tion and  condemned  to  a  worthless  life  with  the  Indians,  but  it 
was  a  fair  specimen  of  the  character  of  the  Russians  in  Northwest 
America. 

The  weather  had  set  in  very  cold,  and  averaged  thirty  below 
zero  at  noon.  The  wood  for  the  trap,  which  had  been  obtained 
with  so  much  trouble,  proved  unsatisfactory,  and  there  was  no 
prospect  of  obtaining  more  until  Kuri'lla  returned.  Meanwhile, 
though  sick  and  miserable,  I  had  not  neglected  the  collections, 
and  had  already  several  hundred  birdskins  of  the  species  which 
are  winter  residents. 

Late  in  the  afternoon  of  December  15th,  Kuri'lla  made  his  ap- 
pearance with  the  brigade.  They  had  done  everything  I  desired, 
had  brought  all  the  goods  except  a  bag  of  oil  and  some  ukali, 
and  the  train  contained  four  Mahlemut  dogs,  beside  thirteen  of 
mine.  The  Innuit  had  come  forward  and  offered  dogs  as  soon  as 
they  heard  I  was  in  need  of  them.  I  could  not  have  trusted  any 
Russian  in  the  territory  to  do  the  work  as  well  and  faithfully  as 
Kuri'lla  had  done  it. 

The  Russians  were  out  of  fish.  I  had  ukali,  but  none  to  spare. 
It  was  evident  that  nineteen  dogs  could  not  be  fed  at  Nulato  for 
any  length  of  time,  and  I  determined  to  go  to  the  Kaiyuh  River, 
where  Tekunka  was  giving  a  festival,  and  distribute  all  but  one 
team  among  the  Indians,  to  be  fed  and  used  until  I  needed  them 
again. 

Notwithstanding  they  had  nothing  to  eat,  —  as  the  day  was  a 
Prasnik,  or  holiday,  when  they  were  not  obliged  to  work,  —  the 
Russians  preferred  sitting  in  the  house  and  grumbling,  to  the 
trouble  of  going  to  the  fish-trap. 

On  the  17th  of  December  the  Nowikakat  tyone  and  seven  men 
arrived  with  a  small  hand-sled  loaded  with  furs,  which  they  sold  to 
Pavloff.     When  they  were  at  a  little  distance,  though  their  num- 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  I  75 

ber  could  be  counted,  the  Russians  were  seized  with  one  of  their 
cowardly  fits,  barred  the  gates,  loaded  the  howitzer,  and  prepared 
for  an  attack  from  eight  men  and  a  boy  !  On  their  stating  their 
errand,  the  commotion  subsided  and  the  gates  were  opened. 

I  made  the  tyone  a  present  of  some  tobacco  and  ammuni- 
tion, in  consideration  of  his  services  during  the  previous  spring. 
With  Indian  assurance,  he  immediately  demanded  a  seine,  gun, 
blanket,  and  a  large  supply  of  ammunition,  which  of  course  were 
produced  forthwith. 

The  next  day  I  harnessed  all  the  dogs  into  one  sled  and  started 
for  Wolasatux',  riding  several  miles  for  the  first  time  during  my 
stay  in  Russian  America.  We  found  all  sick  on  our  arrival,  and 
very  short  of  provisions.  The  following  morning  we  proceeded 
up  a  small  river  and  across  the  country,  until  we  arrived  at  Te- 
kunka's  barrabora  on  the  Kaiyuh  River.  Here  we  found  the 
festival  in  full  blast  and  the  place  crowded  with  Indians,  dancing 
and  singing  all  night,  so  that  we  got  very  little  rest. 

The  country  is  rolling,  sparsely  wooded,  and  full  of  small  lakes 
and  rivers,  which  contain  many  fish,  especially  in  summer. 

The  next  morning,  as  the  Indians  were  still  engaged  in  their 
festivities  and  would  not  attend  to  anything  else,  I  put  on  my 
snowshoes  and  travelled  about  fifteen  miles  eastward,  to  the 
ridge  of  the  Kaiyuh  Mountains.  These  are  low  hills,  trending  in 
a  northeast  and  southwest  direction,  and  at  that  season  covered 
with  snow.  Beyond  them  the  country  was  rolling,  with  oc- 
casional hills,  and  sparingly  wooded.  The  rivers,  if  any,  were 
hidden  by  the  snow.  I  returned,  and  reached  the  house  in  time 
to  make  a  good  camp  outside,  as  I  felt  very  tired  and  unwilling 
to  be  deprived  of  sleep  for  another  night.  I  made  my  supper  on 
raw,  frozen  whitefish,  scraped  up  like  frozen  pudding.  This  dish 
is  not  unpalatable,  as  the  freezing  has  all  the  effect  of  cooking. 
Several  of  the  Indians  made  me  presents  of  mink  and  marten 
skins. 

The  next  day  was  devoted  to  trading.  I  secured  a  full  sled- 
load  of  frozen  fish  and  likali,  keeping  six  dogs,  and  hiring  In- 
dians to  take  and  feed  the  rest.  I  also  purchased  a  quantity  of 
frozen  berries,  and  some  mats  to  cover  the  floor  of  the  house  at 
Nulato. 

Tekunka  promised  faithfully  to   make  one  of  my  party  down 


176  THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 

the  river  in  the  spring,  and  I  gave  him  a  gun  as  part  payment 
to  cHnch  the  bargain. 

The  next  day  all  the  Indians  dispersed  to  their  homes.  We 
left  Tekunka,  passing  up  the  river  to  a  place  known  as  Jearny's 
barrabora.  Jearny  (meaning  fat)  was  the  name  of  a  very  stout, 
greasy  Ingalik,  who  had  a  house  and  fish-trap,  where  I  hoped  to 
obtain  some    more   fish.     The  afternoon  was  moonlisrht,  the  sun 


\ 


Jearny's  barrabora. 

setting  very  early,  and  after  stopping  to  buy  fish  we  thought  best 
to  push  on.  The  fence  of  the  fish-trap  at  this  place  extended 
clear  across  the  river,  and  was  made  of  bundles  of  willow  brush 
tied  together  and  placed  side  by  side.  There  was  only  one 
Indian  house  and  two  caches.  The  building  over  the  entrance 
to  the  house  was  large,  square,  strongly  built  of  heavy  logs,  and 
pierced  for  musketry. 

We  camped  five  miles  beyond.  I  had  determined  to  return  by 
another  route,  which  would  bring  us  on  the  Yukon  nearly  op- 
posite Nulato.  Here  I  met  with  a  serious  misfortune,  losing  a 
fine  meerschaum,  which  had  been  my  constant  companion  and 
solace.  I  was  now  reduced  to  a  single  brierwood,  in  very  poor 
condition.  The  next  morning,  starting  with  the  first  light,  we 
followed  a  very  poor,    roundabout  trail    toward   the  Yukon.     I 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  I  77 

went  on  ahead  of  the  dogs,  and  soon  outstripped  them.  About 
dark  I  reached  Nulato,  pretty  thoroughly  tired  out,  having  made 
nearly  forty  miles  on  snowshoes.  The  train  arrived  about  two 
hours  after. 

On  leaving  Nulato  I  had  placed  all  our  slender  store  of  crock- 
ery on  a  high  shelf,  that  it  might  be  out  of  any  ordinary  danger. 
What  was  my  regret,  on  going  into  the  house,  to  find  that  the 
shelf  had  given  way,  and  the  whole  was  in  fragments  on  the  floor ! 
No  more  could  be  obtained  for  love  or  money,  and  we  were  re- 
duced to  eating  oft' of  tin.  Luckily,  I  had  purchased  of  Ketchum 
a  Hudson  Bay  cup,  saucer,  and  plate,  made  of  iron  lined  with  por- 
celain. These  were  uninjured,  and  afterward  did  good  service. 
Another  plate  was  repaired  by  boring  small  holes  with  an  awl, 
and  sewing  the  pieces  together  with  strong  waxed  thread. 

My  eftbrts  were  soon  directed  to  the  work  of  supplying  our 
household  with  various  necessary  utensils.  Lamps,  small  cups, 
and  other  articles  were  manufactured  out  of  old  tin  cans.  Mos- 
quito-netting furnished  the  material  for  a  sieve,  and  with  Paspi'l- 
koft''s  assistance  I  made  a  candle-mould.  Seal-oil  lamps  are  very 
unsatisfactory,  requiring  constant  picking,  and  making  a  great 
deal  of  smoke.  Cotton  twine  furnished  wicks,  and  I  was  soon 
able  to  make  very  passable  candles  from  my  extra  supplies  of 
reindeer  fat. 

The  flour  which  I  obtained  from  the  Russians  was  a  mixture  of 
rye  and  wheat  meal,  usually  denominated  groats.  The  husks  were 
so  coarse  and  abundant  that  sifting  became  necessary.  The  Rus- 
sians raised  their  bread  by  means  of  leaven,  but  as  this  made  sour 
bread  I  adopted  another  plan,  which  is  here  described  for  the 
benefit  of  future  travellers.  A  gallon  of  warm  water  was  mixed 
with  a  handful  of  coarse  salt,  flour  enough  to  make  a  batter,  and 
was  placed  in  a  wooden  vessel  on  the  warm  peechka  over  night. 
Early  in  the  morning  flour  enough  was  stirred  in  to  make  it  of 
the  proper  consistency.  At  breakfast-time  the  fire  was  made,  and 
after  breakfast,  when  the  coals  were  removed  from  the  oven,  the 
bread  was  kneaded,  made  into  loaves,  and  put  in.  An  hour  usu- 
ally served  to  bake  it,  making  a  batch  of  perfectly  light,  sweet 
bread,  without  yeast  or  leaven.  White  flour  may  be  treated  in 
the  same  way,  but,  takes  longer  to  rise.  I  usually  made  up  about 
forty  pounds  of  flour  at  a  time,  and  the  bread  would  last  us  about 


178  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

a  week.  I  soon  found,  by  calculation,  that  we  must  be  very  careful 
with  our  flour,  and  was  obliged  to  weigh  out  the  daily  allowance,  — 
a  pound  each,  not  a  very  large  piece  of  such  damp  brown  bread. 
I  allowed  each  three  pounds  of  sugar  per  month,  and  a  pound  of 
tea  for  all  hands.  In  this  way  I  managed  to  make  our  supply 
last,  although  we  were  often  on  short  commons.  Fish,  rabbits, 
and  grouse  were  unusually  scarce,  and  often  entii'ely  deficient. 
No  deer  visit  Nulato  during  the  winter. 

I  had  saved  a  small  piece  of  frozen  deer  meat  for  Christmas, 
which  found  us  without  other  supplies  in  the  storehouse.  Christ- 
mas morning  I  bought  two  white  grouse,  and  sent  Johnny  out  to 
shoot  another,  which  he  fortunately  succeeded  in  doing.  With 
these,  some   berry  pies,  and   some  sweetened  short-cake,  I  made 


Yukon  grouse-snare. 

out  a  pretty  fair  dinner,  and  invited  Pavlofif  and  Yagor  to  eat  it 
with  me,  each  bringing  his  own  cup,  plate,  and  spoon,  as  my 
stock  did  not  set  the  table.  It  was  a  lonely  Christmas  compared 
with  the  last,  or  with  any  I  had  ever  spent  before.  It  was  impos- 
sible to  help  thinking  of  the  dear  ones  at  home,  of  the  Christmas- 
trees  and  festivities  they  were  enjoying,  and  equally  impossible  to 
doubt  that  they  were  thinking  of  us  as  we  were  of  them,  though 
many  thousand  miles  away. 

New- Year's  day  brought  cold  weather,  forty-eight  below  zero. 
My  hunters  were  unsuccessful,  and  our  dinner  was  reduced  to  fish 
soup,  cranberry  pie,  bread,  and  tea.  My  family  consisted  of 
Johnny,  two  Indian  boys,  and  Kuri'lla.  I  sent  the  boys  out  set- 
ting snares  for  grouse  and  rabbits.  These  were  occasionally 
successful,  and  eked  out  our  slender  bill  of  fare.     The  snares  ar 


THE    YUKOxN    TERRITORY, 


179 


made  of  twisted  deer  sinew  in  a  running  loop.  This  is  attached 
to  a  pole,  balanced,  as  in  the  preceding  sketch,  between  two 
branches,  and  caught  over  a  horizontal  pole  by  means  of  a  small 
pin  tied  to  the  snare.  Brush  is  piled  on  each  side  ot  the  tracks 
which  the  grouse  run  in,  so  that  they  have  to  pass  through  the 
opening  where  the  snare  is  set.  A  touch  loosens  the  pin,  and  the 
heavy  end  of  the  pole  falls,  hanging  the  partridge  or  rabbit  in  the 
air.  Some  seasons  hundreds  are  caught  in  this  way.  These 
grouse  feed  entirely  on  the  willow  buds,  and  the  crop  will  some- 
times contain  a  pint.  The  flesh  is  hard,  dry,  and  tasteless  ;  a 
long  experience  in  eating  it  has  left  an  unfavorable  impression. 
Our  fish-trap  was  in  process  of  manufacture,  but  illness  prevented 
me  from  assisting.  I  seldom  rose  from  my  bed,  except  to  weigh 
out  the  daily  allowance  of  bread,  and  I  felt  my  strength  failing 
fast.  In  spite  of  this,  I  could  hardly  force  myself  to  eat,  and  was 
tormented  with  constant  headache. 

Cold  days  alternated  with  warm  weather,  and  even  occasional 
rain.  Pavlofif  said  he  had  not  known  such  a  season  for  sixteen 
years.     Such  mild  weather  in  January  was  unprecedented. 

January  i6th  the  Indians  and  some  Russians,  whom  I  had  hired 
to  help,  commenced  putting  down  my  fish-trap.  Kuri'Ua  came 
home  with  an  ugly  wound  in  the  thigh,  from  falling  from  the  sled 
upon  an  ice-chisel.  I  dressed  his  wound,  but  this  disablement 
was  a  serious  misfortune.  All  the  Kaiyuh  Indians,  starved  out 
by  the  unwonted  scarcity  of  fish,  had  gone  to  Uliikuk,  where 
there  is  always  abundance,  to  stay  until  March.  Weeks  passed 
by,  and  not  an  Indian  came  near  the  fort. 

The  Russians  were  totally  without  fish,  returning  from  the 
examination  of  fifteen  baskets  with  three  poor  whitefish.  They 
were  living  on  tea  and  bread.  Their  dogs  were  nearly  starving. 
Ivan  started  up  the  river  on  his  annual  trip  to  Nowikakat,  and 
hoped  to  find  dog-feed  on  the  road. 

Kun'lla's  wound  healed  rapidly,  and  to  my  great  thankfulness 
he  was  able  to  ride  on  the  sled  and  examine  the  fish-trap,  which 
had  caught  six  whitefish,  —  a  good  omen.  The  first  week  or  two, 
before  the  resin  is  washed  out  of  the  wood,  the  trap  rarely  catches 
anything.  On  the  24th  of  January  there  were  twelve  fish  in  the 
trap.  From  that  time  forward  we  obtained  from  ten  to  thirty 
fish  every   two   days,   which   drove   the  wolf  from  the  door,  and 


l8o  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

enabled  me  to  save  my  ukali  by  leeding  the  dogs  partly  on  fresh 
fish.  The  Russian  trap  still  continued  almost  empty,  and  if  I 
had  not  persevered  in  my  plan  of  putting  down  an  independent 
trap,  I  should  have  been  left  without  fresh  provisions  and  lost  my 
dogs  by  starvation. 

The  first  fish  which  are  caught  in  early  winter  on  the  Yukon, 
are  the  "  losh"  {Lota  maculata)  of  the  Hudson  Bay  men.  These 
are  known  in  Lake  Erie  as  the  "  eel  pout,"  and  grow  in  the  north- 
ern rivers  to  a  very  large  size.  I  have  seen  them  four  feet  long 
and  weighing  sixty  pounds.  The  liv'er  is  very  large  and  full  of  a 
rich  sweet  oil,  which  we  found  very  useful  in  cooking.  The  livers 
themselves  are  good  eating,  but  very  rich.  The  flesh  is  hard  and 
tasteless,  and  is  usually  given  to  the  dogs.  They  present  an  ana- 
tomical peculiarity  in  having  from  one  to  four  distinct  gall  blad- 
ders. The  spawn,  which  occupies  a  large  part  of  the  abdominal 
cavity,  makes  an  excellent  soup.  The  next  most  common  kind  of 
fish  is  a  red  sucker,  which  grows  also  to  a  large  size.  The  heads 
make  a  good  soup,  but  the  rest  of  the  body  is  so  full  of  bones  as  to 
be  uneatable.  The  pike  {Esox  cstor)  is  very  common  in  the  lakes 
and  small  rivers,  but  rare  in  the  Yukon.  A  salmon-trout  is  rarely 
caught,  and  a  belated  salmon  occasionally  finds  its  way  into  the  trap 
as  late  as  January.  There  are  six  kinds  of  whitefish,  some  large 
and  others  small.  The  sea  whitefish,  or  Morskoi  scegd  of  the  Rus- 
sians, is  considered  the  best.  There  is  also  found  in  spring  a  fish 
resembling  the  whitefish,  but  dark-colored,  and  with  a  very  long 
dorsal  fin,  from  which  it  gets  the  Indian  name  of  "  blanket-fish."  In 
July  the  salmon  begin  to  ascend  the  river.  There  are  five  kinds. 
Three  of  them  are  good  eating,  but  the  others  are  only  fit  for  dogs. 
After  August  they  are  bruised  and  in  bad  condition,  being  cast 
in  layers  a  foot  deep  on  the  banks  of  the  small  rivers,  I  have 
seen  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dead  salmon  cast  up  in  this  way  by 
the  stream.  Of  course,  in  this  condition  the}'  are  only  fit  for 
dog-feed,  though  the  Indians  will  eat  them  if  other  food  be  scarce. 
Most  of  these  fish,  except  the  salmon,  are  common  to  the  rivers  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  territory. 

On  the  30th  of  January,  Pavlofi"  returned.  He  had  not  gone  far, 
for  want  of  dog-feed.  His  trade  consisted  of  a  black  bearskin  and 
one  lynx  ;  the  previous  year  he  had  brought  back  some  seven 
hundred  sables. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  l8l 

My  collection  had  thriven  pretty  well,  in  spite  of  sickness.  I 
had  a  keg  of  small  animals  and  fish,  two  boxes  of  birdskins,  and 
other  light  specimens. 

Still,  I  was  fearful  lest  my  sickness  should  increase  so  as  to  pre- 
vent my  collecting  in  the  spring.  I  saw  that  the  Russians  and 
Indians  considered  me  as  half  dead  already,  and  I  resolved  to 
overcome  it  by  force  of  will,  if  other  means  failed.  I  looked  in 
the  glass  one  day,  and  saw  such  a  cadaverous  reflection  there  that 
I  turned  it  to  the  wall.  I  had  already  made  preparations  for  my 
journey  to  the  sea-coast,  and  the  birch  was  seasoning  from  which 
I  intended  to  have  a  long  sled  made,  expressly  to  bring  the  bidarra 
over  the  portage  without  taking  it  apart. 

On  the  3d  of  February  there  was  a  commotion  in  the  fort. 
Dog-trains  were  approaching  in  the  distance.  A  rumor  spread 
that  Stepanoff  was  coming,  and  it  was  amusing  to  watch  the  un- 
accustomed energy  with  which  the  Russians  hastened  to  clean 
out  the  yard,  removing  the  accumulated  dirt  of  months,  and 
sweeping  the  path  clean  from  the  gateway  down  to  the  ice.  It 
was  not  Stepanoff,  however,  but  a  Russian  and  two  Creoles, 
with  two  of  Stepanofif's  fine  teams  from  the  Redoubt.  On  ar- 
riving, they  proved  to  be  Kamarofif,  Lukeen,  and  Aloshka ;  they 
brought  a  bag  of  oil  for  Pavloff,  a  two-gallon  keg  of  molasses, 
and  a  larger  keg  of  salted  geese,  —  a  present  from  Stepanoff 
for  me.  I  knew  at  once  that  they  had  not  come  so  far  merely 
to  bring  these  things.  I  asked  if  any  news  had  arrived  from 
Sitka,  and  received  only  an  evasive  reply.  After  a  little  I  called 
Lukeen,  who  was  a  jolly  little  Creole,  into  my  house,  and  stimu- 
lated him  until  he  told  me,  with  many  injunctions  of  secrecy, 
that  the  official  news  had  arrived,  via  Nushergak  and  the  Kusko- 
qui'm,  of  the  sale  of  the  territory  to  the  United  States,  that  the 
Russian  American  Company  was  wound  up,  and  all  the  Russians 
would  return  to  Sitka  or  the  Amoor  River  by  the  vessels  in  the 
spring.  This  was  good  news,  and  I  lost  no  time  in  hoisting  the 
stars  and  stripes  on  our  flagstaff  in  front  of  the  fort.  The  news 
was  soon  made  public,  and  all  received  it  with  joy.  Old  men  who 
had  been  many  years  in  the  country,  detained  by  trifling  debts  to 
the  Company,  which  they  had  no  means  of  paying,  were  extrav- 
agant in  the  expression  of  their  delight  in  the  hope,  so  long 
deferred,  of  seeing  Russia  once  more.     The  native  women,  who 


1 82  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

could  not  accompany  their  husbands  if  the  latter  chose  to  leave 
the  country,  were  in  tears  at  the  prospect  of  parting ;  while  oth- 
ers, whose  husbands  had  treated  them  with  brutality,  did  not 
conceal  their  pleasure  at  the  hope  of  getting  rid  of  them. 

Kamaroff  decided  to  try  his  luck  in  trading  at  Koyukuk,  and 
beyond  ;  on  his  return,  Pavlofif  was  to  go  with  him  to  the  Redoubt 
for  orders.  I  decided  to  accompany  them,  thinking,  if  I  did 
break  down  on  the  road,  I  should  be  within  reach  of  assistance 
from  them,  and  I  had  many  misgivings  as  to  my  own  strength. 

Paspi'lkofif  at  once  set  about  making  my  new  sled,  and  we  began 
to  prepare  sukaree  for  the  road.  By  dint  of  extreme  argument  I 
succeeded  in  getting  Peetka  to  accompany  me  to  the  Redoubt. 
I  proposed  to  take  Kuri'lla,  and  leave  Johnny  and  the  rest  to  take 
care  of  the  house. 

Kamaroff  and  Lukeen  returned  with  a  few  furs  on  the  13th, 
and  everything  was  prepared  for  an  early  start  the  next  day. 
Our  loads  consisted  principally  of  the  collections.  I  took  a  Hud- 
son Bay  sled,  and  the  long  sled  for  the  boat,  with  eight  dogs.  On 
the  14th  we  set  out.  I  found  myself  too  weak  to  walk,  and  was 
obliged  to  ride  nearly  all  day  on  the  sled.  We  made  a  very  short 
day's  work,  as  the  Russians  stopped  to  get  dog-feed  from  the 
fish-traps,  and  camped  at  Wolasatux'  barrabora,  where  they  rum- 
maged all  the  caches  for  ukali,  the  Indians  being  at  Uliikuk. 
The  next  day  we  camped  at  Kaltag.  The  necessity  for  work  and 
the  determination  to  do  it  were  conquering  my  weakness.  I  felt 
better  than  for  months  previously. 

The  next  day  we  reached  the  hill  at  Beaver  Lake.  This  was 
an  excellent  day's  work,  and  I  so  remarked  to  Kamaroff.  "  Yes, 
Gospodin  Doctor,"  he  replied,  with  an  amusing  air  of  superiority, 
"  this  is  the  way  the  Russians  travel."  I  made  no  answer,  but  did 
not  forget  the  remark. 

The  next  day  we  took  tea  at  noon  near  Ivan's  barrabora.  The 
Russian  sleds  were  light,  and  they  had  full  teams  of  fine  dogs. 
With  our  heavy  sleds  we  were  soon  left  behind.  I  forced  myself  to 
walk  on  snowshoes  behind  the  sled,  and  relieved  the  dogs  as  much 
as  possible.  We  passed  Poplar  Creek,  and  came  to  the  Vesolia 
Sopka  about  dusk.  The  moon  was  shining,  although  there  were 
dark  clouds  coming  up,  and  we  pushed  on  as  fast  as  our  tired  dogs 
would  go.     Stopping  a  moment  to  rest,  I   improved   the  opportu- 


THE   YUKON    TERRITORY.  1 83 

nity  to  sketch  the  scene,  of  which  the  frontispiece  gives  a  good 
idea.  The  crust  was  covered  with  about  three  inches  of  soft  dry- 
snow,  and  the  Hudson  Bay  sled  pulled  very  hard.  Constant  exer- 
cise of  the  lungs  and  whip  were  necessary  to  keep  the  dogs  up  to 
their  work.  On  we  trudged,  following  the  track,  lifting  the  sleds 
up  and  down  gullies,  pushing  through  occasional  drifts,  and  shout- 
ing encouragement  and  admonition  to  the  dogs,  calling  each  by 
his  name. 

We  did  not  turn  off  from  the  tundra  at  Ulukuk,  but  kept  on, 
until  I  noticed  that  there  were  no  new  tracks,  and  called  to  Ku- 
ri'lla,  inquiring  where  the  Russians  were.  He  replied  that  he  did 
not  know  ;  perhaps  they  had  camped  at  Ulukuk  ;  but  as  that  road 
was  such  a  bad  one  he  had  kept  on  the  Indian  trail  across  the 
tundra  direct  to  Ikti'galik.  I  approved  of  his  determination,  but 
saw  that  we  must  reach  the  latter  place  before  we  could  camp,  as 
the  trees  along  the  edge  of  the  tundra  were  small  and  sparse,  the 
wind  was  rising,  snow  beginning  to  fall,  and  poorga  impended. 
At  last  we  reached  the  river,  and  collected  all  our  energies,  as  the 
blast,  carrying  snow  and  almost  blinding  us,  was  increasing  in 
severity.  In  half  an  hour  we  passed  a  fish-trap,  and  soon  after, 
the  welcome  sight  of  the  tall  caches  against  the  sky  met  our  eyes. 
We  carried  the  sleds  up  the  bank  with  a  will  and  a  shout,  which 
brought  the  Indians  like  marmots  from  their  burrows.  An  In- 
dian who  had  been  with  us  during  the  early  part  of  the  day  came 
out  and  inquired  where  the  Russians  were.  Kurilla  replied  that 
we  did  not  know,  probably  at  Ulukuk.  The  air  rang  with  their 
shouts  of  derision,  at  the  idea  that  a  sick  man,  with  heavy  loads 
and  feeble  teams,  should  have  outstripped  the  fine  dogs  and  empty 
trains  of  the  Russians.  The  poor  dogs  were  unharnessed,  and 
immediately  curled  themselves  up  to  sleep,  refusing  to  eat,  from 
fatigue.  It  was  with  a  pardonable  feeling  of  pride  that  I  took 
my  place  in  the  house  by  the  fire,  and  discussed  the  day's  work 
over  a  cheerful  cup  of  tea.  By  the  winding  road  which  we  were 
obliged  to  take,  we  had  made  not  less  than  fifty  miles,  unquestion- 
ably the  longest  day's  travel  with  loaded  sleds  which  had  been 
made  in  that  part  of  the  territory  within  the  memory  of  the  old- 
est inhabitant. 

The  next  morning,  after  a  long  night's  rest,  we  arose  and  fed 
the  dogs.     The  teams  were  loaded  and  harnessed  up,  and  I  spent 


184  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

a  half-hour  purchasing  deer  meat  and  likali  for  my  dogs  on  my 
return.  We  then  started  down  the  river,  and  after  a  mile  or  two 
stopped  to  obtain  some  water.  Just  as  we  were  about  to  push  on, 
the  Russians,  who  had  been  travelling  since  daybreak,  came  over 
the  bank.  Kamaroff  advanced,  cap  in  hand,  and  inquired  where 
I  spent  the  night.  I  informed  him,  and  he  remarked  that  we  had 
made  an  excellent  day's  work  yesterday.  It  was  now  my  turn, 
and  I  replied,  "  Yes,  Kamaroff,  that  is  the  way  the  Americans 
travel !  " 

About  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  we  reached  Unalakli'k. 
Here  we  found  Ostrofskoi  alone,  Popoff  having  been  recalled  to 
the  Redoubt.  After  some  trouble,  I  hired  a  Mahlemut  sled  to 
take  our  goods  on  to  St.  Michael's.  All  the  Innuit  were  away 
hunting  deer,  only  two  or  three  old  people  remaining  in  the  vil- 
lage. 

After  a  cold,  rough  journey,  we  reached  the  Redoubt  about 
noon  of  the  23d.  The  wind  was  very  strong,  the  ice  broken  and 
piled  up  in  barricades  twenty  feet  high.  The  temperature  aver- 
aged twenty-eight  below  zero.  We  were  just  in  time  for  a  hot 
bath,  and  Stepanoff  received  me  with  great  hospitality,  A  pri- 
vate letter  from  the  Russian  ex-governor  had  informed  him  of  the 
circumstances  of  the  sale  and  transfer  of  the  country,  and  the 
arrival  of  General  Rousseau  at  Sitka.  The  winter  expeditions 
from  the  Redoubt  had  been  very  successful,  and  more  furs  had 
been  obtained  than  for  many  previous  years. 

I  obtained  two  bags  of  flour,  some  powder,  and  tea,  from  Ste- 
panoff. At  home  it  would  sound  queerly  to  talk  of  going  three 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  for  a  bag  of  flour,  but  here  it  was  well 
worth   the   trouble. 

Though  still  very  weak,  I  felt  perfectly  well,  and  could  ascribe 
my  recovery  only  to  the  exercise  of  will  required  by  the  journey. 

On  the  27th  of  February  I  started  with  Pavloff  for  Nulato. 
We  were  able  to  pass  around  Tolstoi  Point  on  the  ice,  an  unusual 
occurrence,  which  facilitated  our  journey.  We  arrived  at  Unala- 
kli'k on  the  29th.  I  found  that  Ostrofskoi  had  made  away  with  a 
good  many  of  the  ukali  which  I  had  relied  on  to  feed  my  dogs  on 
the  return.  It  was  impossible  to  obtain  restitution,  as  ukali  were 
not  to  be  had  for  the  asking.    These  fellows  are  inveterate  thieves. 

On  the  2d  of  March  I  reached  Ikti'sralik.     I  had  hired  several 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  1 85 

extra  dogs  from  the  Russians,  and  found  two  of  my  own  here, 
which  Andrea  had  stolen.  The  place  was  crowded  with  the 
Kaiyuh  Ingaliks,  and  I  gave  him  a  rating  for  his  dishonesty,  in 
their  presence,  which  made  him  sneak  away  like  a  whipped  cur. 

We  determined  to  strike  on  to  the  tundra  directly  beyond 
Ikti'galik,  and  I  would  recommend  this  plan  to  all  future  travel- 
lers. It  is  far  preferable  to  the  old  route  by  way  of  Ulukuk. 
By  keeping  along  the  bases  of  the  Ulukuk  hills,  a  nearly  even 
road  may  be  obtained  as  far  as  the  Vesolia  Sopka.  At  the  first 
bank  beyond  Ikti'galik  the  runner  of  the  new  sled  carrying  the 
bidarra  broke  short  off.  My  mortification  was  great,  and  the 
Russians  passed  on,  thinking  us  disabled  for  several  days  at  least. 
To  make  a  birch  runner,  the  wood  must  be  bent  while  green,  and 
then  well  seasoned.  To  do  that  here  was  out  of  the  question, 
and  we  lighted  our  pipes  and  sat  down  to  consider  what  could  be 
done.  After  consultation,  Kun'Ua  started  off  with  the  axe  over 
his  shoulder,  and  I  made  a  good  fire,  and  put  on  the  chynik, 
determined  to  be  comfortable,  whatever  might  turn  up.  Kun'Ua 
returned  with  a  slender  spruce  tree,  which  he  rapidly  hewed 
into  the  shape  of  a  runner.  I  sent  an  Indian  back  to  the  village 
to  borrow  an  awl  and  buy  some  small  sealskin  line.  As  soon  as 
the  runner  was  hewn  out,  we  bent  it  in  the  fire,  and  in  two 
hours  we  had  the  sled  completely  repaired.  The  new  runner 
was  thick,  heavy,  and  clumsy,  but  answered  the  purpose  very 
well.  Deerskins,  to  prevent  the  sealskin  from  chafing,  were  laid 
on  the  sled,  which  had  no  rail.  The  boat  was  then  replaced,  and 
strongly  lashed.  We  took  our  tea,  and  proceeded  on  our  way. 
In  the  afternoon  we  passed  the  Russians,  who  had  camped  near 
a  small  stream.  They  were  much  surprised  and  disgusted  at 
seeing  us  so  soon.  We  camped  just  beyond  the  Vesolia  Sopka. 
I  had  the  heaviest  load  on  one  of  the  Hudson  Bay  sleds,  Kuri'lla 
had  the  bidarra,  and  an  Indian  called  Blackbird  had  the  other 
sled. 

My  team  comprised  three  dogs.  The  leader  was  a  fine  black 
dog  named  Ikkee,  who  had  a  magnificent  bushy  tail,  which  was 
always  erect  and  curly.  The  next  one  was  black  and  white,  and 
called  Sawashka,  a  hard  worker  and  of  amiable  disposition. 
Next  the  sled  was  old  Kamuk,  my  favorite,  and  the  ugliest  dog 
in  the  brigade.     His  tail,  poorly  furnished  with  hair,  was  usually 


1 86  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

between  his  legs  ;  his  ears  were  short,  and  scored  with  the  marks 
of  many  battles.  His  face  was  stolid,  and  exhibited  emotion 
only  when  feeding-time  came,  or  when  some  other  dog  ventured 
too  near  or  lagged  behind.  His  body  was  large,  and  his  legs 
were  like  pillars  ;  his  color  was  white,  with  dirty  spots.  Alto- 
gether he  looked  a  good  deal  like  a  lean  pig.  But  how  he  would 
pull ! 

A  description  can  give  but  a  faint  idea  of  dog-driving.  It  is 
an  art  in  itself  The  nature  of  dogs  is  cross-grained,  and  they 
frequently  do  the  wrong  thing  with  apparently  the  best  inten- 
tions. Each  has  a  peculiar  look  and  character.  Some  are  irre- 
claimably  lazy,  others  enjoy  hard  work  unless  pushed  too  far  ; 
some  are  greedy  and  snappish,  others  good-humored  and  decor- 
ous. All  are  very  practical,  showing  affection  only  for  the  man 
who  feeds  them,  and  for  him  only  as  long  as  he  feeds  them. 
Hence  the  voyageur  should  always  feed  his  own  team  himself 
They  dislike  the  whip,  not  only  when  in  use,  but  in  the  abstract. 
They  will  always  destroy  one  if  they  can  get  at  it.  The  whip  is 
made  with  a  short  handle,  a  very  long  lash,  braided  of  leather  or 
sealskin,  and  usually  loaded  with  sheet  lead  or  bullets  in  the 
core. 

As  we  walk  behind  the  sled,  which  ordinarily  travels  about  four 
miles  an  hour,  we  have  an  excellent  opportunity  of  studying 
dogs.  One  habit  appears  to  be  ingrained  in  their  nature.  It  ex- 
hibits itself  at  street-corners  in  cities,  and  at  every  bush,  stump, 
or  lump  of  ice  which  they  pass  on  the  road.  When  travelling 
rapidly,  some  dog  will  stop  twenty  times  an  hour  to  examine 
any  bush  or  twig  which  attracts  his  attention.  If  a  leader,  it 
checks  the  whole  team ;  if  not,  he  usually  entangles  himself  in  the 
harness,  and  jumps  frantically  to  release  himself  as  he  hears  the 
well-known  crack  of  the  whip  about  his  ears.  If  a  log  comes  in 
the  way,  and  the  driver  is  not  ready  with  his  help  in  urging  the 
sled  over  it,  down  they  all  drop  on  their  haunches,  wagging  their 
tails  and  looking  about  with  a  pleased  expression,  or  uttering  a 
sentimental  howl.  With  a  crack  of  the  whip,  and  a  shout  to 
Kamuk  to  stir  himself,  their  reveries  are  broken,  and  we  go  on. 
Going  down  hill,  the  whip  and  lungs  are  again  called  into  requi- 
sition, to  keep  the  dogs  out  of  the  way  of  the  descending  sled. 
It  has  been    said  that  no  man  can  drive  dogs  without   swear- 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  1 87 

ing.  I  think  it  is  in  a  measure  true.  At  all  events,  he  must  have 
a  ready  store  of  energetic  expletives  to  keep  them  on  the  qui  vive. 
In  Russian  America  we  always  used  the  indigenous  epithets,  which, 
as  we  did  not  understand  them,  were  hardly  sinful.  If  there  is  a 
tree  near  the  trail,  the  dogs  invariably  try  to  pass  it  on  different 
sides,  until  checked  by  their  harness  ;  they  constantly  exhibit  such 
idiosyncrasies,  and  it  was  lucky  for  Job  that  he  was  not  set  to  dog- 
driving  :  if  he  had  been,  I  fear  his  posthumous  reputation  would 
have  suffered. 

At  noon  we  stop  for  a  cup  of  tea.  Here  the  true  voyageur  ex- 
hibits himself  in  building  the  fire.  A  greenhorn  or  an  Indian  will 
make  a  conical  fire,  at  the  side  of  which  you  must  place  your  chy- 
nik,  and  wait  until  it  chooses  to  boil.  A  white  man's  fire  is  built 
in  layers.  The  sticks  in  each  layer  are  parallel  with  each  other, 
and  at  right  angles  with  those  in  the  layer  beneath.  A  few  chips 
are  placed  upon  this  pile,  which  presents  a  broad,  flat  top,  on 
which  you  set  your  chynik.  A  few  shavings  are  whittled  from  a 
dry  stick,  and  you  light  your  fire  on  the  top  of  the  pile.  The 
free  circulation  soon  puts  it  all  in  a  blaze,  your  kettle  boils  in  ten 
minutes,  you  drop  in  your  tea  and  let  it  boil  up  once,  and  you  are 
ready  for  "  chy  peet."  If  the  fire  be  lighted  at  the  bottom,  it 
takes  twice  as  long  to  kindle,  and  if  you  boil  your  tea  more  than 
an  instant,  it  is  ruined.  Many  travellers  drink  a  caustic  decoction 
of  tannin,  which  they  call  tea ;  such  unfortunates  are  to  be  pitied. 

Tea  over,  you  empty  out  your  chynik,  and  set  it  in  the  snow  a 
moment  to  cool,  that  you  may  not  burn  your  sled  cover.  Having 
replaced  it,  and  seen  that  the  dogs  are  untangled,  you  shout  to 
Kamuk,  "  Be  off,  you  old  sinner  !  "  Down  goes  his  tail,  and  away 
you  go.  A  greenhorn  will  have  burnt  his  skin  boots  meanwhile, 
trying  to  warm  his  shins,  and  have  put  the  axe  where  it  will  knock 
a  hole  in  the  chynik  or  drop  out  through  the  slatting  of  the  sled- 
bottom,  if  you  have  n't  looked  out  for  him.  The  wind  blows  the 
snow  in  his  eyes  ;  his  toes  bump  against  the  bar  of  his  snowshoes; 
now  and  then  he  trips  himself  up  with  them  :  truly,  the  poor  fel- 
low has  a  hard  time.  If  he  has  the  right  grit  in  him,  he  will  soon 
learn,  and  laugh  at  these  things  as  you  and  I  do.  Up  hill  and 
down  dale,  until  it  begins  to  be  dusky  in  the  south.  Greenhorn 
thinks  it  is  the  west,  because  the  sun  sets  there.  In  June  we  will 
show  it  to  him  setting  due  north,  and  rising  there  within  half  an 


I  88  THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 

hour  after  it  went  down.  The  chief  of  the  brigade  has  been  on 
the  lookout  for  a  place  where  there  is  plenty  of  dry  wood,  and 
having  selected  his  ground,  gives  the  signal  for  halting.  Kuri'lla, 
who  delights  in  showing  his  proficiency  in  the  use  of  the  American 
axe,  makes  a  straight  wake  for  yonder  dead  spruce.  Greenhorn 
takes  an  axe,  and  chooses  a  small  tree  to  begin  with.  Somehow 
or  other,  the  chips  don't  fly  as  they  do  over  yonder ;  but,  by  dint 
of  chopping  all  round  like  a  beaver,  it  finally  falls,  burying  him 
under  the  branches  in  the  deep  snow,  where  he  must  stick  until 
somebody  picks  him  up. 

Meanwhile  the  direction  of  the  wind  is  noted,  and  the  camp 
placed  accordingly;  —  not  so  that  it  will  blow  on  the  backs  of 
those  who  sit  in  front  of  the  fire,  —  because  this  always  makes 
an  eddy  where  the  smoke  will  remain,  choking  everybody,  — 
but  so  that  the  wind  will  blow  on  their  sides,  lengthways  of 
the  camp,  and  carry  the  smoke  away.  In  March  we  must 
excavate  the  snow  to  a  depth  of  eight  or  ten  feet  before  we 
can  find  solid  ground  to  build  our  fire  on.  If  built  above  the 
ground  it  will  gradually  sink  beneath  the  snow,  leaving  us  in  the 
cold.  One  Indian  goes  in  search  of  water,  another  cuts  spruce 
boughs,  and  you  instruct  greenhorn  in  the  art  of  placing  the 
twigs,  stem  down  and  tips  up,  so  as  to  make  a  soft  and  springy 
bed.  A  green  log  is  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  bed,  to  keep  the 
blankets  out  of  the  fire.  Some  one  is  cutting  p'/ies  for  a  tempo- 
rary stage.  On  this  the  sleds  are  placed,  with  their  loads  intact, 
to  keep  them  out  of  the  way  of  the  omnivorous  dogs.  The  har- 
nesses are  also  hung  out  of  reach  for  the  same  reason.  Then 
each  dog  receives  his  supper  of  one  dried  salmon,  and  you  carry 
your  blankets  to  the  camp.  Kuri'lla  comes  staggering  under  the 
weight  of  a  huge  back-log,  and  follows  it  up  with  half  a  dozen 
more,  and  also  a  supply  for  morning  use.  The  camp  being  made, 
and  everything  else  done,  we  finally  light  the  fire.  Greenhorn 
asks  why  you  don't  do  that  first,  and  you  explain  that  the  eifect 
would  be  to  keep  everybody  in  the  vicinity  warming  themselves, 
while  the  camp  was  unfinished,  and  hence  the  other  necessary 
work  would  be  slighted. 

The  ever  grateful  cup  of  tea  being  ready,  and  such  other  pro- 
visions cooked  as  you  may  have,  you  enjoy  the  evening  meal  and 
discuss  the  events  of  the  day.     Supper  being  over,  you  light  your 


THE  YUKON     TERRITORY.  1 89 

pipe.  What  demon  would  have  the  heart  to  deprive  the  weary 
voyageur  of  his  tobacco,  —  or  what  money  would  buy  the  pleasure 
which  he  derives  from  it  ?  Oceans  of  whiskey  would  poorly  re- 
place his  cup  of  tea,  and  untold  gold  would  fail  to  purchase  his  pipe. 

That  delicious  fifteen  minutes  being  over,  one  last  glance  must 
be  taken  at  the  sleds  and  dogs.  As  you  return,  the  inmates  of 
the  camp  are  invisible,  beneath  the  surface.  The  fire  and  smoke 
and  glow,  which  issue  from  the  excavation  in  the  snow  and  illu- 
minate the  dark  evergreens  behind  the  camp,  remind  one  of  the 
mouth  of  Inferno.  The  deerskins  are  spread  ;  if  you  are  luxu- 
rious you  have  a  small  pillow,  if  not,  you  take  the  biscuit-bag  as 
a  substitute.  Water  being  scarce,  a  large  cake  of  snow  is  impaled 
on  a  stake  before  the  fire.  Beneath  it  is  the  chynik,  which  soon 
fills  with  water  as  the  cake  melts.  Your  nips  and  the  straw  from 
your  boots  are  hung  in  the  smoke,  to  be  thoroughly  dried  for  to- 
morrow's use.  Unless  this  precaution  is  adopted,  you  will  have 
cold  feet  the  next  day.  You  cover  yourself  with  a  blanket  on 
which  skins  of  the  arctic  hare  or  rabbit  have  been  sewn.  This 
forms  a  light  but  very  warm  protection.  I  have  slept  comfortably 
with  nothing  else  and  with  the  air  at  sixty  below  zero.  You  pull 
your  head  entirely  under  the  blanket,  leaving  a  very  small  hole 
for  air,  and  if  the  dogs,  who  like  a  warm  corner,  do  not  come  and 
lie  down  on  top,  you  may  enjoy  undisturbed  the  sleep  of  the  just. 

Leaving  our  camp  in  the  morning,  we  pushed  on  among  the 
trees  toward  Beaver  Lake.  Every  step  was  taken  on  snowshoes. 
The  snow  was  blown  in  our  teeth,  and  the  wind  howled  in  such  a 
way  that  we  knew  poorga  was  raging  on  the  tundra.  Near  the 
edge  of  the  timber  at  Beaver  Lake  we  found  an  old  camp.  This 
we  cleaned  out  and  enlarged,  making  a  first-rate  camp  of  it.  It 
was  useless  to  go  farther,  as  there  were  no  trees  and  it  was  impos- 
sible to  travel  over  the  open  country.  The  great  spruce  trees 
rocked  and  moaned  with  the  fury  of  the  blast,  and  the  snow  flew 
in  sheets  far  above  our  heads.  The  next  morning  it  was  even 
worse.  As  we  were  well  supplied  with  provisions  and  dog-feed,  I 
concluded  to  remain  where  we  were.  In  the  afternoon  the  Rus- 
sians came  up.  I  invited  them  to  occupy  part  of  our  camp,  and 
told  them  they  could  not  go  over  a  mile  farther,  and  then  would 
not  be  half  as  comfortable.  But  no  ;  their  energy  was  not  so 
easily  daunted,  and  on  they  went. 


I90 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


I  have  spoken  of  travelling  on  snowshoes.  To  travel  without 
them  in  winter  is  impossible,  but  sometimes  on  an  old,  well-beaten 
road,  or  with  a  hard  crust  on  the  snow,  and  while  travelling  over 
ice,  they  are  not  needed.  The  different  kinds  of  snowshoes  are, 
in  a  measure,  characteristic  of  the  locality  where  they  are  used. 


Different  kinds  of  snowshoes. 

The  Innuit  snowshoe  (a)  is  small  and  nearly  flat.  It  is  seldom 
over  thirty  inches  long.  The  netting  is  open  and  strong,  being 
made  of  fine  remni.  That  which  supports  the  foot  is  made  of 
strong  mahout,  which  passes  through  holes  in  the  frame.  It 
is  strong,  simple,  and  well  adapted  for  walking  on  the  hard  snow 
of  the  coast.     Both  shoes  are  alike. 

The  Ingalik  snowshoe  (c)  is  much  larger.  Mine  were  five  feet 
eight  inches  long,  and  strongly  curved  up  in  front.  They  are 
always  rights  and  lefts,  a  slight  difference  being  made  in  the 
curves  of  the  frame  of  the  two  shoes.  They  are  much  wider  in 
front,  and  the  netting,  which  is  of  deer  sinew  twisted  into  twine, 
is  much  closer  than  in  the  Innuit  shoes.  The  netting  under  the 
foot  is  the  same.  In  all  the  snowshoes  the  strings  are  alike. 
Two  short  loops  over  the  toe,  and  a  long  one  around  the  foot 
above  the  heel,  fasten  it  to  the  foot.  In  walking,  the  toe  sinks 
into  an  opening  in  the  netting  provided  for  the  purpose.  Begin- 
ners generally  strike  their  toes  against  the  bar,  but  after  some 
experience  they  learn  how  to  adjust  the  loops  and  prevent  this. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY, 


191 


The  Kutchin  snowshoe  (n)  is  made  a  little  smaller  than  the 
Ingalik  pattern,  but  much  in  the  same  style.  The  netting  is 
much  closer  and  finer,  and  is  made  of  fine  line,  cut  from  prepared 
deerskins,  called  babi'che.  The  whole  shoe  is  prettier  and  more 
artistic.     It  is  frequently  painted  and  ornamented  with  beads. 

The  Hudson  Bay  snowshoe  (b)  is  very  small,  thirty  inches 
being  the  regulation  size.  This  is  in  order  that  it  may  sink 
deeper  in  the  snow  and  beat  a  better  road  for  the  sleds.  It 
is  sharply  curved  upwards  in  front,  and  is  furnished  with  a 
knob  to  break  the  crust  of  the  snow.  The  frame  is  flat,  not 
rounded  as  in  the  other  kinds.  The  foot  netting  is  put  on 
around  the  frame,  and  not  through  holes  in  it.  All  the  net- 
ting is  very  fine  and  close,  and  made  of  babi'che.  They  are  gen- 
erally painted  in  gay  colors,  and  ornamented  with  tufts  of  colored 
worsted.  The  latter  in  moist  snow  must  be  a  great  nuisance,  as 
the  snow  must  stick  to  them  and  greatly  increase  the  weight. 
In  hunting,  the  Hudson  Bay  men  use  the  larger  Kutchin  shoe. 
The  latter  is  probably  the  best  of  all  for  general  use. 

The  next  morning  the  wind  had  gone  down,  and  we  started 
very  early.  We  passed  the  Russian  camp,  about  a  mile  beyond 
ours,  and  soon  overhauled  them  on  a  side  hill,  where  they  were 
stuck  in  a  large  drift.  I  proposed  to  go  ahead  and  break  the 
road  for  them,  at  the  same  time  taking  some  of  their  load, 
though  my  sleds  were  already  the  heaviest.  My  offer  was  ac- 
cepted, and  we  led  the  way  for  the  remainder  of  the  trip.  We 
camped  near  the  Ass's  Head  that  night,  and  about  ten  miles 
abo-ve  Kaltag  on  the  Yukon  the  following  day. 

The  road  on  the  river  was  exceedingly  bad.  The  long  March 
day  and  the  warm  sun  made  the  snow  moist  and  sticky.  Each 
snowshoe  would  raise  ten  pounds  adhering  to  it,  and  it  was  ex- 
tremely hard  travelling.  We  took  tea  three  times  during  the  day. 
Tired  out  with  running  before  the  dogs,  Pavloft^'s  Indian  lay  down 
on  the  snow  and  refused  to  run  any  further.  None  of  the  Rus- 
sians were  in  a  condition  to  take  his  place.  We  were  only  some 
three  miles  from  Nulato,  and  I  gave  my  sled  to  the  runner,  and 
took  his  place.  It  was  really  a  relief  to  exercise  another  set  of 
muscles,  after  walking  behind  the  sled  and  pushing  all  day.  We 
found  all  in  bed  at  Nulato,  as  we  were  not  expected  for  several 
days,  and  the  Russians  were  especially  surprised  to  see  me,  sup- 


192  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

posing  me  to  have  been  too  sick  to  return  immediately.  Pavloft^s 
wife  had  the  samovar  ready,  and  we  all  took  a  cup  of  tea  to- 
gether, which  did  much  to  relieve  the  fatigue  of  the  day. 

The  Russian  fish-trap  was  catching  nothing.  Mine  had  been 
very  fortunate.  There  was  a  pile  of  several  hundred  frozen  fish 
in  the  storehouse,  quite  sufficient  to  feed  my  dogs.  The  next  day 
Blackbird  was  handsomely  rewarded  for  his  work,  and  sent  back 
with  the  extra  dogs  to  Unalakli'k. 

Repairs  being  needed  on  the  fish-trap,  I  discovered  that  the 
Russians  had  appropriated  all  my  extra  wood  during  my  absence. 
After  some  trouble  I  obtained  restitution. 

Having  a  small  piece  of  glass,  I  inserted  it  in  the  window. 
After  getting  the  light  all  winter  only  through  parchment,  it  was 
a  great  relief  to  be  able  to  peep  out  occasionally,  and  to  admit  a 
few  rays  of  pure  sunlight. 

The  plans  which  had  been  settled  upon  by  the  Russians  were 
about  as  follows  :  A  raft  was  to  be  built  in  the  spring,  and  on  his 
return  from  the  annual  trip  to  Nuklukahyet,  Pavloff  was  to  em- 
bark with  all  the  Russian  employes  and  goods  belonging  to  the 
Russian  American  Company,  and  make  the  best  of  his  way  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  where  boats  from  the  Redoubt  would  meet 
him  and  conv^ey  them  to  St.  Michael's. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  month  of  March  I  made  several  expe- 
ditions, without  dogs,  to  the  hilly  region  back  of  Nulato.  In  this 
manner  much  geographical  and  geological  information  was  ob- 
tained. 

About  the  ist  of  April,  Bidarshik,  one  of  the  Koyukuns  who  had 
accompanied  us  to  Fort  Yukon,  arrived  from  the  mountains,  where 
he  had  been  deer-hunting.  He  brought  a  sled-load  of  meat,  of 
which  I  secured  the  greater  part,  —  a  most  acceptable  addition  to 
our  monotonous  fare  of  fish-soup.  He  brought  the  information 
that  Larriown  was  endeavoring  to  excite  the  Koyukuns  to  active 
hostilities  against  the  Nulato  post.  Larriown  was  one  of  a  family 
of  five  brothers,  all  influential  men  among  the  Koyukuns.  One, 
whose  name  I  could  not  obtain,  had  recently  died.  He  had  been 
concerned  in  the  first  Nulato  massacre,  and  was  accused  of  having 
killed  Barnard.  Since  that  time  he  had  committed  many  outrages. 
A  Yukon  Indian,  named  Nikolai,  who  had  been  extremely  useful  to 
Major  Kennicott's  party  in  their  explorations  about  Koyukuk,  had 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY 


193 


an  exceedingly  pretty  wife,  and,  with  his  brother,  was  possessed  of 
much  property.  In  the  fall  of  1866,  Larriown's  brother  induced 
Nikolai  and  his  brother  to  accompany  him  to  the  mountains  after 
deer.  There  the  former  killed  both  of  them,  and  hid  the  bodies, 
securing  their  guns  and  ammunition.  All  the  autumn  and  far  into 
winter,  the  other  Indians  sought  the  brothers  in  vain.  At  last 
the  murderer,  tired  of  hearing  about  them,  led  the  searchers  to 
the  place  where  they  lay,  and  boldly  avowed  his  crime.  He  then 
went  to  the  house  where  they  had  lived,  and  plundered  it.  Niko- 
lai's mother  reproached  him  with  the  unprovoked  murder,  and 
he  threw  her  into  the  fire,  forced  Nikolai's  wife  to  accompany 
him,  and  fled  to  the  mountains.  Of  the  whole  family,  only  the 
little  son  of  Nikolai  and  his  sister,  who  were  away,  escaped. 
There  was  no  one  to  revenge  them,  and  the  murderer  escaped 
unpunished.  In  the  fall  of  1867  he  died  of  pleurisy.  Much  sick- 
ness of  the  kind  prevailed  during  the  winter,  and  Larriown,  whose 
dictum  as  a  great  shaman  was  not  to  be  denied,  accused  the  Rus- 
sians of  having  caused  the  sickness  and  death  by  their  sorceries. 
This  may  seem  incredible,  but  such  reasoning  is  characteristic 
of  the  Indian  mind.  The  remaining  brothers  sent  beads  to  the 
various  Indians  as  an  inducement  to  attack  the  Russians ;  but  so 
far  they  had  hesitated,  from  the  scarcity  of  provisions.  Bidarshik, 
under  promise  of  secrecy,  divulged  the  plot  to  me,  and  begged 
me  to  leave  Nulato.  I  took  him  into  the  magazine,  showed 
him  my  stores  of  ammunition  and  my  arms,  and  told  him  that 
I  was  prepared  for  anything ;  that  the  Russians  had  given 
me  the  use  of  a  house  in  the  fort,  and  if  they  were  attacked  I 
should  assist  them  against  their  enemies,  —  giving  him  permission 
to  inform  the  Koyukuns  of  the  determination.  Rumors  were  rife, 
during  the  entire  spring,  of  a  proposed  attack,  but  none  was  at- 
tempted. 

Details  have  already  been  given  of  the  practice  of  shamanism 
among  the  Indians,  and  the  various  tribes  have  been  described. 
A  few  more  particulars  in  regard  to  them  and  their  mode  of  life 
may  not  be  uninteresting. 

The  Indian  character,  with  some  modifications,  is  the  same 
almost  everywhere.  The  Ingaliks  are  peacefully  inclined,  and  as 
industrious  as  any  Indians.  They  are  more  honest  than  the  major- 
ity of  uneducated  whites,  and  much  more  so  than  those  tribes  who 


194  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

have  been  degraded  b)^  the  use  of  Hquor,  They  are  courageous, 
but  not  bloodthirsty,  and  are  easily  controlled  by  a  firm  hand. 
Avarice  appears  strongly  in  their  characters  ;  the  aftections  are 
but  slightly  developed,  and  are  exhibited  only  toward  their  chil- 
dren. The  latter  are  obedient  and  respectful  to  their  parents, 
but  exhibit  no  love  for  them.  The  old  people  live  on  odds  and 
ends  of  food  which  the  young  ones  do  not  eat ;  this  seems  rather 
to  be  a  custom  than  any  deliberate  neglect.  The  opinions  of  the 
old  men  are  always  consulted,  and  usually  followed.  Foster- 
children  are  not  uncommon.  The  fruit  of  their  labor  belongs  to 
the  person  who  reared  them,  and  they  are  in  a  manner  slaves, 
but  still  possess  property  of  their  own,  and  marry  when  they  like. 
The  authority  of  the  foster-parent  is  retained  as  long  as  he  lives. 
Children  are  anxiously  desired,  even  when  women  have  no  hus- 
bands. The  Ingalik  women  are  less  inclined  to  sensuality  than 
many  others,  but  are  by  no  means  strict  in  their  morals.  Incon- 
tinence on  the  part  of  a  wife  is  seldom  punished  with  anything 
more  than  a  beating.  Excessive  laziness  or  ill-temper  sometimes 
induces  the  men  to  discard  them  entirely.  The  women  are  rarely 
chastised,  and  usually  well  treated.  Both  sexes  are  dirty  about 
their  persons,  and  handsome  women  are  exceedingly  rare.  The 
old  ones  are  often  hideous.  The  Ingaliks  are  tall,  but  more  slen- 
der than  the  Innuit,  and  their  legs  are  often  ill-shaped.  This 
comes  from  constant  sitting  in  a  small  canoe  in  summer,  and 
walking  on  snowshoes  in  winter.  They  are  seldom  very  muscu- 
lar ;  those  who  live  on  fish  are  invariably  the  most  dirty,  weak, 
cowardly,  degraded,  and  least  intelligent.  Their  number  appears 
to  be  decreasing.  Few  women  have  more  than  two  children  ; 
twins  are  almost  unheard  of  Many  women  are  barren.  The 
number  of  deaths  annually  increases,  from  their  habit  of  inhaling 
the  smoke  of  the  Circassian  tobacco  into  the  lungs,  which  greatly 
adds  to  the  prevalence  of  lung  diseases. 

While  the  Indians  are  exposed  to  privations  of  every  kind  from 
childhood,  they  are,  if  anything,  less  hardy  than  the  whites.  A 
white  man  of  ordinary  strength  and  endurance  can  invariably  tire 
out  any  Indian,  as  soon  as  he  has  become  accustomed  to  the 
mode  of  life.  I  believe  that  the  white  can  surpass  the  Indian  in 
everything,  with  but  little  difficulty,  even  in  those  things  to  which 
the  latter  has  devoted  his  attention  from  infancy.     All  my  own 


THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 


195 


experience  tends  to  confirm  this  opinion,  and  it  is  certain  that 
Indian  sagacity  has  been  greatly  overrated,  especially  in  the  fables 
of  such  romancers  as  Cooper. 

Diseases  are  quite  as  prevalent  among  them  as  among  civilized 
people.  As  yet,  among  the  Ingaliks,  zymotic  diseases  are  un- 
known. Pleurisy,  pneumonia,  bronchitis,  dyspepsia  (not  rare), 
asthma,  rheumatism,  colic,  hydrocephalus,  calculus,  urethritis,  and 
hemorrhoids  were  noticed,  and  various  mild  diseases  of  the  skin, 
boils,  and  small  tumors  are  not  uncommon.  Ophthalmia  is  pro- 
duced by  the  reflection  of  sunlight  from  the  mist  arising  from  the 
melting  snow  in  the  spring.  To  obviate  this,  they,  as  well  as  the 
Innuit,  make  use  of  goggles  after  the  annexed  pattern.     These 


Snow-goggles  of  the  Yukon  Indians. 


are  made  of  soft  wood,  cut  to  fit  the  face,  and  tied  by  a  string 
behind  the  head.  They  are  pierced  with  one  or  two  slits  which 
admit  of  vision.  The  inside  is  blackened  with  charcoal,  and 
some  have  a  small  ledge  over  the  slit,  as  a  shade,  also  blackened. 
I  found  these  goggles  superior  to  those  of  green  glass  with  which 
we  were  provided. 

Curiously  enough,  a  taenia,  developed  from  hydroids  found  in 
the  reindeer,  is  occasionally  found  among  these  Indians.  I  have 
seen  humpbacks,  club-feet,  and  other  malformations  among  Ko- 
yukuns,  and  once  a  deaf-and-dumb  man.  Strabismus  is  common, 
and  I  have  seen  several  cases  of  cataract. 

Their  remedies,  besides  the  rites  practised  by  the  shamans,  are 
few  and  simple.  Bleeding,  scarification,  actual  cautery,  ligatures,' 
steam  baths,  and  fasting,  are  practised,  but  they  have  no  knowl- 
edge of  the  virtues  of  any  roots  or  herbs.     The  women  seem  ex- 


196  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

erupted  from  the  curse  of  Eve.  Delivery  takes  place  in  a  few 
minutes,  the  mother  kneeling  ;  no  pain  is  experienced,  and  she  is 
about  again  and  at  her  work  in  half  an  hour.  The  infant  is 
rubbed  with  grease,  washed  and  put  to  the  breast.  They  are 
rarely  weaned  under  three  years. 

The  Indians  are  devoid  of  fortitude,  crying  at  a  scratch  or  cut 
which  we  should  consider  trifling  :  this  may  be  partly  ascribed  to 
ignorance.  They  are  short-lived,  few  men  reaching  forty-five. 
The  women  live  longer,  many  reaching  sixty.  Their  exact  ages 
can  seldom  be  determined,  as  they  keep  no  record  and  soon  for- 
get.    They  can  count  one  hundred,  but  no  further. 

The  work  is  divided  among  the  sexes  much  as  among  the  In- 
nuit.  There  is  no  such  enslavement  of  the  women  as  exists 
among  the  Kutchin  and  other  eastern  and  southern  tribes.  The 
men  do  nearly  all  the  hard  work.  They  have  no  pride  of  family 
such  as  is  so  prominent  among  the  Koloshes,  and  few  know  who 
were  their  grandfathers.  A  very  few  of  the  Ingaliks  have  more 
than  one  wife  ;  none,  as  far  as  I  know,  have  more  than  two.  The 
Koyukuns  are  more  lax  in  this  respect.  Cousins  do  not  marry 
among  the  Ingaliks,  but  there  are  no  rules  observed  by  the  Ko- 
yukuns in  regard  to  marriage.  There  is  a  superstition  among 
the  Koyukuns  that  a  youth  must  not  marry  until  he  has  killed  a 
deer,  otherwise  he  will  have  no  children.  They  believe  in  love- 
philters,  made  of  an  owl's  liver,  which,  to  be  successful,  must  be 
administered  without  exciting  suspicion.  The  totemic  system, 
properly  so  called,  is  unknown  among  them,  but  they  have  the 
practice,  as  described  among  the  Innuit,  of  selecting  a  patron 
spirit.  Some  substitute  for  an  amulet  the  small  brass  crosses 
distributed  by  the  Russian  missionaries  ;  sometimes  both  hang 
around  the  neck  on  the  same  string. 

The  Kutchin  have  always  possessed  the  system  of  totems,  and 
I  quote  the  following  remarks  from  an  account  of  them  by 
WilHam  L.  Hardisty,  Esq.,  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  All 
the  Kutchin  are  divided  into  three  castes  or  totems,  called  re- 
spectively Tchit-cJie-aJi,  Teng-rhtsey,  and  Nat-sah-i,  according  to 
Strachan  Jones,  Esq.,  late  commander  at  Fort  Yukon.  Mr.  Har- 
disty says  :  — 

"  With  reference  to  the  origin  of  caste  it  is  difficult  to  arrive  at  a  cor- 
rect solution.     I  believe  that  they  do  not  know,  themselves,  for  they  give 


THE   YUKON    TERRITORY.  1 97 

various  accounts  of  the  origin  of  the  three  great  divisions  of  mankind. 
Some  say  it  was  so  from  the  beginning  ;  others,  that  it  originated  when 
all  fowls,  animals,  and  fish  were  people,  —  the  fish  were  the  Chiisah,  the 
birds  Tain-gees- ah-tsah,  and  the  animals  Nat-singh ;  some,  that  it  refers  to 
the  country  occupied  by  the  three  great  nations  who  are  supposed  to 
have  composed  the  whole  family  of  man  ;  while  others,  that  it  refers  to 
color,  for  the  words  are  applicable.  Chiisah  refers  to  anything  of  a  pale 
color,  —  fair  people  ;  Nat-si/igh,  from  ah-zingh,  black,  dark,  that  is,  dark 
people  ;  Tain-gees-ah-fsah,  neither  fair  nor  dark,  —  between  the  two,  — 
from  tain-gees,  the  half,  middle,  and  ah-tsah,  brightish,  from  isa,  the  sun, 
bright,  glittering,  shining,  &c.  The  country  of  the  Na-tsik-kut-chin  is 
called  Nah-t'singh  to  this  day,  and  it  is  the  country  which  the  Nat-singh 
were  supposed  to  have  occupied.  The  Na-tsik-kut-chin  inhabit  the  high 
ridge  of  land  between  the  Yukon  and  the  Arctic  Sea.  They  live  en- 
tirely on  the  flesh  of  the  reindeer,  and  are  very  dark-skinned  compared 
with  the  Chit-sangh,  who  live  a  good  deal  on  fish.  Some  of  the  Chit- 
sangh  are  very  fair,  —  indeed,  in  some  instances  approaching  to  white. 
The  Tain-gees-ah-tsa,  taken  as  a  whole,  are  neither  so  fair  as  the  Chit- 
sangh  nor  so  dark  as  the  Nah-t'singh.  A  Chit-sangh  cannot,  by  their 
rules,  marry  a  Chit-sangh,  although  the  rule  is  set  at  naught  occasion- 
ally ;  but  when  it  does  take  place  the  persons  are  ridiculed  and  laughed 
at.  The  man  is  said  to  have  married  his  sister,  even  though  she  may  be 
from  another  tribe,  and  there  be  not  the  slightest  connection  by  blood 
between  them.  It  is  the  same  with  the  other  two  divisions.  The  chil- 
dren receive  caste  from  their  mother  :  if  a  male  Chit-sangh  marry  a 
Nah-t'singh  woman  the  children  are  Nah-t'singh,  and  if  a  male  Nah- 
t'singh  marry  a  Chit-sangh  woman  the  children  are  Chit-sangh  ;  so  that 
the  divisions  are  always  changing.  As  the  fathers  die  out  the  country 
inhabited  by  the  Chit-sangh  becomes  occupied  by  the  Nah-t'singh,  and 
7'ice  versa.  They  are  thus  continually  changing  countries.  Latterly, 
however,  these  rules  are  not  so  strictly  observed  or  enforced  as  formerly, 
and  no  doubt  will  soon  disappear  altogether.  One  good  thing  proceeded 
from  the  above  arrangement,  —  it  prevented  war  between  two  tribes  who 
were  naturally  hostile.  The  ties  or  obligations  of  color  or  caste  were 
stronger  than  those  of  blood  or  nationality.  In  war  it  was  not  tribe 
against  tribe,  but  division  against  division  ;  and  as  the  children  were 
never  of  the  same  caste  as  the  father,  the  children  would,  of  course,  be 
against  the  father,  and  the  father  against  the  children,  —  part  of  one  tribe 
against  part  of  another,  and  part  against  itself;  so  that,  as  may  be  sup- 
posed, there  would  have  been  general  confusion.  This,  however,  was 
not  likely  to  occur  very  often,  as  the  worst  of  parents  would  have  natu- 
rally preferred  peace  to  war  with  his  own  children." 


198  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  the  custom  or  system  of  totems  origi- 
nated in  a  desire  to  prevent  war,  and  to  knit  the  tribes  more 
closely  together.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  most  of  the  inter- 
tribal Indian  wars  have  occurred  between  those  who  did,  and 
those  who  did  not,  adopt  the  system.  In  all  other  known  tribes 
the  names  of  the  totems  are  those  of  animals,  and  I  doubt  whether 
the  similarity  of  the  Kutchin  names  to  words  indicating  color,  re- 
ferred to  by  Mr.  Hardisty,  is  anything  more  than  an  accidental 
coincidence,  or  perhaps  an  error.  The  system  is  found  in  perfec- 
tion among  the  Thlinkets  or  Koloshes. 

The  method  of  disposing  of  the  dead  has  been  described.  The 
dances  or  festivals  of  the  Indians  are  less  varied  and  interesting 
than  those  of  the  Innuit.  They  are  held  at  their  yearly  meetings 
at  Nuklukahyet,  or  other  neutral  trading-grounds.  Others  are 
given  by  men  who  desire  a  reputation  for  liberality  ;  others  by 
the  relatives  of  a  dead  person  a  year  after  the  death ;  still  others 
by  the  inhabitants  of  a  village  who  desire  to  extend  their  hospi- 
tality to  neighboring  villages.  These  dances  have  been  previously 
alluded  to.  Their  choruses  are  less  euphonious  and  less  varied 
than  those  of  the  Innuit.  Their  dances  have  less  of  a  symbolic 
character.  Feasting  and  giving  presents  form  the  chief  attrac- 
tions at  their  festivals.  The  universal  chorus  is  "  He  !  he  !  ho  ! 
ho ! "  indefinitely  prolonged.  When  the  feast  for  the  dead  is 
given  the  presents  are  hung  on  a  pole.  Around  this  the  dancing 
is  done.  The  Indians  wrap  themselves  in  blankets,  and  the  mo- 
tions are  simple  jumping  up  and  down,  gradually  moving  side- 
ways, as  in  the  old  game  of  "threading  the  needle."  There  are 
no  graceful  motions  or  posturings  of  the  arms  and  body,  as  in  the 
Innuit  dances. 

The  Indians,  particularly  the  women,  are  fond  of  singing,  apart 
from  their  festivals.  Their  ears  are  very  quick,  and  they  soon 
catch  up  an  air  from  hearing  it  sung  once  or  twice.  Our  parties 
contained  several  good  singers,  who  enlivened  the  evenings  with 
patriotic  and  comic  songs.  The  Indians  soon  caught  up  the  airs ; 
and  "  Tramp,  tramp,  the  boys  are  marching,"  "  Sixteen  cents  a 
dozen,"  and  "  Marching  through  Georgia"  may  now  be  heard 
from  the  mouth  of  almost  any  Yukon  Indian.  The  women  are 
fond  of  making  up  songs  of  their  own,  which  they  hum  over  their 
work.     Some  of  these  are  full  of  sentiment  and  not  unworthy  of 


THE   YUKON    TERRITORY.  1 99 

preservation.  The  chorus  always  forms  a  prominent  part.  The 
following  is  a  free  translation,  preserving,  the  original  rhythm, 
of  one  which  I  heard  a  Koyukun  woman  singing  as  she  sewed. 
It  is  a  fair  specimen  of  many  which  were  translated  to  me,  some 
of  which  I  preserved.  It  is  the  song  of  a  mother  hushing  her 
child  to  sleep,  and  the  air  was  slow  and  soft. 

■'The  wind  blows  over  the  Yukon. 
.My  husband  hunts  the  deer  on  the  Koyukun  mountains. 
Ahmi,  Ahmi,  sleep,  Httle  one. 

"  There  is  no  wood  for  the  fire. 
The  stone  axe  is  broken,  my  husband  carries  the  other. 
Where  is  the  sun- warmth  ?*     Hid  in  the  dam  of  the  beaver,  waiting  the 

spring-time  ? 
Ahmi,  Ahmi,  sleep,  little  one,  wake  not ! 

"  Look  not  for  ukali,  old  woman. 

Long  since  the  cache  was  emptied,  and  the  crow  does  not  light  on  the 
ridge-pole  ! 

Long  since  my  husband  departed.  Why  does  he  wait  in  the  moun- 
tains ? 

Ahmi,  Ahmi,  sleep,  little  one,  softly. 

"  Where  is  my  own  ? 
Does  he  lie  starving  on  the  hillside  .'     Why  does  he  linger? 
Comes  he  not  soon,  I  will  seek  him  among  the  mountains. 
Ahmi,  Ahmi,  sleep,  little  one,  sleep. 

"  The  crow  has  come,  laughing. 
His  beak  is  red,  his  eyes  glisten,  the  false  one  ! 
'  Thanks  for  a  good  meal  to  Kuskokala  the  shaman. 
On  the  sharp  mountain  quietly  lies  your  husband.' 
Ahmi,  Ahmi,  sleep,  little  one,  wake  not  ! 

"  '  Twenty  deer's  tongues  tied  to  the  pack  on  his  shoulders  ; 
Not  a  tongue  in  his  mouth  to  call  to  his  wife  with. 
Wolves,  foxes,  and  ravens  are  tearing  and  fighting  for  morsels. 
Tough  and  hard  are  the  sinews  ;  not  so  the  child  in  your  bosom.' 
Ahmi,  Ahmi,  sleep,  little  one,  wake  not ! 

'•  Over  the  mountain  slowly  staggers  the  hunter. 
Two  bucks'  thighs  on  his  shoulders,  with  bladders  of  fat  between  them. 
Twenty  deers"  tongues  in  his  belt.      Go,  gather  wood,  old  woman  ! 
Off  flew  the  crow,  —  liar,  cheat,  and  deceiver  ! 
Wake,  little  sleeper,  wake,  and  call  to  your  father  ! 

*  1.  e.  the  warm  principle  of  the  sunlight,  which  they  regard  as  a  personal  spirit. 


200  THE   YUKON   TERRITORY. 

"  He  brings  you  backfat,  marrow,  and  venison  fresh  from  the  mountain. 
Tired  and  worn,  he  has  carved  a  toy  of  the  deer's  horn, 
While  he  was  sitting  and  waiting  long  for  the  deer  on  the  hillside. 
Wake,  and  see  the  crow,  hiding  himself  from  the  arrow  ! 
Wake,  little  one,  wake,  for  here  is  your  father !  " 

These  songs  are  heard  in  every  lodge.  Some  attain  wide  popu- 
larity, others  are  unknown  except  to  the  singer,  who  measures 
the  stroke  of  her  paddle  or  the  motion  of  her  needle  by  the  simple 
rhythm  of  the  air. 

The  bow  has  long  since  given  place  to  the  gun  among  the 
Koyukuns,  Kutchin,  and  northern  Ingaliks.  Long,  single-bar- 
relled flint-locks  have  been  obtained  from  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany at  Fort  Yukon  since  1847,  and  at  about  the  same  time 
traders  from  the  Sandwich  Islands  began  to  visit  Grantley  Har- 
bor and  Kotzebue  Sound.  The  latter  trade  a  small  Belgian 
fowling-piece,  double-barrelled  and  of  small  bore.  These  guns, 
with  some  ammunition,  bring  twenty  marten-skins,  and  the  Hud- 
son Bay  guns  are  sold  for  forty. 

Their  habits,  though  not  as  regular  as  those  of  the  Innuit,  still 
pursue  a  nearly  uniform  course,  each  successive  year  being  much 
like  the  previous  one,  and  only  modified  by  the  greater  or  less 
abundance  of  game  and  fish. 

Life  among  the  Indians  is  a  constant  struggle  with  nature, 
wrestling  with  hunger,  cold,  and  fatigue  ;  the  victory  is  ever  un- 
certain, and  always  hard-earned.  The  opening  and  closing  of 
navigation  are  the  two  great  events  of  the  year.  The  months  of 
April,  May,  and  June  are  the  hardest  of  the  season.  The  snow 
is  melting,  ophthalmia  attacks  the  deer-hunters,  and  the  winter's 
store  of  food  is  nearly  or  quite  gone.  In  May  the  geese  and 
ducks  arrive.  The  fish-traps  are  carried  away  by  the  rising  water 
in  the  rivers,  and  few  have  sufficient  ammunition  to  supply  them- 
selves with  wild  fowl  for  many  weeks.  The  men  take  their  canoes 
and  ascend  the  small  rivers,  as  soon  as  the  ice  breaks  up  and  the 
freshets  drive  the  beaver  out  of  their  winter  houses.  For  a  week 
or  two  they  support  them.selves  in  this  way,  and  then  those  who 
have  been  successful  in  trapping  start  for  Nuklukahyet  to  trade. 
There  they  find  the  moose  and  deer  driven  by  the  mosquitoes 
into  the  river,  where  they  may  be  killed.  Bears  leave  their  winter 
quarters,  and  their  meat  occasionally  adds  to  the  spring  supply 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  20I 

of  food.  The  women,  and  such  of  the  men  as  remain  at  home, 
are  busy  making  nets  and  seines  from  the  inner  bark  of  the  wil- 
low and  alder.  The  wood  for  the  summer  fish-traps  is  also  pre- 
pared, and  the  baskets  and  other  parts  of  the  trap  are  tied  to- 
gether, ready  for  use.  On  the  Lower  Yukon  the  eggs  of  wild 
fowl  are  obtained  in  sufficient  numbers  to  furnish  a  partial  means 
of  subsistence.  This  is  also  the  season  for  making  birch  canoes. 
Early  in  June  the  king  salmon  {KahtJiV  of  the  Ingaliks,  or  cho- 
zvichee  of  the  Russians)  begin  to  ascend  the  river.  After  the 
middle  of  July  only  stragglers  of  this  species  are  caught.  The 
chowi'chee  are  followed  by  two  or  three  other  kinds,  and  the 
salmon  fishery  is  well  over  about  the  end  of  August.  During 
this  period  most  of  the  Indians  are  on  the  river,  fishing,  splitting, 
and  drying  the  fish  for  winter  use.  Some  are  smoked,  but  the 
greater  part  are  simply  dried  in  the  sun.  They  have  no  salt,  and 
never  use  it,  even  when  it  might  be  procured  from  the  Russians. 
In  consequence  many  of  the  likali  have  a  tainted  flavor.  White- 
fish  are  caught  and  dried  at  the  same  time  as  the  salmon,  but  are 
smaller,  and  not  so  extensively  fished  for.  They  are  most  plenty 
and  in  their  best  condition  in  September.  In  the  latter  part  of 
October  the  ice  puts  a  stop  to  fishing,  until  it  is  strong  enough  to 
set  the  winter  traps.  In  August  many  Indians  repair  to  the  hills, 
where  the  reindeer  are  in  prime  condition,  fat,  and  less  timid  than 
at  other  seasons.  The  fawns  are  also  large  enough  to  make  their 
skins  of  use.  Moose  are  very  rare  on  the  Yukon  below  Koyu- 
kuk.  In  August  the  young  geese  are  fledged,  but  cannot  yet  fly, 
as  their  wing-feathers  are  not  fully  grown.  The  old  ones  have 
also  moulted,  and  many  of  both  kinds  are  caught  in  nets.  In 
October  and  November  the  white  grouse  have  returned  to  the 
willow  thickets  on  the  river,  where  they  are  snared  by  hundreds. 
In  December  the  winter  fish-traps  are  put  down,  and  some  deer- 
hunting  is  done  on  the  mountains.  Trapping  begins  in  October; 
before  that,  the  furs  are  worthless.  In  December  and  January, 
trading  commences  with  the  Innuit  for  oil  and  sealskin.  In  Feb- 
ruary and  March  the  fish-traps  and  snares  for  grouse  and  rabbits 
are  their  principal  reliance.  In  the  latter  part  of  March  the 
starving  season  sets  in  again.  By  some  tribes,  April  is  called  the 
"  hunger  month."  In  May,  rabbits  are  very  plentiful  for  a  week 
or  two,  when  the  wild  fowl  arrive  in  millions,  and  the  yearly  round 
is  completed. 


202  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

The  Koyukun  and  Ingalik  names  for  women  generally  end  in 
"il'no"  as  Tdllo-ilno,  "dashing  water,"  &c.  The  names  of  men 
frequently  end  in  "  ala "  as  Kusko-kdla,  "  he  who  strikes,"  &c., 
but  are  not  so  regular  in  their  terminations  as  the  female  names. 
With  the  Kutchin  the  father  takes  his  name  from  his  child,  not 
the  child  from  the  father  as  with  us.  Thus,  Kwee-ech-et  may  have 
a  son  and  call  him  Sdh-mi.  The  father  then  takes  the  name 
Sah-mi-tee,  and  his  former  name  is  forgotten.  Sometimes  the 
mother  will  drop  her  name,  and  be  called  SaJi-nu-be-Jian,  or  Sah- 
nu's  mother.*  The  same  practice  obtains  among  the  Indian 
tribes  to  the  south,  as  the  Koloshes ;  but  the  western  Tinneh  are 
without  it. 

In  war,  when  a  Kutchin  Indian  kills  his  adversary,  he  cuts  all 
his  joints.  They  are  governed  by  the  same  chiefs  in  peace  and 
war.  The  authority  of  a  chief  is  very  limited  ;  the  Indians  are 
very  unruly,  and  indisposed  to  submit  to  authority.  The  chiefs 
are  chosen  on  account  of  their  wisdom,  wealth,  or  courage,  and 
not  on  account  of  birth.  They  have  no  insignia  of  office,  and 
only  such  privileges  as  they  can  take  ;  none  that  the  others  can 
withhold  from  them.  This  undeniable  fact  has  been  universally 
ignored  in  the  dealings  of  the  United  States  Government  with  the 
Indians. 

The  chiefs  and  old  men  are  all  who  are  entitled  to  speak  in 
council ;  but  most  young  men  will  not  hesitate  to  rise  and  give 
their  elders  the  benefit  of  their  wisdom.  Among  the  Han  Kut- 
chin a  metal  ring  is  sometimes  used  in  the  nose  instead  of  the 
dentalium  ornament  of  the  western  Tinneh.  Among  the  eastern 
Tinneh  the  women  are  literally  beasts  of  burden ;  but  they  have 
the  privilege  of  disposing  of  their  daughters  at  any  age  ;  the  fathers 
and  brothers  having  no  voice  in  the  matter,  according  to  their 
customs.  They  have  the  singular  custom  of  not  cutting  the  nails 
of  girls  until  they  are  four  years  old.  The  reason  they  give  is, 
that,  if  they  did  so  earlier,  the  girl  when  grown  up  would  be  lazy, 
and  unable  to  embroider  in  porcupine  quills,  an  art  which  they 
carry  to  great  perfection.  The  children  are  seldom  weaned  until 
three  years  old.  They  arrive  at  the  age  of  puberty  at  about 
twelve  or  fourteen.     Some  of  the  women  reach  a  great  age ;  one 

*  Vide  account  of  Kutchin  tribes  by  Strachan  Jones,  Esq.,  in  Smithsonian  Report, 
1866. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  203 

at  Fort  Simpson  was  estimated  to  be  ninety-seven  years  old. 
The  eastern  Tinneh  and  Kutchin  tribes  far  surpass  the  western 
Tinneh  in  their  proficiency  with  the  needle,  and  in  their  love  for 
ornament.  The  latter  care  little  for  trinkets,  seldom  paint,  and 
will  barter  their  furs  only  for  tobacco  and  useful  articles.  This 
should  be  borne  in  mind  by  traders. 

Preparations  for  the  spring  shooting  soon  became  necessary. 
I  had  no  shot,  and  was  obliged  to  make  all  I  needed.  The  Rus- 
sians are  accustomed  to  hammer  lead  out  into  slender  bars,  to  cut 
these  in  small  cubes,  and  roll  them.  This  process  being  exceed- 
ingly laborious,  I  hit  upon  another  plan.  I  took  a  piece  of  walrus 
tusk  and  planed  it  off  until  it  was  about  half  an  inch  thick,  flat 
on  each  side,  and  about  two  inches  wide  by  six  long.  Taking 
a  large  nail,  I  filed  the  point  and  rigged  a  "fiddle-bow  drill." 
With  this  I  bored  a  hole  about  three  eighths  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  a  little  smaller  at  one  end  than  at  the  other.  I  then 
filed  olf  a  little  more  of  the  point  and  bored  another  hole  a 
little  smaller,  and  repeated  the  process  until  the  last  hole  was 
about  the  diameter  of  a  duck-shot.  I  ran  my  lead  into  small 
bars,  and,  greasing  them  well,  wire-drew  them  through  the  holes, 
beginning  with  the  largest.  The  result  was  lead  wire  of  the 
diameter  required.  This  was  cut  up  into  pieces,  each  piece 
as  long  as  the  diameter  of  the  wire.  These  were  then  rolled 
with  a  little  ashes  in  an  iron  pan  under  a  flat  stone.  This  pro- 
duced shot  nearly  as  round  as  dropped  shot,  though  not  polished. 
In  this  way  I  manufactured  seventy  pounds  of  shot  of  difterent 
sizes,  which  answered  every  purpose.  It  was  a  work  of  great 
labor,  but  less  so  than  by  the  Russian  method.  A  man  can  make 
in  this  manner  about  three  pounds  in  a  day.  The  Russians  at  Nu- 
lato  were  each  furnished  every  spring  with  five  pounds  of  lead 
and  half  a  pound  of  powder.  With  this  they  must  supply  them- 
selves with  game,  or  go  hungry.  The  same  practice  is  usual  at 
Fort  Yukon,  except  that  the  men  are  furnished  with  manufactured 
shot. 

As  spring  approached,  we  made  ready  for  our  journey  to  the 
Yukon-mouth.  The  collections  of  natural  history  grew  apace. 
Many  hundred  birdskins,  and  other  specimens,  were  brought 
together,  some  of  which  had  not  previously  been  collected.  On 
the  2 1  St  of  April,  Tekunka  paid  us  a  visit.     He  was  accompani 


204  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

by  all  the  Kaiyuh  Ingaliks  who  were  returning  from  Ulukuk. 
While  sitting  peaceably  in  the  casarmer  he  was  insulted  and 
struck  by  Shabounin,  a  convict  from  Archangel  in  Russia,  who 
had  been  sent  to  Nulato  to  build  the  raft  on  which  the  Russians 
were  to  descend  in  the  spring.  I  heard  Kuri'lla  calling  to  Pavloft', 
in  the  yard,  that  Shabounin  was  killing  Tekunka.  I  rushed  into 
the  casarmer  at  once.  Tekunka  was  standing  on  one  side,  his 
face  bleeding,  and  hurling  defiance  in  good  Russian  at  his  assail- 
ant. The  Russians  were  huddled  in  one  corner,  unarmed,  and 
cowed  by  the  crowd  of  Ingaliks,  each  with  his  hand  on  his  gun, 
which  half  filled  the  room.  Sure  of  his  power,  though  himself 
unarmed,  Tekunka  did  aot  spare  his  tongue.  He  told  them  that 
he  held  their  lives  in  his  hand.  "  A  word,"  said  he,  "  and  my 
men  wash  this  floor  with  your  blood.  You  call  us  '  dogs  of  In- 
dians ! '  We  know  what  you  are,  —  murderers,  thieves,  and  out- 
laws, driven  from  Russia  for  your  crimes  !  Yet  you  come  to  our 
country  and  abuse  us  without  reason,  take  away  our  daughters, 
and  pay  us  with  a  leaf  of  tobacco  for  furs  which  you  cannot  trap 
yourselves  !  Why  should  I  not  avenge  this  unprovoked  insult .' 
Why  do  I  not  order  my  men  to  exterminate  you  like  vermin  ? 
Because  I  had  rather  stand  here  and  tell  you  in  your  own  casarmer 
that  I  hate,  despise,  and  defy  you  ! " 

Pavloff  now  entered,  and  was  called  upon  to  redress  the  injury, 
which  he  did  sullenly  and  reluctantly.  Shabounin  was  rebuked 
before  the  Indians  for  his  conduct,  and  a  present  of  tobacco  and 
ammunition  was  made  to  Tekunka,  who  received  it  with  uncon- 
cealed disdain.  The  Indians  slowly  left  the  room,  and  I  followed 
them.  They  took  their  baggage  and  sleds,  and  left  the  fort.  It 
is  very  seldom  that  such  an  exhibition  of  spirit  is  seen  among 
these  Indians,  but  Tekunka  was  unusually  intelligent,  and  had 
worked  in  the  fort  among  the  Russians  when  young.  It  must 
also  be  said  that  such  an  outrage  on  the  part  of  any  Russian 
had  never  before  occurred  at  Nulato,  and  probably  very  seldom 
anywhere. 

On  the  nth  of  April  the  first  swallows  appeared,  and  on  the 
27th  Kuri'lla  earned  the  pound  of  tobacco  by  killing  the  first 
goose  of  the  season. 

Xhe  Russian  raft  was  well  under  way,  and  was  a  clumsy 
concern,   shaped    like    a  flat-iron,  and   provided  with    high    bul- 


THE   YUKON    TERRITORY.  205 

warks,  a  mast,  rudder,  or  rather  sweep,  and  a  sail.  They  informed 
me  that  it  was  after  the  pattern  of  the  rafts  on  which  timber  is 
floated  down  the  rivers  of  Russia  which  flow  into  the  Northern 
Sea. 

Meanwhile  the  skin  had  been  taken  off  our  little  bidarra,  well 
oiled,  repaired,  and  replaced.  The  mast,  oars,  and  sail  were  manu- 
factured, as  well  as  an  enormous  paddle,  which  Kuri'lla,  in  his 
capacity  as  coxswain,  proposed  to  use  himself.  The  Russian 
bidarra  was  made  ready  for  their  trading- voyage  to  Nuklukahyet. 
Johnny  would  accompany  them,  and  go  on  to  Fort  Yukon  with 
the  Indians.  He  was  a  useful  little  fellow,  but  gratitude  or  af- 
fection formed  no  part  of  his  nature,  and  I  did  not  expect  to  miss 
him  much. 

On  the  24th  of  May  the  Nulato  River  broke  up,  and  the  water 
and  ice  came  down  with  a  rush.  About  four  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon the  ice  on  the  Yukon  moved  a  little,  and  then  stuck  fast. 
An  ice-barrier  fifteen  feet  high  formed  near  the  bluff  north  of 
Nulato.  This  remained  several  days  without  change.  On  the 
28th  I  went  up  to  the  Klat-kakhatne  River,  and  crossed  in  an  old 
birch  canoe  which  I  found  there,  after  hewing  out  a  rough  jDaddle, 
and  leaving  my  axe  in  a  dry  log,  four  feet  above  the  water.  On 
the  other  side  the  beach  between  the  ice  and  the  high  perpen- 
dicular bluff  was  only  about  six  feet  wide.  I  collected  here  a 
number  of  interesting  fossils  which  had  been  uncovered  by  the 
melting  snow.  Suddenly  I  heard  a  crash,  and  the  water  began  to 
rise  very  rapidly.  The  barrier  had  broken,  and  I  had  to  run  to 
escape  being  crushed  between  the  bluff  and  the  enormous  blocks 
of  ice  which  the  rising  river  ground  against  it.  I  was  just  able 
to  keep  pace  with  the  water,  and  found  my  canoe  on  the  little 
point  quite  submerged.  On  the  other  side  the  log,  with  the  axe 
in  it,  was  floating  away  with  the  ice.  I  emptied  the  canoe,  and 
paddled  after  the  axe,  and  got  safely  ashore  on  the  Nulato  side. 
Here  I  stopped  awhile  and  enjoyed  the  sight.  Blocks  of  ice 
six  feet  thick  were  driven  against  the  bank,  cutting  off  large 
trees,  and  carrying  ice  and  turf  many  yards  inland.  In  some 
places  the  ice  was  piled  thirty  feet  high.  I  only  regretted  that 
my  artist  companion  of  the  previous  year,  Mr.  Whymper,  was 
not  there  to  preserve  the  scene  with  his  ready  pencil.  The 
break-up  of  1867  was  nothing  to  it.     At  the  fort  the  ice  came 


206  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

close  to  the  bank.  A  little  more,  and  the  buildings  would  have 
been  in  danger.  Pavloft'  said  that  he  had  seen  a  similar  freshet 
only  once  before  in  fifteen  years. 

The  barrier  being  removed,  the  water  soon  began  to  fall,  and 
left  the  great  blocks  and  piles  of  ice  stranded  all  along  the  beach. 
There  was  hardly  room  to  land  a  boat  anywhere  near  the  fort. 

We  now  set  about  packing  up  in  earnest.  The  store  was  half 
full  of  goods,  which  I  could  not  carry  away.  The  boxes  of  collec- 
tions, with  our  baggage,  filled  the  bidarra.  She  was  a  little 
beauty,  well  shaped,  light,  and  elegant. 

The  season  was  very  late.  On  the  ist  of  June,  Pavloff  and  his 
men  left  for  Nuklukahyet.  The  river  was  full  of  ice,  and  Tekunka 
and  his  men  had  not  appeared  ;  so  I  was  still  delayed.  Johnny 
departed  with  the  Russians,  not  even  bidding  me  good  by,  al- 
though he  was  loaded  with  articles  which  I  had  given  him.  He 
had  letters  for  Mr.  McDougal,  the  Fort  Yukon  commander,  which 
I  took  pleasure  in  addressing  to  "  Fort  Yukon,  Alaska  Territory, 
United  States  of  America  I'  as  the  Scotchmen  had  insisted  against 
all  reason  that  the  post  was  situated  on  the  British  side  of  the 
line.  As  my  Indians  did  not  make  their  appearance,  I  secured 
Kuri'lla's  brother,  —  "  Monday "  by  name,  as  he  was  engaged  on 
that  day,  —  and  determined  that,  if  Tekunka  failed  to  keep  his 
promise,  I  would  start  the  next  day,  and  trust  to  luck  to  obtain 
another  man  somewhere  on  the  river  below. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

Departure  from  Nulato.  —  Lateness  of  the  season.  —  Veto.  —  Kwikhtana  barrabora. 

—  Lofka's.  —  Habits  of  the  beaver.  —  Swan-shooting.  —  Indian  carvings.  —  First 
Indians. — Klantilinten.  —  A  letter.  —  Meeting  with  the  Mahlemuts.  —  Anvik. — 
The  Stareek.  —  Pottery.  —  Sand-hill  cranes.  —  Canoes.  —  Leather  village  on  the 
Shageluk.  —  Great  abundance  of  food.  —  Demand  for  liquor  by  the  Mahlemuts.  — 
Dances.  —  Attack  and  narrow  escape.  —  Leave  the  village.  —  Manki.  —  Ekogmuts. 

—  Loon-cap  village.  —  Carvings,  old  houses  and  graves.  —  Great  breadth  of  the 
Lower  Yukon.  —  Arrive  at  the  Mission.  —  Pass  the  Great  Band.     Fishing-village. 

—  Myriads  of  wild  fowl.  —  Energetic  collection  of  specimens.  —  Rasbinik  village. 

—  Starry  Kwikhpak  village.  —  Obtain  a  guide.  —  Andreaffsky.  —  Tragedy  in  1855. 

—  Mistake  of  guide.  —  Arrive  at  the  Uphoon.  —  Kutlik.  —  Emperor  geese.  —  Ar- 
rival of  Teleezhik.  —  Go  on  to  Pastolik.  —  Beluga-hunting.  —  Innuit  carvings.  — 
Drawings  on  bone.  —  Rise  of  the  water.  —  Elephant  bones.  —  Start  for  the  Redoubt. 

—  News  of  the  ships.  —  Arrival  at  the  Redoubt,  and  meeting  with  old  friends.  — 
— Traders.  —  Embarkation  for  California.  — Abuses  prevalent  in  the  new  territory. 

—  Value  of  a  territorial  government. — Necessary  legislation.  —  Disparagement  of 
the  territory.  —  Arrival  in  San  Francisco. 

EVERYTHING  was  ready  for  our  departure.  The  bidarra 
was  almost  transparent  from  the  oil  which  was  smeared 
upon  the  outside,  and  inside  it  was  as  dry  as  a  bone.  Tekunka 
had  apparently  deceived  me.  There  were  no  signs  of  him  or  his 
men.  Long  experience  had  inured  me  to  such  disappointments, 
but  there  were  few  Indians  at  Nulato,  and  it  was  difficult  to  fill 
the  place  of  those  whom  I  had  expected.  By  giving  to  Monday's 
mother  all  the  ukali  and  oil  which  were  left  over,  I  induced  him 
to  go  with  me,  as  the  old  woman,  with  these  provisions,  would 
not  suffer  from  hunger  before  his  return. 

On  the  morning  of  the  2d  of  June  everything  was  put  aboard. 
The  supplies  which  I  left  behind  were  put  into  the  storehouse, 
and  the  door  fastened  with  a  padlock  and  chain  and  then  securely 
nailed  up.  The  Koyukuns  were  already  threatening  to  burn  the 
post  as  soon  as  the  Russians  left  it,  but,  in  case  they  did  not,  the 
goods  I  left  behind  might  prove  of  some  use  to  somebody. 

The  beach  in  front  of  the  fort  was  covered  with  large  blocks  of 


2o8  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

ice,  and  the  quantity  of  ice  in  the  river  was  much  greater  than 
usual  for  the  time  of  year.  We  pushed  off  with  some  difficulty, 
on  account  of  the  low  water,  and  finally  reaching  the  channel, 
took  a  last  look  at  the  old  fort  of  Nulato.  The  day  was  cloudy 
and  cold,  with  a  head-wind.  Not  a  mosquito  had  yet  shown 
himself,  a  fact  which  proved,  more  than  anything  else,  the  un- 
common lateness  of  the  season.  Our  little  company  consisted  of 
myself,  Kun'lla,  Monday,  and  a  little  foxy  Koyukun  dog  called 
Bushy,  which  was  my  especial  pet.  The  stars  and  stripes  and 
the  scallop  of  the  Scientific  Corps  floated  from  the  mast,  which 
was  also  decorated  with  a  broad-tailed  arrow  ornamented  with  a 
blue  muslin  fly.  I  took  the  stroke  oar  and  Monday  the  bow,  as 
Kun'Ua's  skill  was  needed  to  avoid  the  numerous  floating  cakes  of 
ice  in  the  rapid  current.  I  found  that  my  sickness  had  unfitted 
me  for  severe  labor,  and  after  a  few  hours  I  changed  places  with 
Kun'lla. 

The  river  presented  a  very  different  appearance  from  that  of 
the  previous  year,  when  we  started  up  the  Yukon.  Now  large 
blocks  of  ice  were  piled  up  on  the  shores,  where  they  had  been 
driven  by  the  first  high  water ;  no  weather  had  yet  occurred  warm 
enough  to  melt  them.  We  took  our  daily  tea  near  the  Shaman 
Bluff",  close  by  the  coal  seam,  and,  while  enjoying  our  meal,  Kun'lla 
was  quick  enough  with  his  gun  to  bring  down  a  mallard  which 
flew  overhead.  As  we  pulled  down  the  river  I  was  so  fortunate 
as  to  secure  a  pair  of  the  beautiful  Harlequin  duck  (//.  to7-qnatus) 
which  flew  from  the  mouth  of  a  small  stream.  This  elegant  duck 
is  very  shy  and  solitary  in  its  habits,  preferring  the  small  streams 
which  wind  among  the  trees,  away  from  the  main  river.  We  saw 
no  Indians  on  the  banks,  as  the  fishing-season  had  not  com- 
menced. Late  in  the  evening  we  arrived  at  Kaltag,  and  camped 
on  the  left  bank.  The  ground  was  still  muddy  from  being  over- 
flowed, and  the  willow  leaves  were  still  folded.  At  the  Kaltag 
village  we  found  Matfay  and  his  family  from  Uliikuk.  They  pro- 
posed to  make  a  trading-voyage  down  the  river  a  little  later  in 
the  season.  Big  Sidorka  was  also  there.  He  had  promised  to 
accompany  the  Russians  to  Nuklukahyet,  but  the  threats  of  the 
Koyukuns  and  the  ice  in  the  river  had  caused  him  to  change  his 
mind.  He  was  now  very  anxious  to  go  down  the  Yukon  with  me, 
as  he  had  never  been  below  Lofka's  barrabora.     We  boiled  our 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


209 


ducks,  and  found  them  all  very  lean  and  tough  from  the  scarcity 
of  food.  The  horsetails  {Eqidsetce),  on  which  they  feed,  had  hard- 
ly begun  to  show  themselves  above  the  mud. 

Wednesday,  June  ^^d.  —  As  there  was  little  prospect  of  obtain- 
ing a  more  suitable  man  farther  down  the  river,  I  decided  to  let 
Sidorka  go  with  us.  His  Indian  name  was  Yeto,  and  by  that  we 
called  him.  The  brown  sandstones  on  the  right  bank  cease  at 
Kaltag,  and  below  is  a  long  stretch  of  gravel  banks,  and  then 
gray  sandstones  and  shales  with  very  poor  vegetable  remains. 
At  the  village  near  the  bluffs  below  Kaltag  there  were  a  few 
Indians.  Here  I  bought  half  a  dozen  martens  for  a  few  loads  of 
powder  and  ball.  The  wind  kept  obstinately  ahead,  and  impeded 
our  progress  a  good  deal.  We  took  tea  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Kaiyuh  River.  The  left  bank  of  the  Yukon  appears  to  be  gener- 
ally low,  with  hills  in  the  distance.  The  right  bank  is  always  the 
higher,  and  the  river  seems  to  run  on  the  right  side  of  a  broad 
valley,  of  which  the  bluffs  on  the  right  bank  and  the  distant  hills 
on  the  left  form  the  boundaries.  The  vegetation  resembles  that 
farther  up  the  river,  but  here  the  willows  and  poplars  attain  a 
larger  growth.  We  pitched  the  tent  on  the  banks  of  a  small 
creek,  where  the  level  dry  ground  formed  an  excellent  camp- 
ing-place. There  were  the  remains  of  many  old  Indian  camps 
here,  and  we  saw  a  large  number  of  sand-hill  cranes,  besides 
adding  to  our  collection  a  specimen  of  the  beautiful  purple  sand- 
piper. 

Thnrsday,  AftJi. — I  rose  very  early,  and  taking  my  gun,  went  to 
a  pool  near  by,  where  I  got  a  shot  at  a  swan,  but  failed  to  bring  it 
down.  By  patient  waiting  I  finally  succeeded  in  getting  a  brace 
of  green-winged  teal,  which  are  the  best  eating  of  any  of  the 
water-fowl  found  on  the  Yukon.  The  mosquitoes  were  abundant 
here,  as  the  location  was  warm  and  sunny,  and  I  soon  awoke  the 
Indians  by  raising  a  corner  of  their  tent  and  giving  the  preda- 
ceous  insects  access  to  the  interior.  The  sun  shone  brightly,  and 
the  day  was  most  beautiful.  We  soon  pushed  off  and  continued 
on  our  way.  We  passed  through  a  number  of  sloughs,  and 
stopped  at  several  of  the  islands  to  shoot.  On  many  of  them 
small  lagoons  exist,  and  on  these  the  water-fowl  congregate  early 
in  the  morning  to  feed.  We  obtained  quite  a  number  of  brant 
and  several  ducks.  A  downy  owl  {Brachyotus  Cassini)  flew  out 
14 


2IO  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

from  a  thicket  and,  probably  impelled  by  curiosity,  followed  the 
boat  at  a  short  distance  for  nearly  a  mile.  The  superstitions  of 
the  Indians  were  exci<-ed,  and  they  finally  shot  the  bird,  which  fell 
in  the  water  and  continued  to  follow  us,  carried  by  the  current, 
even  in  death. 

The  alder  buds  were  just  opening,  and  the  tender  leaves  began 
to  appear.  About  ten  o'clock,  passing  through  a  small  pratoka, 
we  saw  on  a  gently  rising  mound  a  white  Greek  cross.  This 
spot,  according  to  Kun'lla,  was  the  place  where  the  boat  for 
Nulato  with  goods  from  the  Redoubt  was  once  caught  by  the  ice 
and  frozen  in.  The  crew  built  a  house  and  wintered  here.  They 
called  it  Kwikhtana  barrabora  or  Cold  House,  from  the  extreme 
cold  which  they  suffered.     One  of  them,  who  died,  was  buried  on 


Xi^^^- 


Kwikhtana  barrabora. 


this  mound,  where  the  cross  marks  his  resting-place.  Game  was 
scarce,  and  we  were  obliged  to  be  economical  with  our  stores. 
For  dinner  we  boiled  three  geese  and  a  duck  in  the  big  kettle.  I 
usually  made  away  with  the  duck  and  a  plate  of  soup,  beside  tea 
and  sukaree,  while  the  Indians  never  failed  to  clean  out  the 
kettle,  leaving  only  the  bones,  which  were  the  dog's  perquisite. 
In  the  afternoon  we  crossed  the  river  to  a  slough  which  Kun'lla 
said  was  a  short  cut ;  but  after  going  a  little  way  the  wind  was  so 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY, 


21  I 


strong  and  dead  ahead  that  I  determined  to  turn  back  and  go  by 
the  main  river,  where  we  were  sheltered  by  the  high  bank.  We 
saw  many  fresh  tracks  of  the  black  bear  along  the  muddy  shore. 
Crossing  again,  we  continued  along  the  right  bank,  which  in  some 
places  is  composed  of  trachytic  rocks  of  different  colors.  These 
do  not  rise  to  any  great  height,  and  are  soft  and  crumbling. 
Yellow,  red,  green,  blue,  and  all  transitions  from  black,  through 
gray,  to  white  were  observed.  Toward  evening  we  approached 
the  Yakiitz-kalatenik  River,  at  the  mouth  of  which  is  an  Indian 
house  in  a  very  dilapidated  condition.  This  is  known  as  Lofka's 
barrabora.      It   had    a    melancholy  appearance    in    the   twilight, 


^kU 


Lofka's  bairabiira. 

being  deserted  and  falling  into  ruins.  We  decided  to  camp  here. 
As  we  pulled  toward  the  beach,  a  large  otter  started  from  among 
the  willows  and  ran  along  the  shore.  We  had  brought  along  a 
small  canoe  made  of  three  boards,  and  Kurilla  hastily  jumped  into 
this  and  made  for  the  beach.  He  landed,  but  the  otter  was  too 
quick  for  him  ;  it  plunged  into  the  water  near  the  river  and  dis- 
appeared. We  put  up  the  tent,  boiled  the  chynik,  and  retired  to 
rest.     The  rain,  which  soon  came  on,  did  not  disturb  us,  as  every- 


212  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

thing  had  been  put  ashore  and  covered  with  the  bidarra  before 
we  had  turned  in. 

Friday,  "^th.  —  The  rain  had  ceased  about  four  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  and  it  had  cleared  off  finely.  A  stroll  along  the  banks 
of  the  small  river  revealed  many  fresh  beaver-tracks.  The 
beaver,  when  forced  to  leave  his  house  by  the  spring  freshets, 
which  fill  it  with  water,  seeks  his  living  along  the  banks  of  the 
small  rivers,  until  the  waters  subside.  He  is  a  gregarious  and 
playful  animal,  fond  of  gymnastics  for  their  own  sake.  When  he 
finds  a  steep,  smooth  mud-bank,  he  usually  amuses  himself  by 
crawling  up  and  then  sliding  off  into  the  water,  repeating  the 
process  many  times,  apparently  enjoying  the  fun  as  much  as 
boys  do  coasting.  He  is  nocturnal  in  his  hai)its,  and  very  timid. 
Taking  the  small  canoe,  Kun'lla  paddled  ^,  ir<a:iently  up  and  down, 
making  as  little  noise  as  possible,  and  scfl'^jiing  the  water  near 
the  banks  for  the  beaver's  nose.  This  i^  the  only  part  visible, 
the  rest  being  below  the  surface.  A  era  ilfe,  followed  by  a  shout, 
told  that  my  old  Scotch  rifle  had  done  it'  4ork,  and  Kun'lla  soon 
appeared  in  triumph,  bearing  a  small  beaver.  The  flesh  of  this 
animal  is  to  most  persons  disagreeable.  A  slight  odor  and  flavor 
which  accompany  it  frequently  produce  nausea  with  those  un- 
accustomed to  it.  I  never  ate  the  meat,  but  the  paws  and  tail  I 
found  very  good.  The  former  are  covered  with  a  black  skin,  with 
only  a  little  hair  near  the  junction  with  the  arm  or  leg ;  when 
thoroughly  boiled  they  resemble  pigs'  feet.  The  tail  is  composed 
of  muscular  fibre  containing  a  large  amount  of  a  peculiarly  sweet 
fat  in  the  interstices.  The  skin  which  covers  the  tail  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  scales,  but  there  are  no  real  scales.  The  skin  readily 
peels  off  if  scorched  in  the  fire,  and  the  tail,  when  well  boiled,  is  a 
delicious  morsel.  The  muscles  and  inner  skin  are  reduced  by 
boiling  to  a  kind  of  jelly,  and  the  whole  is  so  rich  that  one  cannot 
eat  much  of  it.  The  castoreum,  which  is  used  in  medicine,  is 
contained  in  two  glands  which  open  near  the  tail.  Their  use  is 
not  clearly  understood,  but  is  probably  similar  to  that  of  the 
musk  glands  in  the  muskrat  and  muskdeer.  A  favorite  amuse- 
ment among  the  Kutchin  Indians  consists  in  taking  the  humerus 
in  the  hands  and  endeavoring  to  break  it  ;  as  it  is  very  short  and 
strong,  this  requires  considerable  strength.  After  skinning  the 
beaver,  and  stretching  the  skin  on  a  hoop  of  green  willow,  we 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  21  3 

pushed  oft'.  The  wuid  was,  as  usual,  dead  ahead  and  very  strong. 
Although  aided  by  the  current,  we  had  hard  work  to  make  head- 
way against  it.  Blowing  against  the  stream,  it  raised  quite  a  sea 
on  the  broad  river,  and  as  our  gunwale  was  only  four  inches 
above  the  water,  we  found  it  necessary  to  keep  close  in  shore. 
We  stopped  to  rest  several  times,  and  arriving  near  a  broad,  shal- 
low lagoon,  we  went  ashore,  and  creeping  behind  the  willows, 
tried  to  get  a  shot  at  some  of  the  water-fowl  which  were  feeding 
there.  My  favorite,  of  seven  guns,  was  a  Scotch  rifle,  which  had 
been  bored  out  so  that  it  carried  shot  as  well  as  ball.  It  was  re- 
markably long  in  range,  and  very  true.  The  ball  which  I  used  with 
it  was  a  long  conical  one,  weighing  an  ounce  and  a  quarter.  One 
of  these  was  qu.i'iC  e''*f^ugh  to  bring  down  anything  which  it  hit. 
^  '--^cKng  with  bucksh  I  waited  for  Kun'lla,  who  had  gone  to  the 
■■  end  of  t'le  la  ■;^i^.,  where  several  swans  were  gracefully 
ted  in  the  water.  The  report  of  his  fowling-piece,  which 
■ught  dovvH  a  coup  of  brant,  roused  the  swans  from  their 
•;ries;  and  striking  I  water  with  their  broad  wings,  they  rose 
vl\  and  sailed  througn  the  air  in  single  file  toward  my  hiding- 
place.  They  are  not  rapid  flyers,  and  I  could  count  every  sweep 
of  their  strong  white  wings.  As  they  followed  one  another,  ut- 
tering their  harsh  cry  at  intervals,  their  heads  and  necks  in  a 
straight  line,  they  looked  anything  but  graceful,  and  would  hardly 
be  recognized  as  the  same  birds  so  lately  seated  on  the  water. 
Just  before  getting  in  range,  they  most  provokingly  changed  their 
course  and  struck  out  across  the  Yukon ;  so  Lhad  my  trouble  for 
my  pains. 

Before  returning  to  the  boat  I  secured  a  mallard  and  a  white- 
fronted  goose,  to  which  the  Indians  added  several  pintails,  and 
seven  brant,  so  that  our  larder  was  well  supplied.  Toward  even- 
ing we  began  to  look  for  a  camping-place,  but  everywhere  the 
shore  was  covered  with  great  blocks  of  ice,  some  distance  above 
the  water,  and  we  were  finally  obliged  to  haul  the  boat  up  on  a 
large  ice-sheet  which  was  grounded  on  a  sand-bar.  Here  we 
camped,  and  a  most  uncomfortable  camp  it  was.  We  had  to 
travel  a  long  distance  to  obtain  driftwood  sufficient  to  make  a 
fire.  Sand  makes  the  hardest  bed  known  ;  fine  gravel  is  much 
more  comfortable.  The  mosquitoes  too,  though  not  abundant, 
were  by  no  means  idle.     Everything  along  the  river  showed  that 


214  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

it  was  an  unusually  late  season.  Few  small  birds  were  seen,  and 
no  butterflies  as  yet.  The  birch,  poplar,  and  willow  had  only  be- 
gun to  unfold  their  leaves,  while  on  the  north  slope  of  the  hills 
snow  still  rested. 

Satui'day,  6th.  —  We  started  early,  and  pulled  against  the  same 
strong  wind.  We  landed  at  a  village  which  was  quite  deserted, 
the  inhabitants  being  away  after  beaver.  The  facility  in  carving, 
shown  by  the  Ingaliks  of  the  Lower  Yukon,  was  well  displayed 
here.  Paddles,  dishes,  and  other  articles  lay  scattered  about 
where  the  owners  had  left  them.  The  winter  houses  were  half 
full  of  water,  and  the  Indians  had  evidently  been  living  for  some 
time  in  three  large  summer  houses.  Among  other  things  lying 
about,  I  noticed  a  large  scoop  or  shovel  shaped  like  a  table-spoon, 
but  seven  feet  long.  It  was  carved  out  of  one  piece  of  wood, 
and  ornamented  with  designs  in  red  chalk  and  charcoal.  It  was 
of  very  graceful  shape,  and  had  evidently  been  used  for  throwing 
cut  the  ice  from  the  aperture  through  which  the  fish-traps  are 
raised  in  winter.  I  noticed  a  small  bowl  prettily  carved,  with  two 
ears  or  handles.  A  long  stick,  to  which  a  block  of  wood  is 
attached  at  one  end,  is  used,  with  the  bowl  referred  to,  for  grind- 
ing up  tobacco  into  snufif.  My  Indians  were  anxious  to  appro- 
priate some  of  these  articles,  but  I  would  not  allow  them  to  do 
so  in  the  absence  of  the  owners.  The  paddles,  many  of  which 
were  seen,  were  curiously  painted  with  green,  red,  and  black,  and 
were  smaller  and  more  pointed  than  those  in  use  farther  up  the 
river.  The  paddles  decrease  in  size  as  we  go  down  the  river ; 
those  at  the  Yukon-mouth  are  very  small  and  narrow  indeed. 
We  passed  a  very  small  waterfall  during  the  day,  the  first  I  had 
seen  on  the  river. 

On  a  small  island  we  saw  the  first  Indians.  There  were  only 
three  or  four,  and  they  were  much  alarmed  when  they  first  saw 
us.  We  landed,  and  found  that  they  were  making  fish-traps. 
They  had  nothing  to  sell  except  some  eggs,  and  a  few  ukali, 
which  I  bought  for  the  dog.  After  making  them  a  present  of  a 
few  leaves  of  tobacco,  we  pushed  off  and  continued  down  the 
river. 

The  boat  was  ill  stowed,  and  a  good  deal  of  mud  had  gathered 
in  her  bottom  from  our  feet,  so  I  determined  to  camp  early,  turn 
her  over,  and  wash  her  thoroughly,  after  taking  out  the  goods. 


,,,i;,i,!ir 


'11 


illjlil 


||i||iiiiii|  1 1) 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  215 

Nothing  rots  a  bidarra  like  mud  or  dirt  inside  of  it.  We  camped 
near  a  small  brook,  and  Kurilla  started  off  after  game,  while  we 
attended  to  the  boat.  We  finished  cleaning  her  and  gave  her  a 
good  oiling  before  getting  supper  ready.  The  three  Indians  pol- 
ished the  beaver's  bones,  while  I  regaled  myself  on  a  fat  teal 
roasted  on  a  stick  before  the  fire. 

Sunday,  "jtli.  —  The  day  opened  fair,  but  with  the  same  wind, 
which  was  soon  attended  by  smart  showers  of  rain.  We  pulled 
along  shore,  and  about  ten  o'clock  came  to  the  point  where  the 
Russians  had  located  a  sort  of  rapid.  It  proved  to  be  nothing 
more  than  a  piece  of  swift  water,  running  along  the  base  of  a 
range  of  low  conglomerate  blufts,  for  two  or  three  miles.  The 
river  here  was  quite  broad  ;  to  the  right  were  successive  hills, 
rising  one  after  another,  and  fading  into  purple  distance.  The 
left  bank  was,  as  usual,  low,  and  a  large  island  divided  the  river 
a  few  miles  beyond.  Kurilla  said  that  the  Indian  name  of  the 
place  was  Klan-ti-lin-ten,  meaning  "  rocks  and  strong  water." 

The  Russians  had  reported  a  coal  seam  here,  but  the  rocks  are 
conglomerate,  preceded  by  trachyte  of  various  colors,  and  fol- 
lowed by  beds  of  clay,  quartzite,  and  yellow  gravel. 

I  landed  to  take  the  annexed  sketch,  and  to  examine  the  rocks. 
While  so  doing,  an  arctic  hare  scampered  by  on  the  edge  of  the 
bluff.  Kurilla  was  too  quick  for  her,  however,  and  a  shot  from 
my  rifle  brought  her  down.  I  was  sorry  afterward,  when  we 
skinned  the  animal,  to  see  that  the  teats  were  full  of  milk  ;  for  it 
showed  that  she  had,  somewhere,  a  family  of  little  bunnies,  who 
would  suffer  and  probably  die  for  want  of  a  mother. 

We  took  tea  at  a  small  rivulet  about  noon,  and  concluded  to 
remain  there  until  the  wind  fell  somewhat.  We  scoured  the  small 
lakes  near  the  river  for  game,  and  came  back  to  camp  well  loaded. 
About  sunset  the  wind  became  less  violent,  and  we  pushed  a  little 
farther  down  stream,  camping  about  nine  o'clock. 

Monday,  ^tJi.  — As  we  slowly  descended  the  river,  we  saw  a  few 
Indians  on  the  bank.  They  appeared  to  be  shy,  and  indisposed 
to  meet  us,  but  finally  one  of  them  put  off  in  his  canoe,  and  ex- 
tended a  bit  of  paper  in  the  end  of  a  long  cleft  stick.  I  took  it, 
and  he  immediately  paddled  away  as  fast  as  he  could.  It  was  a 
bit  of  yellow  tissue  paper,  carefully  folded.  I  opened  it,  and  after 
removing  several  wrappings  I  came  to  a  bit  of  white  paper,  ap- 


2l6 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


parently  the  blank  edge  of  a  newspaper.  On  this  was  a  rude 
drawing  of  a  boat,  by  its  side  a  bottle,  and  under  the  drawing,  in 
a  straggling  hand,  was  written,  "  Isaac  Koliak." 

The  meaning  was  evident.  My  intelligent  Mahlemut  friend 
had  crossed  the  portage  from  the  seaboard  to  Anvi'k,  not  far  be- 
low on  the  Yukon,  and  was  going  down  the  Yukon  on  a  trading- 
voyage.  He  knew  I  was  coming  down  the  river,  and  sent  this 
note  by  one  of  the  river  Indians  to  inform  me  of  his  proximity. 
We  passed  the  northern  entrance  of  the  great  Shageluk  slough, 
and  continued  down  the  main  stream  toward  Anvik.  There  were 
numerous  large,  well-wooded  islands,  and  the  mouth  of  the  slough 
might  easily  be  overlooked.  A  little  later  we  saw  a  camp  on  the 
right  bank,  and,  pulling  toward  it,  soon  recognized  Isaac  and  his 
party.  They  received  us  with  the  most  lively  demonstrations  of 
welcome,  and  declared  their  intention  of  going  down  the  river 
with  us.  The  party  comprised  about  thirty  Mahlemuts,  male  and 
female,  and  their  children  and  dogs.  Isaac  told  me  that  he  had 
crossed  from  Kegiktowruk  late  in  the  spring,  with  three  large 
bidarras  on  sleds  drawn  by  dogs,  and  had  descended  the  Anvi'k 
River  after  the  ice  had  broken  up.  His  intention  was  to  descend 
the  Yukon,  trading  as  he  went,  and  to  meet  the  American  traders 
who  were  expected  at  St.  Michael's  in  the  early  summer.  The 
articles  which  they  had  brought  for  trade  were  principally  skin 
clothing  of  their  own  manufacture,  needles,  tobacco,  guns,  and  am- 
munition. They  proposed  to  buy  furs,  and  wooden  dishes  or  kan- 
tags,  of  Indian  manufacture.  The  Innuit  are  accustomed  to  make 
these  voyages  for  the  purpose  of  getting  rid  of  their  old  guns  and 


h 


Kantags  and  wooden  ladle. 


surplus  ammunition,  at  prices  much  higher  than  they  pay  for  new 
ones  to  the  traders  at  Grantley  Harbor  and  Kotzebue  Sound. 
The  wooden  ware  is  an  article  of  trade  with  the  Innuit  of  Bering 
Strait,  where  wood  suitable  for  the  purpose  does   not  grow.     I 


ANVIK     STAREEK. 
"One  more  leaf  of  tobacco." 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


217 


took  Isaac  on  board  as  a  passenger,  while  his  party  got  their 
boats  ready  to  follow  us  to  Anvi'k. 

We  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Anvi'k  River  about  noon,  and 
pulled  up  the  stream  for  a  short  distance,  to  the  point  where  the 
village  is  situated.  Here  both  sides  of  the  Yukon  are  rather 
high.  Not  far  below  they  become  low  and  flat.  The  Yukon 
widens,  and  here  a  series  of  sand-bars  exists,  which  is  the  first  ob- 
struction to  navigation  as  we  ascend  the  river  from  the  sea. 
These  bars  change  somewhat  every  year,  but  a  native  pilot  can 
find  a  five-foot  channel  during  the  lowest  stage  of  the  water  in 
the  fall.  Anvi'k  is  a  large  village,  of  some  ten  or  twelve  houses, 
each  of  which  may  contain  twenty  inhabitants.  The  natives  are 
Ingaliks,  but  from  constant  intercourse  and  close  proximity  to  the 
Innuit  tribes  of  the  coast,  they  have  adopted  many  of  the  Innuit 
customs.  Among  these,  that  of  wearing  labrets  is  most  conspic- 
uous. The  language  spoken  is  the  true  Ingalik,  with  no  inter- 
mixture of  Innuit  words,  except  such  as  are  used  to  designate 
objects  which  they  obtain  from  the  latter  in  trade,  and  for  which 
there  are  no  Indian  names.  A  jargon  containing  a  large  number 
of  words  of  both  languages  is  used  in  trading.  This  is  also  used 
in  intercourse  with  the  Russians,  who  understand  something  of 
the  Innuit  dialects.  This  fact  is  a  sufficient  cause  of  miscompre- 
hension in  regard  to  the  different  dialects,  and  should  be  borne  in 
mind  by  philologists.  A  similar  jargon  is  in  use  wherever  the 
Indians  trade  with  the  coast  tribes. 

We  boiled  the  chynik,  while  I  examined  the  village  and  took 
notes  of  points  of  interest.  The  chief  man  of  the  village  had 
been  hired  by  Isaac  to  descend  the  Shageluk  and  meet  him  at 
the  southern  entrance  ;  but  an  old  fellow  who  appeared  to  have  a 
good  deal  of  influence  came  forward  with  two  fish,  which  he  pro- 
posed to  sell  for  tobacco.  The  price  of  a  salmon  is  a  leaf  of 
tobacco,  on  this  part  of  the  Yukon.  He  wanted  two  leaves 
apiece,  complaining  that  it  was  early  in  the  season  and  fish  were 
scarce,  while  the  leaves  were  very  small !  His  parka  was  almost 
deprived  of  hair  by  long  use,  his  breeches  were  shiny  with 
grease  and  dirt,  which  also  incrusted  his  hands  and  face,  while 
the  hair  on  his  aged  head,  though  cut  short,  stood  erect  as  if  in 
protest  against  the  invasion  of  so  much  raw  material.     He  looked 


2l8  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

head  on  one  side  and  his  small  eyes  glistening  with  excitement, 
that  I  gave  him  the  price  he  asked,  and  made  it  square  by  taking 
his  portrait.  Dirt  was  the  prominent  characteristic  of  the  village. 
The  year  before,  we  had  touched  here,  and  the  space  in  front  of 
the  houses  was  red  with  thousands  of  salmon,  split  and  hung  up  to 
dry.  It  was  yet  too  early  for  the  fish  this  season,  and  there  were 
many  new  baskets  and  nettings  lying  about,  —  the  material  for 
projected  fish-traps.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  were  absent,  after 
beaver.  One  man  brought  me  ten  fine  marten,  but  asked  so  high 
a  price  that  I  refused  to  buy  them.  The  Stareek  (old  man) 
brought  me  two  marten  and  some  mink,  which  I  bought,  but  the 
Mahlemuts  had  purchased  most  of  the  furs.  Well  armed,  bold, 
and  numerous,  the  latter  completely  overawed  the  degraded,  fish- 
eating  Indians,  and  forced  them  to  sell  whatever  they  had,  at  the 
purchaser's  price. 

I  noticed  that  the  graves  or  coffins  here,  instead  of  being 
covered  with  logs,  as  farther  up  the  river,  were  filled  in  with 
earth  beaten  down  hard  and  plastered  over  with  clay.  They 
were  larger,  rather  more  elevated,  and  painted  more  after  the  In- 
nuit  fashion  than  those  farther  up  on  the  Yukon. 

I  saw  quite  a  number  of  clay  pots  and  cups  of  native  manu- 
facture here.  They  were  mostly  large,  holding  three  or  four  gal- 
lons, but  some  were  smaller,  and  one  was  evidently  modelled  after 


Indian  pottery. 

a  Russian  mug.  The  common  Innuit  lamp  is  also  made  of  clay, 
and  all  their  pottery  is  rudely  ornamented  with  lines,  dots,  and 
crosses.  They  are  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  of  a  dark 
bluish  clay,  and  were  perfectly  black  from  smoke  and  grease.  I 
would  have  purchased  some  of  them,  but  they  were  so  large  and 
so  exceedingly  dirty  that  I  did  not  care  to  put  them  in  the  boat. 
This  kind  of  pottery  was  formerly  universal,  but  has  been  super- 
seded by  the  kettles  of  the  traders.     The  pots  are  made  by  hand, 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  219 

and  therefore  not  perfectly  round  or  symmetrical.  They  are 
dried  in  the  sun,  then  baked,  and  will  stand  the  fire  very  well. 
The  Innuit  name  for  the  pots  isAtkusik,  for  the  saucers  or  lamps 
Ni'tniik,  and  for  the  cups  Ivi-owitn. 

We  left  Anvi'k  soon  after  drinking  our  tea,  with  Isaac  on  board. 
The  wind  was  so  high  that  we  could  not  cross  the  river,  and  rain 
coming  on,  we  soon  camped  on  a  small  island.  The  other  boats 
crossed  to  the  other  side,  and  we  lost  sight  of  them.  Starting 
from  camp,  I  saw  and  killed  a  large  sand-hill  crane.  These  birds 
are  plenty  on  the  Lower  Yukon.  I  have  seen  thousands  of  them, 
but  never  of  any  color  except  brown,  gray,  and  fawn  color. 
White  ones  are  unknown,  and  I  doubt  the  correctness  of  the 
theory  which  considers  the  white  crane  of  the  Mississippi  valley 
and  the  sand-hill  crane  to  be  one  species. 

Tuesday,  <)th.  —  The  rain  ceasing,  we  passed  down  the  river 
and  entered  a  long  slough  or  cut-off.  Near  noon  we  stopped  and 
took  tea.  Soon  after,  we  came  to  an  Ingalik  camp  where  they 
were  making  birch  canoes.  The  birches  of  the  Lower  Ligaliks 
are  very  difterent  from  those  of  the  Upper  Yukon  Indians.     The 


rough  waters  of  the  broad  river  need  a  stronger  canoe  than  those 
used  by  the  Kutchin  tribes.  Everything  is  carefully  carved  and 
smoothed.  The  frame  is  stout  and  strong,  and  ornamented  with 
red  paint.  The  bark  is  shaped  over  a  mound  of  the  exact  size  of 
the  proposed  canoe,  and  sewed  with  spruce  roots.  The  cut  rep- 
resents the  canoe  before  the  gum  is  placed  over  the  sewing. 
The  paddles  are  lance-shaped,  small  and  slender,  and  ornamented 
with  the  most  fantastic  figures,  in  red,  black,  and  green.  I  ex- 
pressed a  desire  to  see  the  green  pigment,  and  one  of  the  Indians 
produced  some.  It  was  a  sort  of  fungus  {Pezizci)  or  mould,  which 
penetrates  decayed  birch  wood  and  colors  it  a  deep  blue-green. 
I  bought  a  small  model  of  a  canoe,  from  w^hich  the  above  figure  is 
drawn.  There"  were  seven  large  canoes  nearly  finished,  and 
several   in  process  of  manufacture.     The  Ingaliks  take  fleets  of 


220  THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 

these  new  canoes  down  to  the  delta  in  the  fall,  and  trade  them 
to  the  river  Innuit  for  oil,  ivory,  boot-soles,  and  other  articles. 
Isaac  expressed  a  great  desire  to  take  one  of  the  little  model 
canoes  to  his  baby,  and  I  bought  one  for  him,  to  his  great  delight. 
We  also  purchased  some  fish  and  berries,  and  went  on  our  way. 
We  passed  a  large  winter  village  between  two  hills,  known  to  the 
Russians  as  the  Murderer's  Village.  Crossing  the  Yukon  about 
three  o'clock,  we  came  to  the  southern  entrance  of  the  Shageluk 
slough.  Ascending  a  little  way,  we  reached  the  Leather  Village 
of  the  Russians.  This  is  a  large  Ingalik  summer  village,  the 
inhabitants  in  winter  living  at  the  last-mentioned  settlement. 
Here  we  saw  the  cotton  tents  of  the  Mahlemut  camp  near  the 
Indian  houses.  Isaac's  wife  stood  on  the  bank,  holding  the  baby, 
which  crowed  and  exhibited  all  its  infantile  joy  at  seeing  its 
father,  who  still  further  delighted  this  promising  member  of  the 
family  by  producing  the  toy  canoe. 

We  left  the  boat  in  the  water,  and  took  only  our  tent,  cooking 
utensils,  and  blankets  ashore,  as  the  number  of  natives  was  so 
great  that  I  thought  it  the  safest  way,  especially  as  these  Indians 
have  a  reputation  for  stealing.  Leaving  one  man  on  the  watch,  I 
strolled  into  the  village.  The  amount  of  food  collected  here  was 
almost  inconceivable.  Large  stages  were  groaning  beneath  the 
weight  offish,  caught  and  dried  the  previous  season.  Long  lines 
were  strung  with  fresh  white-fish,  drying  in  the  sun.  Rows  of 
caches  full  of  dry  fish,  meat,  fat,  and  skins  of  oil,  showed  that 
hunger  need  not  exist  in  this  favored  locality. 

The  fresh  meat  of  three  or  four  moose,  just  killed,  was  lying  in 
one  pile ;  another  contained  the  haunches  and  shoulders  of  ten 
deer.  Every  few  minutes  a  canoe  half  full  of  fresh  white-fish 
would  arrive  from  the  fish-traps,  and  in  no  part  of  the  Indian 
country  have  I  ever  seen  food  so  plentiful  and  so  easily  obtained. 
I  was  informed  that  the  natives  had  quite  a  trade  with  those  from 
other  places,  who  came  to  buy  ukali  in  the  winter  and  spring. 
The  summer  houses  were  large  and  well  built.  The  walls  even 
of  the  caches  were  thick,  and  in  many  cases  pierced  with  loop- 
holes for  guns.  There  were  but  few  dogs  about,  and  I  noticed  a 
large  white-breasted  thrush  tied  by  the  leg,  and  apparently  quite 
tame.  I  tried  to  buy  the  bird,  which  I  had  not  seen  elsewhere, 
but   the  owner  could  not  be  found.     The    Indians  told   me  that 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  22  1 

Teleezhik,  the  old  Russian  interpreter,  had  been  there  the  previous 
day,  and  was  now  trading  for  turs  farther  up  the  Shageluk.  I  re- 
turned to  my  tent,  and  bought  a  lot  of  fresh  meat  and  some  fat. 
Isaac  came  up  and  said  that  his  brother  had  come  with  him,  and 
had  a  little  liquor  which  he  had  bought  of  the  traders,  but  not 
enough  to  make  a  "  good  drunk."  "  Now,"  said  he,  "we  want  you 
to  sell  us  your  whiskey,  and  we  will  pay  you  well  for  it,  with  furs 
or  anything  you  want."  During  my  absence  the  rascals  had  dis- 
covered a  can  of  alcoholic  specimens  in  the  boat,  and  supposed  it 
was  whiskey.  I  told  him  that  I  wanted  it  myself,  that  it  was  not 
good  to  drink,  &c.,  but  he  went  away  very  sulky.  The  Mahle- 
muts,  male  and  female,  now  dressed  themselves  in  the  new  fur 
clothing  which  they  had  brought  to  sell.  Old  Abraham,  Isaac's 
father,  commenced  drumming,  and  the  rest  soon  began  one  of  their 
characteristic  dances.  Those  who  did  not  dance  raised  the  old 
"  Ung-hi-yah  "  chorus  and  kept  time,  clapping  their  hands.  It 
was  a  sight  to  remember.  Ten  or  fifteen  clean,  handsome,  stal- 
wart Innuit,  going  through  the  graceful  gesticulations  of  their 
national  dance,  dressed  in  new  and  handsomely  trimmed  parkies 
of  every  variety  of  skin,  —  with  the  tall  poplars  and  spruce  for  a 
background,  a  fire  on  one  side,  and  above  the  genial  twilight  of 
the  arctic  night.  Their  wild  chorus  added  to  the  charm  of  the 
scene.  Around  them  in  a  wide  oval  were  huddled  the  well-fed 
but  filthy  Indians.  Their  skin  clothing  was  hairless  from  long 
use,  and  while  almost  dropping  off  them  from  decay,  glistened 
with  vermin.  Degradation,  filth,  stupidity,  fear,  and  wonder 
marked  their  features.  The  meanest  of  the  Innuit  far  surpassed 
the  best  of  them  in  strength  and  manliness.  Their  miserable 
condition  was  due  in  great  measure  to  their  sedentary  habits, 
constant  fish  diet,  and  natural  indolence.  Very  few  had  guns  at 
all,  and  those  which  they  did  have  were  old,  worn  out,  and  nearly 
worthless.  The  Ingaliks  who  live  farther  up  the  Shageluk  are 
said  to  be  more  intelligent  and  active,  probably  because  they  sub- 
sist on  the  deer  and  moose  which  they  are  obliged  to  hunt.  Af- 
ter the  Mahlemuts  had  concluded  their  dance  they  distributed 
tobacco  in  small  pieces  to  the  bystanders.  I  repaired  to  my  tent, 
took  supper,  and  putting  the  alcohol-can,  for  safety,  into  the  tent, 
lay  down  to  rest.  I  had  not  got  asleep,  when  I  heard  something 
crash  against  the  tent-pins,  breaking  down  two  of  them.     At  the 


22  2  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

same  time,  Kurilla  shouted  to  me  from  outside  that  the  Mahle- 
m.uts  were  after  the  alcohol.  I  shouted  back  to  look  sharp,  as 
they  would  not  get  it  while  I  had  a  loaded  gun.  I  pulled  on  my 
boots,  seized  my  revolver,  which  lay  by  my  head,  and  threw  back 
the  flap  of  the  tent.  There  stood  a  Mahlemut  with  his  hand  on 
the  trigger,  and  the  muzzle  of  his  gun  about  two  feet  from  my 
breast.  At  the  same  moment,  Kun'lla's  long  arm  jerked  the  gun 
from  his  hands,  and  flung  it  far  away  among  the  bushes. 

I  stepped  out  of  the  tent,  and  the  Mahlemuts  slunk  away  with- 
out a  word.  They  were  intoxicated,  having  drunk  the  liquor  of 
which  Isaac  had  spoken.  The  Indians  had  hidden  themselves, 
while  my  men,  guns  in  hand,  stood  near  the  tent.  If  the  Mahle- 
muts had  been  sober,  they  would  not  have  behaved  so.  It  was  a 
narrow  escape,  which  I  hardly  realized  at  the  time.  The  in- 
truders retired  to  their  tents,  seeing  us  armed  and  ready  for  arty- 
thing.  The  Indians  now  mustered  courage  enough  to  come  out, 
and  the  chief  came  to  me  and  begged  me,  with  many  bows  and 
deprecatory  gestures,  to  remove  my  camp,  as  he  was  afraid  there 
would  be  trouble  yet.  "  You  know  these  Innuit  are  so  very 
bad,  so  horribly  bad,  such  beasts,  worse  than  dogs,"  said  he,  al- 
most with  tears  in  his  eyes.  No  doubt  he  was  thinking  of  the 
miserable  gun  which  they  had  just  given  him  for  twenty  fine 
marten  skins,  which  he  dared  not  refuse  them.  I  consulted  with 
Kun'lla,  and  then  told  the  chief  that  we  would  move  our  camp  to 
the  island  in  the  middle  of  the  river,  and  if  any  one  wished  to 
trade  meat  or  fur  they  would  find  us  there.  The  tent  and  other 
traps  were  thrown  into  the  boat,  and  we  pulled  across  a  very  swift 
current  to  the  island.  Just  as  we  hauled  up  the  boat,  Kun'lla  shot 
a  swan  who  was  sailing  slowly  overhead,  and  taking  the  little 
canoe,  he  started  down  stream  after  it.  Some  Indians  came  over 
with  beaver  skins  and  tails,  which  I  purchased  ;  and  I  hired  one  of 
them  to  act  as  sentinel  during  the  night,  with  a  good  fire  to  keep 
off  the  mosquitoes.  When  Kun'lla  returned  we  gave  our  watch- 
man the  swan  to  pick,  to  keep  him  awake,  and  turning  in,  were 
soon  lost  in  slumber. 

Wednesday,  lot/i.  —  We  pushed  out  into  the  rapid  current  very 
early  in  the  day,  while  we  saw  nothing  more  of  our  Innuit  friends, 
who  were  probably  sleeping  off  their  headaches.  We  pulled  hard, 
hoping  to  reach  the  Mission  before  night.     We  passed  a  village 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


223 


of  two  houses,  called  Manki,  interesting  principally  as  being  the 
most  inland  Innuit  village  on  the  Yukon.  The  difference  of 
stock  was  apparent  only  from  the  countenances  of  the  natives 
and  the  dialect  which  they  spoke.  The  latter  exhibited  no  signs 
of  any  mixture  of  Indian  words.  It  was  quite  incomprehensible 
to  my  men,  who  had  been  able  to  converse  freely  at  the  last  vil- 
lage. I  could  understand  only  a  few  words,  which  resembled  the 
Mahlemut,  though  the  grammatical  construction  was  the  same  as 
that  of  the  other  Innuit  dialects.  These  natives  belong  to  the 
EkSgimit  (sometimes  called  Kivikhpdgimit)  tribe,  and  are  known 


hM^ 


ii^u^'^i^ 


:JjX^ 


to  the  Russians  as  Prc-moiski,  or  "  dwellers  near  the  sea."  They 
extend  to  the  seaboard,  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  Their  habits 
in  general  are  similar  to  those  of  the  coast  Innuit  already  de- 
scribed, but  are  a  little  modified  by  their  situation  on  a  river, 
which  presents  some  conditions  which  do  not  obtain  on  the  sea- 
shore. They  are  at  peace  with  the  adjacent  Indians,  probably 
as  much  because  both  are  miserable  cowards,  as  from  any  other 
reason. 

As  we  sailed  down  the  river,  an  old  fellow  in  a  small  bidarra 
came  out  from  a  river  which  entered  the  Yukon  from  the  west, 


224 


THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 


and  brought  some  cranberries  for  sale.  A  great  difference  is 
noticeable  between  the  villages  on  the  Upper  and  those  on  the 
Lower  Yukon.  Below,  we  find  large,  solid,  permanent  houses, 
gayly  painted  paddles,  and  great  abundance  of  skin  boats,  the 
prows  of  which  are  frequently  fashioned  to  resemble  the  head  of 
some  beast  or  bird ;  above,  the  dwellings  are  at  best  miserable 
huts,  tents,  or  temporary  shelters  made  of  brush.  Dirt,  and  a  defi- 
ciency of  the  ornamental,  mark  the  upper  villages,  while  the  only 
boats  are  the  frail  and  carelessly  made  birch  canoes.  A  little 
farther  on  we  met  a  three-holed  bidarka  with  a  Creole  from  the 
Mission  in  it.  He  was  going  to  the  small  river  we  had  just 
passed,  to  try  and  hire  the  bidarra  from  the  natives,  for  a  trip  to 
the  Redoubt.  He  gave  us  some  goose-eggs,  and  went  on  his  way. 
We  kept  on  until  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening,  and  finding  that 
we  could  not  reach  the  Mission  within  several  hours,  camped  at  a 
native  settlement,  called  by  the  Russians  Loon-cap  Village.  We 
pitched  our  tent  near  a  small  brook,  and  soon  had  the  kettle  on 
the  fire.  This  village  presented  many  points  of  interest.  The 
number  of  inhabitants  was  only  eight  or  ten,  the  remainder 
having  died.  This  decrease  in  population  is  noteworthy  along 
the  Lower  Yukon.  Everywhere  there  are  fewer  natives  than 
formerly.  The  decrease  is  partly  due  to  lung  diseases,  which 
arise  from  their  habit  of  drawing  the  smoke  of  the  Circassian 
tobacco  into  the  lungs.  In  this  particular  village,  within  a  gen- 
eration, there  had  been  several  hundred  inhabitants.  There  were 
eight  large  summer  houses,  in  each  of  which  a  hundred  people 
might  have  been  comfortably  accommodated.  These  houses 
were  built  of  immense  planks,  hewn  out  of  single  logs  with  stone 
adzes.  Many  of  these  planks  were  four  inches  thick,  and  three 
feet  wide  by  twelve  feet  long.  The  houses  were  in  a  miserable 
state  of  decay.  Water  stood  in  some  of  them,  and  only  one  or 
two  were  habitable.  The  rafters  were  carved  into  rude  imitations 
of  animals,  and  still  retained  traces  of  the  red  earth  with  which 
they  had  been  painted.  The  graves  were  the  most  conspicuous 
and  remarkable  part  of  the  village.  They  exceeded  any  I  have 
ever  seen  on  the  Yukon,  in  intricacy  of  ornament,  variety  of  de- 
sign, and  in  their  number  compared  with  the  size  of  the  village. 
They  were  on  the  hillside,  a  little  way  above  the  houses.  I  no- 
ticed that  they  were  not  covered  with  logs  or  slabs  of  wood  like 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY 


225 


the  Ingalik  graves,  nor  with  earth  and  clay  like  those  at  An- 
vi'k,  but  were  filled  with  earth  over  the  body,  and  then  carefully 
covered  with  pieces  of  birch  bark,  held  down  by  heavy  stones. 
The  supports  of  the  box  were  immediately  underneath  it,  and 
large  baluster-like  standards  ornamented  the  corners.  Many  of 
the  boxes  were  carefully  fitted,  smoothed,  and  painted  with  va- 
rious designs.  Some  had  fur  animals  depicted  on  them,  showing 
that  the  dead  person  was  a  successful  trapper.  Others  had  the 
bear,  deer,  and  other  animals,  denoting  the  graves  to  be  those  of 
hunters.  Fish,  birds,  pictures  of  seal  and  beluga  hunting,  were 
painted  with  the  usual  red  pigment  on  others.  Many  were 
studded  with  pegs  of  ivory  or  bone ;  some  were  surrounded  by  a 
carefully  carved  and  painted  railing.  Drums,  kantags,  paddles, 
bows  of  tremendous  size  bound  with  sinew,  arrows  of  bone  carved 
into  intricate  lace-work,  quite  different  from  anything  I  have  seen 
elsewhere,  strings  of  beads,  belts,  pieces  of  brass  scratched  with 
patterns,  kettles,  and  other  articles  of  use  and  ornament  were 
attached  to  many  of  the  coffins.  On  posts  in  front  of  some  of 
them  were  separate  pieces  of  wood-carving,  such  as  masks  re- 
sembling the  human  face,  and  trimmed  with  wolfskin,  carved 
human  heads,  beavers  transfixed  with  arrows,  fish,  beluga,  and 
boats  with  men  in  them,  all  variously  painted. 

The  ethnologist  would  find  a  wide  field  in  the  vicinity  of  this 
village  alone.  The  few  inhabitants  had  a  melancholy  cast  of 
countenance,  as  if  conscious  that  they  were  living  among  the  re- 
mains of  the  ingenuity  of  their  ancestors,  which  they  could  not 
hope  to  emulate.  They  were  successful  in  hunting  ;  that  very 
day  a  bear  and  three  deer  were  killed,  with  nothing  but  arrows,  a 
few  rods  from  the  houses.  The  men  wore  dresses  of  birdskins, 
which  are  common  on  the  Lower  Yukon.  Some  of  them  had 
caps  made  of  the  skin  of  a  loon  or  hawk,  with  the  breast  above, 
the  head  still  attached  and  hanging  down  behind,  and  the  wings 
on  either  side.  The  vegetation  was  luxuriant.  I  forced  my 
way  to  the  vicinity  of  the  graves  through  a  growth  of  grass  and 
weeds  four  feet  high.  Care  was  necessary  to  avoid  falling  into 
excavations,  the  sole  remains  of  ancient  winter  houses  long  since 
rotted  away. 

I  bought  some  fresh  venison,  and  after  a  hearty  supper  we 
turned  in. 

15 


2  26  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

Thursday,  iiih.  —  After  collecting  a  few  plants,  among  which 
were  the  blossoms  of  black  and  red  currants,  we  pushed  oft'  on 
our  way  to  the  Mission.  The  trees  had  already  become  less 
abundant,  especially  on  the  right  bank.  The  latter  was  pretty 
high  in  many  places,  and  trachytic  rocks  were  observed.  In 
some  places  the  river  is  exceedingly  wide,  and  once  or  twice, 
when  we  were  in  the  current  close  to  the  right  bank,  the  left 
bank  was  quite  invisible.  A  broad,  smooth  sheet  of  water 
stretched  to  the  west,  undisturbed  by  any  ripples,  and  not  broken 
by  islands  or  dry  sand-bars.  The  scene  strongly  impressed  upon 
the  observer  the  majesty  of  the  great  river  upon  which  we  were 
travelling.  About  ten  o'clock  the  basaltic  rocks  indicated  the 
proximity  of  the  Mission,  and  hoisting  the  American  flag  and 
that  of  the  Scientific  Corps,  we  rounded  a  point,  and  the  build- 
ings came  into  view.  The  water  near  the  shore  was  shallow, 
and  we  had  some  difficulty  in  hauling  in  our  heavily  loaded 
boat.  We  fired  a  gun,  and  were  saluted  in  return  by  the  Rus- 
sians. 

We  found  that  the  missionary  of  the  Greek  Church  in  the 
District  of  St.  Michael's  {commonly  known  to  the  Russians  as 
the  Pope)  was  on  the  point  of  starting  for  the  Redoubt.  He 
had  dismantled  the  church  of  everything  valuable,  and  had  nailed 
up  the  door.  At  his  request  I  took  an  inventory  of  the  houses 
and  articles  of  furniture  he  left  behind,  as  he  hoped  to  sell  them 
to  the  Americans  when  they  arrived.  He  then  applied  for  med- 
ical advice,  and  gave  a  lengthy  description  of  his  personal  mis- 
eries, which  were  all  clearly  referrible  to  an  undue  indulgence  in 
alcoholic  stimulants.  This,  I  believe,  in  the  Greek  Church  is 
not  considered  to  detract  from  the  holiness  of  its  ecclesiastics. 
All  of  those  I  have  met  with  in  Alaska  and  Kamchatka  were 
inveterate  topers.  He  told  me  that  he  had  been  seven  years  a 
missionary  on  the  Yukon,  and  that  he  thanked  God  that  he  now 
had  an  opportunity  of  returning  to  Russia,  where  a  glass  of  rum 
might  be  had  for  twenty-five  kopeks  (five  cents).  I  cautioned 
him  against  dclirmm  tremens,  and  bade  him  good  by.  His  Creole 
servant,  who  accompanied  him  to  St.  Michael's,  had  a  very 
pretty  wife,  and  I  doubted  if  something  more  than  a  fatherly 
benediction  did  not  lurk  in  the  kiss  Father  Larriown  gave  her 
just  before  he  embarked. 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


227 


The  other  Russians  at  the  Mission  were  Milavanoff  the  bidar- 
shik,  and  Goldsen,  who  had  been  acting  as  secretary.  Mila- 
vanoft'  was  a  good  trader,  but  an  invalid  from  liver  complaint, 
which  is  common  among  the  Russians  in  this  country.  He  gave 
me  a  good  supply  of  bread,  as  my  own  was  nearly  exhausted,  and 
I  made  him  a  present  of  my  Derringer,  to  which  he  had  taken  a 
fancy.  I  was  sorry  to  find  that  I  could  not  get  an  interpreter 
here,  as  the  Innuit  dialect  of  the  delta  was  incomprehensible  to 
all  of  our  party.  The  buildings  at  the  Mission,  except  a  new 
house  of  Milavanoff's  and  one  belonging  to  the  Pope,  are  very 
rotten  and  miserable.  The  place  is  a  very  unhealthy  one. 
It  is  situated  between  two  hills  which  shelter  it  completely  from 
the  wind.  Several  pools  of  stagnant  water  are  close  by.  The  In- 
dian village  is  very  filthy,  and  their 
refuse  from  fish  and  other  matters 
is  everywhere  scattered  about.  I 
counted  six  dead  dogs  among  the 
bushes,  and  close  to  the  houses  there 
is  a  large  number  of  graves,  both 
Russian  and  native.  Some  of  the 
latter  were  curious,  and  were  fur- 
nished with  the  baluster-like  sup-  EUgmut  grave, 
ports  before  mentioned. 

We  emptied  our  boat,  turned  her  over,  gave  her  a  good  oiling, 
and  left  her  to  dry.  This  is  imperatively  necessary  when  travel- 
ling in  skin  boats,  and  should  be  done  at  least  once  in  ten  days, 
if  possible.  We  all  took  a  good  steam  bath,  which  was  a  great 
luxury.  Once,  farther  up  the  Yukon,  I  had  tried  the  experiment 
of  bathing  in  the  river,  but  the  water  was  so  cold  that  only  a 
single  plunge  was  endurable.  In  this  part  of  the  river  the  water 
is  so  muddy  that  it  adds  nothing  to  one's  cleanliness  to  bathe 
in  it. 

Friday,  \2tJ1.  —  After  securing  a  number  of  specimens,  grind- 
ing our  axes,  and  performing  a  variety  of  similar  small  jobs,  we 
again  proceeded  on  our  way.  Just  below  the  Mission  we  saw  a 
native  attacking  a  beaver  with  one  of  their  bone  tridents.  Ku- 
n'lla  started  to  his  assistance,  in  the  canoe,  with  his  gun  ;  after  a 
little  while  they  returned,  and  I  bought  the  animal,  as  it  lay,  for 
three  bunches  of  Circassian  tobacco.     We  kept  on  all  night,  as 


228  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

the  air  is  cooler  than  in  the  day,  and  there  is  no  darkness,  though 
the  sun  goes  a  httle  below  the  horizon.  No  stars  were  visible  all 
night. 

Saturday,  \ltJi.  — About  midnight  we  rounded  the  Great  Bend. 
Here  we  met  the  head-wind  blowing  in  our  teeth  with  redoubled 
force.  For  all  the  use  they  had  been,  so  far,  we  might  as  well 
have  left  the  mast  and  sail  at  Nulato.  At  the  Bend  we  found  a 
camp  of  natives  who  were  waiting  for  the  wind  to  subside.  They 
had  nothing  for  sale  except  a  few  mink  and  some  eggs.  I  bought 
some  swan's  eggs  for  scientific  purposes,  and  also  a  bow  of  the 
kind  in  use  in  the  Yukon  delta.  These  bows  are  made  of  spruce, 
which  has  little  elasticity  when  dry,  and  is  very  liable  to  break. 
To  remedy  this  defect  the  bow  is  bound  with  cords  twisted  from 
deer  sinew,  as  shown  in  the  annexed  figure.     This  gives  it  great 


Ekogmut  bow. 

Strength,  and  overcomes  the  brittleness  of  the  wood.  We  took  tea 
in  a  slough,  and  about  noon  stopped  at  a  village  where  the  inhab- 
itants were  engaged  in  fishing.  It  is  only  by  personal  inspection 
of  such  a  village  that  any  one  can  obtain  an  adequate  idea  of  the 
immense  quantity  of  fish  which  is  annually  caught  and  dried  on 
the  Lower  Yukon.  Several  acres  of  ground  in  front  of  the  sum- 
mer houses  were  literally  covered  with  standards  and  stages  bear- 
ing line  after  line  of  fish,  split  and  hung  up  to  dry.  The  odor  is 
borne  to  a  great  distance  by  the  wind.  The  dogs,  children,  and 
other  inhabitants  of  the  village,  during  the  fishing-season,  recall 
the  old  lines, — 

"  Jeshurun  he  waxed  fat, 
And  down  his  cheeks  they  hung  !  " 

while  the  long  rows  of  caches  are  crammed  with  provisions  for  the 
winter.  This  condition  of  things  holds  good  as  far  as  Anvi'k. 
Beyond  that  point  the  fish  are  scarcer,  and,  as  previously  related, 
Nulato  is  far  from  furnishing  food  of  any  kind  in  plenty.  In  the 
foreground  the  different  parts  of  fish-traps  were  lying,  in  readi- 


m  mm 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  229 

ness  to  repair  any  damage,  or  put  down  a  new  trap,  if  the  water 
fell  so  as  to  render  it  necessary.  Here  some  men  were  emptying 
the  fish  out  of  a  basket,  and  there  others  were  returning  with  a 
canoe-load  of  salmon  from  some  distant  zapor. 

We  bought  a  few  whitefish,  and  some  mink.  I  saw  two  red  fox 
cubs  with  collars,  tied  to  stakes  in  some  of  the  houses.  These 
were  apparently  intended  to  amuse  the  children.  We  then 
departed,  and  finally  camped  on  a  sand-bar  which  was  literally 
alive  with  wild  fowl.  We  were  now  getting  into  the  region 
where  they  abound,  during  the  spring  and  summer,  in  myriads. 
The  report  of  a  gun  will  often  raise  such  immense  flocks  of  geese 
as  literally  to  darken  the  air ;  sometimes  a  flock  will  be  four  or  five 
miles  long,  and  two  or  three  rods  wide,  flying  as  close  together 
as  they  can  with  safety.  Swans  whitened  the  surface  of  several 
lagoons,  and  from  them  down  to  the  tiniest  snipe,  not  weighing 
more  than  an  ounce,  every  kind  of  wild  fowl  abounded  in  pro- 
fusion. Their  eggs  were  scattered  over  the  sand-bars,  and  a 
hatful  could  be  obtained  on  any  beach.  On  attempting  to  empty 
the  swan's-eggs  which  I  had  purchased  the  day  before,  by  means 
of  a  blow-pipe,  they  resisted  all  my  efforts.  On  breaking  them, 
what  was  my  surprise  at  finding  that  they  had  been  hard  boiled 
by  the  natives,  to  keep  them  from  spoiling  ! 

The  real  work  of  the  season  had  been  well  commenced  at  Nulato, 
but  partially  suspended  since  we  left,  as  we  had  procured  but  few 
birds  new  to  the  collection,  since  leaving  that  point.  Now  I  had 
my  hands  full,  and  leaving  the  task  of  navigating  to  Kurilla,  I  was 
constantly  occupied  skinning  the  birds  which  we  obtained  at 
every  turn.  I  passed  many  a  night  without  getting  an  hour's 
sleep,  in  order  that  rare  birds  might  be  preserved ;  and  the  work 
of  preparing  birdskins  is  anything  but  a  pleasant  one.  The 
results  to  be  obtained  for  natural  history  were  so  great,  that  it 
was  impossible  to  grudge  a  moment  of  time  so  spent,  or  to  neglect 
any  opportunity  of  adding  to  the  note-book  or  the  collection. 

Sunday,  i^th.  —  Passed  the  Rasbinik  village,  where  I  bought  a 
marten-skin  and  a  haunch  of  reindeer  meat.  The  natives  here 
always  cut  a  small  piece  off  every  skin  after  selling  it,  for  luck 
as  they  say.  Toward  night  we  reached  the  village  of  Starry  (old) 
Kwikhpak.  Here  I  found  a  man  named  Yaska,  who  had  been 
interpreter  at  Andreaffsky.     I  explained  to  him  that  I  wished  to 


230  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

visit  the  Kusilvak  Slough,  and  obtain  eggs  and  skins  of  the 
beautiful  emperor  goose  {ChloepJiaga  canagicd),  which  breeds  in 
abundance  there,  and  there  only.  He  could  not  go  himself,  but 
obtained  a  boy  who  knew  the  way,  and  explained  to  him  what  I 
wanted.  The  village  was  full  of  fresh  skins  of  the  reindeer  fawn. 
I  counted  a  thousand  and  seventy-two  bunches  hanging  up  to 
dry.  Each  bunch  contained  four  skins,  or  enough  to  make  a 
parka.  This  would  give  a  total  of  nearly  four  thousand  three 
hundred  of  these  little  creatures,  which  had  been  killed  during 
the  past  two  months.  The  village  contained  a  great  deal  of  dry 
meat  and  fish,  but  the  inhabitants  were  squalid  and  dirty.     I  saw 


Andreaffsky. 

a  tame  owl  sitting  on  one  of  the  rafters,  and  a  few  marten-skins 
were  hanging  on  a  cache.  I  bought  an  otter-skin  of  the  finest 
quality,  for  four  bunches  of  Circassian  tobacco.  Not  wishing  to 
camp  in  such  a  dirty  place,  we  proceeded  a  little  way  down  the 
river  with  our  guide,  and  camped. 

Monday,  \$th.  —  While  collecting  in  the  morning,  I  found  cow- 
slips in  blossom  on  the  marshes,  and  obtained  the  eggs  of  the 
beautiful  white-winged  gull.  The  long-continued  and  never-tir- 
ing head-wind  was  stronger  than  usual  this  morning.  To  avoid 
it,  we  entered  a  long  slough,  where  we  took  tea,  and  I  collected 
many  yellow  butterflies   {Pieris  vciiosa  Scud.),  the  only  species 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  23  I 

which  I  noticed  on  the  Yukon  near  the  sea.  About  one  o'clock 
we  emerged  from  the  slough,  and  at  this  point  killed  several 
geese.  The  waves  were  very  high,  and  after  an  hour's  hard  pull- 
ing we  passed  the  mouth  of  the  Milavanoft'  River,  and  iinally 
reached  Andreaffsky  Fort.  It  was  quite  deserted.  The  solitary 
fort,  with  the  windows  all  nailed  up,  the  bare  hills,  and  cloudy 
sky,  made  the  place  seem  more  lonely  and  dreary  than  ever. 
We  hauled  up  the  boat,  and  boiled  the  chynik,  and  rested  until 
the  wind  should  abate  a  little. 

Andreaffsky  was  built  in  the  form  of  a  square,  the  buildings 
making  two  of  the  sides,  and  a  stockade  the  other  two.  It  con- 
tained barracks,  a  store,  magazine,  cook-house  and  bath-house. 
It  was  erected  about  the  year  1853.  In  1855  it  was  the  scene  of 
a  mournful  tragedy.  There  was  formerly  an  Ekogmut  village 
near  the  fort.  Several  of  the  natives  were  workmen  at  the  fort. 
No  trouble  had  ever  occurred.  Several  of  the  garrison  had  gone 
up  to  Nulato  with  the  annual  provision-boat,  and  only  the  bidar- 
shik  and  one  Russian,  besides  the  native  workmen,  were  left  in  the 
fort.  One  Friday  in  August,  the  natives  attacked  the  Russians 
as  they  came  naked  out  of  the  bath,  and  killed  them  with  clubs 
and  knives.  A  Creole  boy  escaped  to  the  hills,  and  finally  crossed 
the  portage  to  the  vicinity  of  St.  Michael's.  When  he  reached  that 
point  the  Uprovalisha  was  away,  and  his  secretary,  Ivan  Kogen- 
ikotf,  was  acting  in  his  stead. 

The  Russians  had  long  murmured  at  the  conduct  of  the  Com- 
pany, in  leaving  unavenged  the  Nulato  massacre.  The  oppor- 
tunity of  settling  accounts  with  the  natives  was  too  tempting 
to  resist.  Kogenikofif  and  Gregory  Ivanhofif,  with  two  Creoles, 
immediately  started  for  the  fort.  On  reaching  it  they  found 
everything  in  confusion.  The  dead  bodies  lay  at  the  door  of 
the  bath-house.  The  natives,  not  knowing  how  to  use  flour, 
had  merely  carried  off  the  sacks.  They  had  also  ripped  open 
the  beds,  and  carried  away  the  ticking,  while  the  mass  of 
flour  and  feathers  was  left  on  the  floor.  After  satisfying  them- 
selves that  there  was  no  living  thing  in  the  fort,  the  Russians 
started  for  the  village,  which  was  about  a  mile  off.  As  they  ap- 
proached, Kogenikofif  saw  a  man  standing  in  the  door  of  one  of  the 
houses  and  pointing  a  gun  at  the  approaching  party.  It  after- 
ward turned  out  that  the  gun  had  no  lock ;  but  not  knowing  this, 


232  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

the  Russians  fired,  and  killed  the  man.  The  natives,  who  were 
few  in  number,  came  rushing  out,  and  were  shot  down  without 
mercy.  The  Creoles,  who,  when  aroused,  have  all  the  ferocity  of 
the  aboriginal  savage,  attacked  the  shaman  and  beat  out  his 
brains  with  clubs.  None  were  spared.  The  blood  shed  at  the 
fort  was  not  yet  dry,  and  the  infuriated  Russians  resolved  that 
the  authors  of  that  cowardly  outrage  should  be  exterminated 
without  mercy.  When  they  stayed  their  hands  the  work  was 
done.  Fathers,  mothers,  and  children  had  passed  their  "  evil 
quarter  of  an  hour."  The  result  was  wonderful.  From  that  day 
to  this  not  a  native  on  the  Lower  Yukon  has  lifted  his  hand 
against  the  whites.  The  bloody  lesson  was  not  thrown  away. 
The  strong  hand,  which  alone  commands  the  respect  of  savages, 
was  worth  a  thousand  missionaries.  To  this  day  the  natives  trav- 
elling on  the  river  near  the  fort  pass  by  on  the  other  side.  Large 
quantities  of  tobacco  and  other  property,  stolen  from  the  fort,  were 
found  in  the  village.  Around  the  necks  of  most  of  the  dead, 
crosses  were  found  hanging,  indicating  that  the  thieves  and  mur- 
derers were  baptized  converts  of  the  Yukon  Mission. 

The  only  articles  remaining  in  the  fort  at  the  time  of  our  visit 
were  three  six-pounders,  and  some  old  iron.  Toward  evening, 
though  the  river  was  still  very  rough,  we  embarked,  and  by  keep- 
ing close  to  the  bank  managed  to  travel  several  miles  farther. 
The  white  dome  of  the  Kusilvak  mountain  loomed  up  grandly  to 
the  southwest.  Just  south  of  it  is  a  shallow  slough  which  leads 
into  the  south  slough  of  the  delta.  This  is  navigable  only  for 
bidarkas.  The  trees  were  now  reduced  to  low  willows,  and  the 
level  character  of  the  country  to  the  north  and  west  showed  that 
we  had  passed  all  the  mountains.  A  few  low  hills  still  fringed 
the  right  bank,  but  the  general  level  of  the  country  was  only 
a  few  feet  above  the  sea.  We  finally  camped  on  the  bank  of  a 
small  stream,  which  our  guide  said  was  called  Egg  River. 
The  evening  was  cold  and  raw,  the  sky  cloudy  and  sombre,  and 
the  vegetation  far  less  advanced  than  that  a  hundred  miles 
inland.  Fragments  of  ice,  the  remains  of  huge  blocks  left  by  the 
freshet,  still  lay  on  the  shore. 

Tuesday,  i6th. — The  whole  morning  we  pulled  against  a 
strong  steady  head-wind.  We  passed  into  a  narrow  slough,  and 
by  a  turn  to  the  northward  were  able  for  the  first  time  to  use  our 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  233 

sail.  Convinced  that  we  were  passing  the  mouth  of  the  Kusilvak, 
we  crossed  to  the  other  side  of  the  river.  Two  hours  were  con- 
sumed in  doing  this,  although  we  made  at  least  three  knots  and  a 
half  an  hour.  The  aspect  of  the  country,  flat,  marshy,  and 
muddy,  was  truly  desolate.  We  saw  immense  numbers  of  wild 
fowl  in  the  distance,  but  no  other  animals.  We  camped  on  the 
left  bank,  and  I  noticed  that  the  mice  in  winter,  crawling  along 
the  surface  of  the  snow,  had  gnawed  the  bark  from  the  willows 
full  six  feet  above  the  ground.  This  would  indicate  that  the 
snow  falls  at  least  to  that  depth.  A  few  warblers  were  building 
their  nests  in  the  thickets,  and  I  noticed  the  tracks  of  mink  along 
the  muddy  beach. 

Wednesday,  lyth.  —  Our  guide  to  my  astonishment  insisted  on 
crossing  the  river  again.  As  none  of  us  understood  the  Pre- 
morska  dialect,  we  were  unable  to  find  out  what  his  intentions 
were.  About  noon  we  stopped  at  a  small  island  and  collected 
about  fifty  eggs  of  the  water-hen  {Mergns  serrator).  They  were 
laid  under  logs,  without  any  lining  to  the  nest,  and  covered  care- 
fully with  dry  leaves  and  down.  The  parent  birds  flew,  scream- 
ing, round  the  island,  out  of  gunshot.  About  half  an  hour  after, 
our  guide  brought  us  to  the  mouth  of  the  Uphoon !  I  recognized 
the  place  immediately,  and  by  referring  to  my  vocabularies 
managed  to  make  out  that  he  had  supposed  this  was  our  desti- 
nation, and  that  he  knew  nothing  about  the  Kusilvak.  This  was 
a  great  disappointment  to  me,  as  I  had  hoped  to  obtain  large 
numbers  of  the  eggs  and  skins  of  the  Emperor  goose.  However, 
there  was  nothing  to  be  done  but  to  make  the  best  of  it.  I  paid 
him,  and  he  started  homeward,  while  we  kept  on  our  way  through 
the  Uphoon.  The  small  beaches  were  plentifully  strewn  with 
eggs.  The  most  common  were  those  of  Hutchin's  goose,  the 
white-winged  gull,  and  the  pin-tail  duck.  I  had  instructed  Ku- 
n'lla  in  the  manufacture  of  omelets,  and  they  now  formed  part 
of  every  meal.  The  egg-shells  were  carefully  emptied  with  a 
blowpipe  and  devoted  to  science,  while  the  contents  went  into 
the  frying-pan.  We  camped  on  a  high  bank,  which  bore  the  re- 
mains of  many  native  camp-fires,  and  just  before  turning  in  I  was 
fortunate  enough  to  shoot  a  fine  specimen  of  the  beautiful  red- 
necked loon.  The  Uphoon  is  an  excellent  collecting  ground,  but 
the  emperor  goose  is  seldom  seen  there. 


234 


THE   YUKON    TERRITORY. 


TJmrsday,  i8th. — We  started  late,  after  unlimited  omelet,  and 
rowed  slowly  through  the  various  windings  of  the  slough. 
Now  and  then  we  stopped  to  collect  eggs  or  specimens,  and  the 
boat  was  fairly  covered  with  our  feathered  prizes.  We  passed 
one  deserted  native  house,  and  about  dark  arrived  safely  at  Kut- 
li'k.  This  settlement  consists  of  one  house,  built  by  a  Russian 
called  Ananyan,  containing  a  living-room,  kitchen,  and  bath-room, 
under  one  roof;  a  single  Innuit  barrabora  stands  near  it,  and  a 
great  cache,  the  largest  in  the  country,  has  been  erected  behind 
the  house.  The  house  was  entirely  empty,  and  had  such  a  smoky 
smell  that  I  decided  to  sleep  in  the  tent,  and  only  to  do  my  bird- 


^^• 


skinning  inside,  where  there  was  room  to  spread  out  the  skins 
to  dry.  I  proposed  to  spend  several  days  here,  and  to  send 
the  Indians  out  shooting,  while  I  kept  at  work  preparing  the  speci- 
mens. Ananyan,  with  his  family,  was  away  in  the  Kiisilvak,  where 
he  was  salting  chowi'chee  {Salmo  oricntalis  Pall.)  for  Stepanofif. 

The  next  day  I  busied  myself  repacking  the  specimens  which 
had  been  collected  on  the  road.  I  sent  out  all  the  Indians  with 
liberal  supplies  of  powder  and  shot,  and  promised  ten  balls  as  a 
present  to  whoever  should  bring  in  one  of  the  much-desired  geese. 
I  blew  about  five  dozen  eggs  during  the  day  which  is  an  under- 
taking to  be  appreciated  only  by  those  who  have  tried  it.     To- 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


ward  evening  it  rained,  and  I  moved  everything  fronr  the  tent 
into  the  house,  except  my  blankets.  The  men  came  back  loaded 
with  game,  and  the  indefatigable  Kurilla,  with  an  unwonted  smile 
on  his  sober  face,  unfolded  a  piece  of  cotton  and  brought  out  a 
magnificent  old  gander  of  the  right  sort.  The  golden  tips  to  the 
snowy  feathers  of  the  head,  the  beautiful  "ashes-of-roses"  color 
of  the  body,  marked  with  half-moons  of  black,  gave  it  the  undis- 
puted right  to  its  proud  title  of  the  Emperor,  or,  in  Russian, 
CLesdv-ka. 


The  following  day  and  the  one  after  that  were  spent  much 
in  the  same  way.  I  was  busy  preserving  and  packing  the 
skins,  while  the  Indians  were  constantly  out  gunning.  Sidorka 
added  another  goose  to  my  collection,  and  I  obtained  near  the 
house  several  pairs,  and  also  the  eggs  of  a  curlew  {Limosa  iiropygi- 
alis)  not  previously  found  on  the  American  continent.  On  Mon- 
day, Kun'lla  heated  the  bath-room,  and  we  all  took  a  steam  bath. 
In  the  evening  about  half  past  eleven  that  old  veteran  Teleezhik 
arrived  from  the  Shageluk  with  a  boat-load  of  furs.  He  would 
only  stop  to  drink  tea,  however,  and  with  his  two  companions 
pushed  on  to  Pastolik.  He  had  obtained  about  a  thousand 
martens. 


236  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

Ttiesday,  2id. — After  packing  up  all  the  collections,  I  con- 
cluded to  follow  Teleezhik  to  Pastolik.  We  arrived  there  safely, 
and  had  hardly  landed  our  cargo  before  a  strong  head-wind 
sprang  up,  so  that  we  had  been  just  in  time.  Pastolik  is  a  Una- 
leet  village  of  some  thirty  huts,  mostly  built  of  turf  and  driftwood. 
Just  now  it  was  without  inhabitants.  It  is  situated  on  the  shore 
of  a  wide  inlet,  into  which  the  Pastolik  River  empties.  The 
mouth  of  this  inlet  is  nearly  closed  by  a  bar  which  is  almost  dry 
at  low  tide.  Inside  of  the  bar  there  are  deep  places,  and  here  a 
beluga  fishery  is  carried  on  in  the  month  of  August.  The  beluga 
is  a  small  white  whale,  allied  to  the  sperm  whale  and  porpoise. 
They  come  into  the  shallow  water  to  breed,  and  are  prevented 
from  getting  out  of  the  inlet  by  the  bar.  When  the  tide  falls,  the 
natives  in  their  kyaks  attack  them  with  lances,  and  large  num- 
bers are  killed.  .The  flesh  is  eaten,  and  the  blubber  and  oil  pre- 
served for  trade  and  winter  use.  The  length  of  these  animals 
seldom  exceeds  fifteen  feet,  and  a  large  one  will  weigh  about  two 
thousand  pounds.  I  counted  eighty  skulls  lying  about  the  huts, 
the  remains  of  the  fishery  of  the  previous  year.  The  teeth  of  the 
beluga  are  of  the  consistency  of  ivory,  and  are  extensively  used 
by  the  Innuit  in  making  small  carvings.  Birds,  seal,  deer,  and 
other  animals  are  imitated  with  some  skill  by  the  natives,  and 
many  articles  of  use  and  ornament  are  made  by  them  from  ivory. 
The  previous  year,  on  our  arrival  from  Nulato,  I  purchased  a 
large  number  of  these  articles.     An  awl  or  bodkin  is  here  repre- 

Ivory  bodkin. 

sented.  The  larger  articles  of  ivory  are  made  from  walrus  tusks, 
which  are  obtained  by  trade  with  the  natives  of  the  northern 
coast.  In  July  and  September  a  seal  fishery,  similar  to  that  at 
Kegiktowruk,  is  carried  on  here,  and  many  are  secured  in  nets. 
These  nets  are  exceedingly  strong,  and  are   made  from  remni, 


Seine  needle. 

with  a  peculiar  needle,  which  is  here  represented.     The   Innuit 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 


■o7 


women  are  extremely  expert  at  this  kind  of  work.  I  am  informed 
that  with  similar  nets,  during  the  moulting  season,  they  secure 
large  numbers  of  wild  fowl  and  also  many  arctic  hares  in  the  fall. 
During  the  moulting  season  they  obtain  many  skins  of  the  differ- 
ent species  of  divers,  by  driving  them  into  shallow  water  where 
they  cannot  dive,  and  spearing  them  with  bone  tridents.  Of  these 
skins  they  make  parkies  and  other  articles  of  clothing,  some  of 
which  are  very  tasteful. 

The  Innuit  have  also  a  custom  of  making,  on  flat   pieces  of 
bone,  rude  drawings  of  animals,  hunting  parties,  and  similar  things. 


INNUIT   DRAWINGS    ON    BONE. 


Deer  hunting. 

These  drawings  are  analogous  to  those  discovered  in  France  in 
the  caves  of  Dordogne,  and  the  preceding  sketch  of  the  drawings 
on  either  side  of  two  bone  knives  illustrates  their  general  character. 
I  have  seen  an  ivory  bow,  used  in  connection  with  a  drill,  and 
made  of  an  entire  walrus  tusk,  which  had  depicted  on  each  of 
the  four  sides  €very  pursuit  followed  by  the  Innuit  from  birth  to 
interment.  These  facts  have  a  peculiar  interest  as  showing  some 
similarity   between    the   customs    of  the   present  Orarian    tribes 


238  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

and  those  of  the  ancient  European  cave-dwellers.  Similar  draw- 
ings are  common  everywhere  among  the  Innuit,  while  I  have 
never  seen  among  the  Tinneh  tribes  of  the  northwest  any  similar 
specimens  of  art.  Some  of  the  Innuit  tribes  to  the  southward 
exhibit  much  more  ingenuity  in  such  matters  than  those  of  Nor- 
ton Sound  and  the  vicinity. 

Back  of  Pastolik  are  extensive  marshes  bounded  by  the  low 
range  of  the  Pastolik  Hills,  while  at  their  foot  the  Pastoliak 
River  flows,  emptying  into  Pastol  Bay.  These  marshes  are  the 
favorite  haunts  of  myriads  of  wild  fowl. 

Wednesday,  24th.  —  This  morning  an  unexpected  misfortune 
occurred.  The  strong  west  wind  raised  the  water  so  high  that  it 
not  only  invaded  our  tent  near  the  shore,  but  surrounded  the 
boxes  of  birdskins  before  we  became  aware  of  it,  and  I  was 
obliged  to  empty  them,  unpack  every  individual  specimen,  and  dry 
it  in  the  sun.  This  was  fortunately  accomplished  and  the  speci- 
mens repacked,  when  clouds  came  up  and  it  began  to  rain.  From 
the  marshes  my  Indians  obtained  many  fine  birds  and  eggs, 
including  several  specimens  of  the  exquisite  Sabine's  gull  {Xana 
Sabinii),  and  a  pair  of  Emperor  geese.  This  is  nearly  the  most 
northern  point  reached  by  the  latter  species. 

A  solitary  native  arrived  in  a  kyak  at  night,  and  reported 
others  on  the  way.  I  picked  up  near  the  village  a  large  portion 
of  the  skull  of  the  extinct  elephant  (ii/^/^«i'/rmzV^;////.y).  These 
bones  are  not  so  common  as  the  teeth  and  tusks,  being  found  on 
the  surface  only,  and  usually  much  decayed ;  while  the  bones  of 
the  musk-ox  and  fossil  buffalo  found  in  the  same  situations  are 
much  better  preserved,  and  sometimes  retain  some  of  the  ani- 
mal matter  in  the  bone.  The  natives  have  no  tradition  of  any 
other  large  animal  than  the  reindeer  and  moose,  and  regard  the 
elephant  and  musk-ox  bones  as  the  remains  of  dead  "  devils." 
The  tusks  are  not  so  well  preserved  as  those  found  in  Siberia, 
which  are  usually  buried  in  the  earth.  The  former  are  black- 
ened, split,  and  weathered,  and  contain  little  ivory  in  a  state  fit 
for  use,  though  the  Innuit  of  the  Arctic  coast  occasionally  find 
them  in  such  preservation  that  they  make  kantags  or  dishes  of 
the  ivory,  according  to  Simpson. 

On  Friday,  Goldsen  arrived  in  a  three-holed  bidarka  with  his  son 
and  an  Innuit  lad.      He  reported  that  Milavanoff  was  at  Kiitlik. 


THE   YUKON    TERRITORY.  239 

Saturday,  2'jtJi.  —  The  wind  being  nearly  fair,  all  hands  loaded 
up,  and  we  started  for  the  Redoubt.  I  had  hoped  to  get  a  larger 
boat  at  Pastolik,  fearing  to  trust  my  little  bidarra  to  the  waves  of 
the  open  sea,  but  there  were  neither  boats  nor  natives  at  hand. 
We  sailed  well,  and  soon  outstripped  Teleezhik,  though  the  nim- 
ble bidarka  led  the  fleet.  We  drank  tea  on  the  shore,  about 
ten  miles  from  Pastolik,  and  then  pushed  on  toward  Point  Roma- 
noff. Goldsen  arrived  at  this  point  some  time  ahead  of  us,  as 
it  had  become  quite  calm. 

On  reaching  the  village,  near  the  solitary  hill  which  marks 
the  point  (which  is  the  Cape  Shallow  Water  of  Cook),  I  was 
about  to  land,  when  Goldsen  cried  out  to  me,  "Hurry  up  I  Mr. 
Doctor,  don't  stop  for  a  moment,  there  are  two  American  ves- 
sels at  the  Redoubt  I "  My  joy  and  excitement  can  hardly  be 
described.  Our  ignorance  of  any  details  only  added  to  it.  The 
news  was  obtained  through  a  native  who  had  been  to  the  Canal, 
and  had  only  seen  the  vessels.  I  immediately  proposed  to  Gold- 
sen  to  put  his  native  into  the  bidarra,  while  one  of  my  Indians 
would  take  the  other  paddle,  and  I  would  accompany  him  in  the 
swifter  bidarka  to  the  Redoubt.  This  arrangement  was  soon 
completed,  and  I  left  Kun'lla  to  bring  the  bidarra  to  St.  Michael's. 
W^e  touched  at  Pikmiktalik,  and  entering  the  Canal  took  tea  on 
the  bank.  While  the  chynik  was  boiling  I  took  a  bath  in  one  of 
the  lagoons,  and  otherwise  prepared  myself  to  meet  civilized 
beings  once  more.     After  tea  we  pulled  vigorously  all  night. 

Sunday,  28///.  —  About  three  o'clock  in  the  morning  we  reached 
the  northern  mouth  of  the  Canal,  and  saw  a  small  schooner  lying 
in  the  bay.  To  the  eastward  a  bidarra  was  pulling  for  the  Canal, 
but  seemed  rather  to  avoid  us.  Taking  Goldsen's  glass,  I  made 
out  one  white  man  in  it,  and  the  round  sides  of  two  barrels  rose 
conspicuously  above  the  gunwale.  I  felt  sick  as  I  sat  down, 
knowing  that  the  cargo  must  consist  of  rum,  and  seeing  already 
the  beginning  of  evils  whose  future  growth  none  could  estimate. 

We  pulled  up  to  the  landing  near  the  boat-house.  Everything 
seemed  much  as  usual,  and  everybody  was  evidently  asleep.  My 
eye  soon  fell  on  a  pile  of  boxes,  which  were  not  of  Russian  make, 
and  just  beyond  was  a  lot  of  American  tin  cups.  I  hastened  to 
the  house  on  the  point,  which  was  evidently  occupied.  Entering, 
I  nearly  stumbled  over  a  sleeper  on  the  floor.     He  rose  and  came 


240  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

out  into  the  light,  and  I  was  soon  shaking  hands  and  exchanging 
hurried  interrogatories  with  Mike  Lebarge.  The  unmixed  delight 
with  which  I  welcomed  his  familiar  face  can  hardly  be  appre- 
ciated. I  found,  to  my  own  astonishment,  that  speaking  English, 
after  a  year  of  nothing  but  Russian  and  Indian  dialects,  was  any- 
thing but  easy,  and  for  several  days  I  was  obliged  to  resort  to 
Russian  when  fluency  was  required.  The  news,  much  of  it  eigh- 
teen months  old,  was  all  news  to  me,  and  it  was  weeks  before  I 
gained  anything  Hke  a  comprehension  of  the  events  wdiich  had 
occurred  in  the  civilized  world  since  I  last  heard  from  it.  My 
only  disappointment  was  that  they  brought  me  not  a  single  home 
letter.  All  of  these  had  been  sent  to  Sitka  or  elsewhere,  in  ig- 
norance of  my  whereabouts.  I  had  not  heard  from  home  for 
nearly  two  years. 

Captain  Smith  had  left  with  his  vessel  for  Grantley  Harbor.  He 
would  return  to  St.  Michael's,  and  I  made  the  necessary  prepara- 
tions for  accompanying  him  to  California.  I  must  pass  over  the 
events  of  the  next  month  at  the  Redoubt.  Several  trading  com- 
panies, beside  that  which  Mike  represented,  intended  to  send  par- 
ties into  the  country.  The  vessel  in  the  bay  was  principally  loaded 
with  liquor,  which  had  in  some  mysterious  way  eluded  the  vigi- 
lance of  the  United  States  officials  at  Sitka  ;  she  belonged  to  one 
of  these  companies.  Some  time  after,  the  vessel  arrived  which 
had  been  sent  to  take  back  those  Russians  who  desired  to  return 
to  Russia.  Very  few  went  in  her,  as  most  of  them  were  hired  by 
the  new  trading  companies.  To  Mr.  George  R.  Adams,  and  Cap- 
tain Riedell,  of  the  brig  Constantine,  I  was  under  many  obligations. 
On  the  2 1  St  of  July  the  schooner  Frances  L.  Steele  arrived  from 
Bering  Strait  with  Captain  Smith  on  board.  On  the  9th  of  Au- 
gust, having  shipped  the  collections,  I  embarked  for  San  Fran- 
cisco via  the  Aleutian  Islands.  We  touched  at  St.  George's 
Island  and  some  of  the  Aleutians  on  our  way  to  California. 

The  incidents  of  the  voyage  need  not  be  recounted  here.  It 
is  sufficient  to  say  that  I  obtained  abundance  of  evidence  that 
during  1868  great  abuses  were  prevalent  in  the  new  territory. 
One  trading  company  in  particular,  hoping,  by  its  large  capital 
and  connection  with  the  officers  of  the  defunct  Russian  Company, 
to  crush  all  smaller  concerns,  had  not  hesitated  at  force,  fraud, 
and  corruption,  to  attain  these  ends.      It  would  be  impossible  to 


THE    YUKON    TERRITORY.  24! 

believe  in  the  probity  of  some  of  the  officials  (since  removed) 
at  Sitka,  as  it  was  impossible  to  avoid  seeing  the  outrages  which 
had  been  committed.  One  instance  of  the  temper  of  these 
traders  will  suffice.  A  party,  consisting  of  several  German  Jews, 
one  Russian,  and  some  other  foreigners,  had  staked  out  the  places 
where  the  fur  seal  come  up  on  the  island  of  St.  George,  and 
declared  their  intention  of  holding  these  tracts  of  beach  under 
the  homestead  laws  (!)  by  force,  if  necessary.  Two  unarmed 
Americans,  who  had  served  in  the  army  and  navy  during  the  late 
war,  and  who  had  a  permit  to  seal  from  the  Sitka  authorities, 
having  trespassed  on  the  land  staked  out,  were  set  upon  by  a  party 
of  armed  natives,  led  by  a  member  of  the  company  referred 
to,  were  tied  hand  and  foot,  and  left  all  night  in  a  mud  hovel  used 
for  storing  salt.  The  next  day  they  were  released  on  condition 
that  the  trespass  should  not  be  repeated. 

In  their  present  condition  the  Creoles  are  unfit  to  exercise  the 
franchise,  as  American  citizens.  If  a  territorial  government 
should  be  granted  to  the  handful  of  Americans  now  resident  in 
the  territory,  it  would  simply  give  the  stronger  companies  the 
power  to  crush  and  ruin  the  weaker  ones,  and  a  full  opportunity 
of  smuggling  and  selling  liquor  would  be  afforded  to  the  former. 
The  present  system  of  a  military  government,  with  honest  officers, 
is  unquestionably  the  best,  until  the  proper  reservations  are  made 
and  regulations  in  regard  to  trading  are  enacted.  The  territory 
is  not  hkely  to  be  populous  for  many  years,  and  should  rather  be 
regarded  as  a  great  storehouse  of  fish,  timber,  and  fur  ;  from 
which  American  citizens  alone  should  be  allowed  to  draw  sup- 
plies, under  proper  restrictions  and  on  payment  of  reasonable 
taxes.  The  country,  under  a  monopoly,  afforded  one  hundred 
thousand  silver  rubles  a  year,  taxes,  to  the  Russian  crown,  and, 
with  the  development  of  other  resources  than  the  traffic  in 
furs,  can  certainly  afford  as  much  to  the  United  States.  I  speak 
from  no  uncertainty,  but  from  positive  knowledge  ;  I  believe  that 
a  proper  and  not  onerous  system  of  taxation  would  afford  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars  in  gold  per  annum. 

It  is  but  reasonable  to  suppose  that  a  territory  separated  by  sea 
and  foreign  territory  from  the  United  States — being  in  point  of 
fact  a  colony  —  should  need,  and  be  the  subject  of,  special  legisla- 
tion, differing  in  many  particulars  from  that  applied  to  territories 
16 


242  THE    YUKON    TERRITORY. 

which   are   merely   continuations   of  densely   populated   districts 
under  State  jurisdiction. 

I  have  seen  with  surprise  and  regret  that  men  whose  fore- 
fathers wielded  the  axe  in  the  forests  of  Maine,  or  gathered 
scanty  crops  on  the  granite  hillsides  of  Massachusetts,  have  seen 
fit  to  throw  contempt  and  derision  on  the  acquisition  of  a  great 
territory  naturally  far  richer  than  that  in  which  they  themselves 
originated,  principally  on  the  ground  that  it  is  a  "  cold  "  country. 
This  complaint  is  but  half  true  to  begin  with,  since  on  half  of  the 
coast  of  the  new  territory  the  thermometer  has  never  been  known 
to  fall  below  zero.  Icebergs  are  unknown  in  Alaska  from  Dixon's 
Entrance  to  Bering  Strait,  and  no  polar  bear  ever  came  within 
a  thousand  miles  of  Sitka.  On  the  other  hand,  has  the  race  of 
hardy  pioneers  died  out  among  us  ?  Do  we,  as  a  nation,  sigh  only 
for  indolent  siestas  in  the  canebrakes  of  Cuba  ?  In  a  country 
where  all  that  we  honor  and  respect  has  grown  from  the  efforts 
of  those  whose  energy,  fostered  by  conflict  with  the  elements, 
has  made  a  garden  of  the  rock,  turned  the  forest  into  fruitful 
fields,  and  drawn  the  precious  minerals  from  the  flinty  bosom 
of  the  earth,  there  can  be  but  one  answer  to   such  a  question. 

We  have  bought  for  a  nominal  price  the  key  to  the  North 
Pacific.  It  can  no  longer  be  said  that  three  ironclads  can  block- 
ade our  entire  western  coast.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  years  hence 
there  may  be  a  new  New  England  where  there  is  now  a  track- 
less forest.  The  time  may  come  when  we  shall  call  on  our  Pacific 
fishermen  to  man  our  fleets,  on  the  lumbermen  of  Alaska  and 
our  hardy  northern  trappers  to  don  the  blue,  and  strike  another 
blow  for  unity  and  freedom.  The  oak  must  weather  the  storms 
of  many  winters  before  it  gains  maturity.  Alaska  is  not  a  Cali- 
fornia, where  cities  arise  in  a  night,  and  may  pass  away  in  a  day. 
Meanwhile  we  must  be  patient. 

We  entered  the  Golden  Gate  on  the  29th  of  September.  I 
cannot  close  this  partial  record  of  my  experience  in  the  north, 
without  a  word  of  acknowledgment  to  those  Californian  friends 
who  made  my  welcome  back  so  warm.  The  friendship  of  Cali- 
fornians,  easily  acquired,  is  as  precious  as  their  own  gold,  and 
as  enduring  as  their  Sierras.  When  I  stepped  on  board  the 
steamer,  eastward  bound,  I  felt  almost  as  if  I  were  leaving  rather 
than  approaching  home. 


PART    II 


GEOCxRAPHY    HISTORY,  INHABITANTS,  AND  RESOURCES 
OF   ALASKA. 


CHAPTER     I. 

General  geographical  and  topographical  description  of  Alaska.  —  Adjacent  seas.  — 
Groups  of  islands.  —  Coasts  and  harbors.  —  River  system.  —  Ocean  currents.  — 
Mountain  chains  and  peaks.  —  Area.  —  Earlier  maps.  —  Review  of  some  recent 
maps.  —  The  authorities  for  the  present  map.  —  Field  for  future  explorations. 

THE  United  States  territory  known  by  the  name  of  Alaska 
is  bounded,  in  general  terms,  by  the  Frozen  or  Arctic  Ocean 
on  the  north,  the  Pacific  Ocean,  Bering  Sea  and  Strait  on  the 
west  and  south,  and  the  Hudson  Bay  territory  on  the  east.  The 
exact  boundaries  as  laid  down  in  the  treaty  of  cession,  and  pro- 
claimed June  20,  1S67,  are  as  follows  :  — 

"  Commencing  from  the  southernmost  point  of  the  island  known  as 
Prince  of  Wales'  Island,  which  point  lies  in  the  parallel  of  54°  40'  north 
latitude,  and  between  the  131st  and  the  133d  degree  of  west  longitude 
(meridian  of  Greenwich),  the  said  line  shall  ascend  to  the  north  along 
the  channel  called  Portland  Channel,  as  far  as  the  point  of  the  con- 
tinent where  it  strikes  the  56th  degree  of  north  latitude  ;  from  this  last- 
mentioned  point  the  line  of  demarcation  shall  follow  the  summit  of  the 
mountains  situated  parallel  to  the  coast  as  far  as  the  point  of  intersec- 
tion of  the  141st  degree  of  west  longitude  (of  the  same  meridian)  ;  and 
finally,  from  the  said  point  of  intersection,  the  said  meridian  line  of 
the  141st  degree,  in  its  prolong.ition  as  far  as  the  Frozen  Ocean. 

"  With  reference  to  the  line  of  demarcation  laid  down  in  the  preced- 
ing article,  it  is  understood,  — 

"  ist.  That  the  island  called  Prince  of  Wales'  Island,  shall  belong 
wholly  ....  to  the  United  States. 

"  2d.  That  whenever  the  summit  of  the  mountains,  which  extend  in  a 
direction  parallel  to  the  coast,  from  the  56th  degree  of  north  latitude  to 
the  point  of  intersection  of  the  141st  degree  of  west  longitude,  shall 
prove  to  be  at  the  distance  of  more  than  ten  marine  leagues  from  the 
ocean,  the  limit  between  the  British  possessions  ....  and  the  posses- 
sions ceded  by  this  convention  shall  be  formed  by  a  line  parallel  to  the 


2^6  GEOGRAPHY  S.F^ALASKA. 

winding  of  the  coast,  and  which  sliall  never  exceed  the  distance  of  ten 
marine  leagues*  therefrom. 

"The  western  limit,  within  which  the  territories  and  dominion  con- 
veyed are  contained,  passes  through  a  point  in  Behring's  Straits  on  the 
parallel  of  65°  30'  north  latitude,  at  its  intersection  by  the  meridian 
which  passes  midway  between  the  island  of  Krusenstern,  or  Ignalook, 
and  the  island  of  Ratmanoff,  or  Nunarbook,  and  proceeds  due  north 
without  limitation,  into  the  same  Frozen  Ocean. 

"  The  same  western  limit,  beginning  at  the  same  initial  point,  proceeds 
thence  in  a  course  nearly  southwest,  through  Behring's  Straits  and  Beh- 
ring's Sea,  so  as  to  pass  midway  between  the  northwest  point  of  the 
island  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  southeast  point  of  Cape  Choukotski,  to 
the  meridian  of  172°  west  longitude,  thence,  from  the  intersection  of  that 
meridian,  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  so  as  to  pass  midway  between 
the  island  of  Attou,  and  the  Copper  Island  of  the  Komandorski  couplet 
or  group  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  to  the  meridian  of  193°  west  longi- 
tude, so  as  to  include  in  the  territory  conveyed  the  whole  of  the  Aleutian 
Islands  east  of  that  meridian." 

Adjacent  Seas.  —  The  most  extensive  of  the  adjacent  seas  is  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean.  The  dividing-line  between  it  and  Bering 
Sea  may  be  said  to  be  the  chain  of  the  Catherina  Archipelago, 
from  the  most  western  point  of  Alia.ska  Peninsula  to  Cape  Kam- 
chatka. That  great  extent  of  water  lying  north  of  lat.  56^, 
between  the  Kadiak  group  and  the  Alexander  Archipelago,  has 
been  named  by  the  Superintendent  of  the  Coast  Survey  the 
Gulf  of  Alaska. 

Bering  Sea  extends  between  Kamchatka  and  Eastern  Siberia 
on  the  west,  and  America  on  the  east  ;  from  the  Aleutian  Islands 
to  Bering  Strait.  It  has  two  principal  eastward  prolongations,  — 
Bristol  Bay  and  Norton  Sound  ;  and  two  to  the  west,  —  Ana- 
dyr Gulf  and  the  Gulf  of  Kamchatka.  Passing  through  Bering 
Strait,  which  separates  Asia  and  America,  we  come  into  the 
Frozen  Sea  or  Arctic  Ocean.  Here  the  coasts  are  even  and  uni- 
form, and  the  only  arm  of  this  sea  which  is  of  any  size  is  Kotze- 
bue  Sound,  northeast  of  Bering  Strait.  The  northern  portion  of 
this  ocean  is  as  yet  unexplored. 

Groups  of  Islands.  —  The  North  Pacific  rivals  its  southern  por- 
tion in  the  size  of  its  archipelagoes.  The  magnificent  group  of 
eleven  hundred  islands,  which   guards  the  American  coast  from 

*  That  is  to  sajs  30  geographical  miles,  or  about  34yVo  English  statute  miles. 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA. 


247 


Dixon  Entrance  in  54°  40'  to  Cross  Sound  in  lat.  58^  25'  N., 
has  received  the  name  of  the  Alexander  AirJiipelago  from 
the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  in  honor  of  the  Emperor  of 
Russia. 

The  islands  southeast  of  the  peninsula  of  Aliaska,  between  Ion. 
151'  and  158'  W.,  are  known  as  the  Kadidk  Archipelago,  from  the 
name  of  the  principal  island. 

The  great  chain  of  islands  from  Ion.  158'  to  195'  W.  was 
appropriately  named  by  Forster  in  1786  the  Catherina  Archi- 
pelago, in  honor  of  the  enlightened  and  liberal  Empress  Cathe- 
rine II.  of  Russia. 

The  most  westerly  of  the  groups  included  in  this  archipelago 
is  that  known  as  the  Koviandorski  or  Coniviander  s  Islands,  from 
Commander  Bering,  who  died  upon  one  of  them.  Their  situation 
is  about  lat.  55°  N.  and  Ion.  193°  W.  They  are  two  in  number. 
The  largest  is  known  as  Bering  Island,  and  the  smaller  and  more 
eastern  as  Copper  {Medni)  Island. 

The  chain  between  Ion.  163"  and  188"  W.  bears  the  general 
name  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  from  the  term  Aleuts,  applied  by 
the  Russians  to  their  original  inhabitants.  They  are  divided  into 
several  groups.  Those  west  of  Ion.  185°  W.  are  called  the  Nearer 
{Blizlini)  Islands.  They  comprise  Attn,  which  is  the  largest, 
Agattn,  or  the  Crooked  {Krugli)  Island,  and  three  small  islets 
known  as  the  Senilehi,  from  Semik,  the  feast  on  the  seventh 
Thursday  after  Easter,  on  which  day  they  were  discovered. 

The  group  next  east  of  the  Nearer  Islands,  between  Ion.  185 
and  180°  W.,  is  known  as  the  Rat  {Kreesi)  Islands.  They  are  about 
fifteen  in  number,  large  and  small.  The  most  important  are 
Boulder,  Big  and  Little  Gut  {Keeska)  Islands,  Little  Net  {Seetkin) 
Island,  Rat  {Kreesa)  Island,  AmcJiitka  Island,  and  the  Island  of 
Seven  Peaks  {Semisopoehnoi). 

The  next  group,  from  Ion.  180°  to  172°  W.,  bears  the  name  of 
the  Andrednofski  Islands,  after  Andreanoff,  their  discoverer. 
There  are  about  thirty  of  them.  The  largest  is  Atka,  and,  in  the 
order  of  their  size,  AddkJi,  Tdnaga,  Kdnaga,  Ainlia,  Seguavi,  Sit- 
kin,  or  Great  Net  Island,  Burnt  {Goreloi)  Island,  Tdnara,  Tagaldxa, 
Yj'ilak,  Undlga,  Amdtignak,  and  Kavdlay.  The  last  four,  with  a 
number  of  small  islets,  are  sometimes  called  the  Dclaroff  Islands, 
from  their  discoverer.    With  Burnt  Island  they  are  separated  from 


248  GEOGRAPHY   OF   ALASKA. 

the  rest  of  the  group  by  the  Tcinaga  Pass.  Between  Anilia  and 
Seguam  is  situated  the  rocky  and  dangerous  Scgnain  Pass. 

Between  AmukJita  Pass  (Ion.  172°  W.)  and  False  or  Isaiwtski 
Pass  (Ion.  163°  20'  W.)  lie  the  Fox  {Lecsi)  Islands.  This  is  the 
largest  ff  the  four  Aleutian  groups.  It  contains  thirty-one 
islands,  more  or  less,  including  the  largest  in  the  Catherina  Archi- 
pelago. The  principal  are,  in  order  of  size,  Univiak,  Unaldshka, 
Uimiak,  Akutdn,  AkJiun,  Yiindska,  Aimikhta,  Chugingan,  Kitgdl- 
ga,  Tigdlda,  Avatdnak,  Ukavtak*  Ulidlga,  Spee'rkm,  and  the  cele- 
brated volcano  islands  of  St.  John  the  Theologian  [Joanna  Bogos- 
lova)  and  the  Four  Craters.  Between  Unimak  and  Akhun  is  the 
Uniniak  Pass,  the  best  passage  for  vessels  bound  for  Bering  Sea. 

East  of  Unimak,  the  southern  coast  of  Aliaska  is  liberally 
fringed  with  islands.  A  group  comprising  Unga,  Nagdi,  Niu- 
niak,  Tidkinak,  and  a  number  of  others  unnamed  on  the  Russian 
chart,  is  called  the  SJiuniagin  Islands,  from  the  name  of  a  sailor 
of  Bering's  expedition,  who  died  and  was  buried  there. 

The  Kadidk  Archipelago  consists  oi  Kadidk,  Afogndk,  Ti'igidak, 
Sitkinak,  Marmot  {Furdskie)  Island,  Spruce  {Yelozvy)  Island, 
Woody  {Lesnoi)  Island,  Chirikoff  (or  Ukaviok)  Island,  named  after 
its  discoverer,  and  many  smaller  islands.  A  small  group  north- 
west of  Chirikoff  Island  is  known  as  the  St^midi  Islands  ;  another 
in  the  mouth  of  Cook's  Inlet,  as  the  Barren  {Bezplodnoi)  Islands ; 
northeast  of  these,  a  group  of  three  is  called  the  CJiugatz  Islands.-^ 

The  Alexander  Archipelago  will  be  described  in  connection 
with  that  part  of  the  coast. 

In  Bering  Sea  (lat.  57°  N.,  Ion.  169°  30'  W.)  we  find  W\&  Priby- 
loff  Islands,  so  named  after  their  discoverer.  They  comprise  four 
small  islands  :  St.  Paul,  St.  George,  Walrus  {Morz/ukvi),  and 
BtdiYQv  {Bobrozvi)  Island.  These  are  the  fur-seal  islands.  North 
of  the  Prfbyloff  Islands  (lat.  60°  30'  N.  and  Ion.  173°  W.)  is  situ- 
ated the  St.  Matthew  group,  containing  St.  Matthew,  Pinnacle, 
and  Hall  islands.  These  are  uninhabited,  rocky,  and  precipitous. 
It  is  said  that  a  few  Russians,  left  here  by  the  Company  to  collect 
sealskins  during  the  winter  of  18 16,  all  died  of  starvation.     On 

*  In  the  mouth  of  Unimak  Pass.  Usually  but  incorrectly  placed  on  the  charts  as 
Ougamok.    Ukamok  is  one  name  for  Chirikoff  Island  of  the  Kadiak  Archipelago. 

t  Not  to  be  confounded  with  the  islands  which  throng  Chugach  Gulf,  or  Prince 
William  .Sound. 


GEOGRAPHY  OF   ALASKA. 


249 


the  other  hand,  the  whalers  assert  that  St.  Matthew  is  full  of 
white  bears,  and  call  it,  for  that  reason,  Bear  Island.  St.  ]\Iat- 
thew  is  on  the  line  which  marks  the  southern  limit  of  floating 
ice  in  large  fields.  Small  quantities  may  be  found  south  of  it, 
but  not  so  as  to  endanger  navigation,  even  in  mid-winter.  This 
ice  line  extends  from  Cape  St.  Thaddeus,  on  the  coast  m  Kam- 
chatka, to  the  St.  Matthew  group,  and  in  a  southeast  direction, 
finally  touching  the  northern  shores  of  Bristol  Bay.  A  little  to 
the  south  of  east  of  the  last  group,  separated  from  the  continent  by 
Etoliu  Strait,  is  the  large  and  unexplored  island  of  Nunivak.  In 
Ion.  170°  W.  and  lat.  63°  30'  N.  is  situated  the  large  island  of  St. 
Laivrence.  The  latitude  which  Bering  gives  for  the  island  which 
he  so  named  (64°  30')  has  raised  a  doubt  as  to  its  identity  with 
the  one  which  we  call  St.  Lawrence.  It  is  the  Anderson  Island 
of  Cook,  and  as  it  is  mostly  low,  with  a  number  of  prominent 
hills,  it  was  supposed  by  the  early  discoverers,  who  saw  it  in 
thick  weather,  to  be  a  group  of  several  islands.  There  is  a  small 
cluster  of  rocks  close  in,  south  of  the  east  cape  (which  has  been 
called  Cape  Anderson),  known  as  the  Pinik  Islands.  St.  Lawrence 
is  known  to  the  Tuski  as  hvSricn.  There  is  a  large  island  in 
the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Kamchatka,  which  the  Russians  call 
Karaginski  Island,  from  its  discoverer,  Karagin.  There  are  also  a 
few  small  islands  to  the  northeast  of  it. 

In  Bering  Strait  (lat.  6f  58'  30"  N.,  Ion.  167°  58'  W.)  is  a  small 
inhabited  island,  called  Ukivok  by  the  natives,  generally  charted 
as  King  Island.     It  rises  about  six  hundred  feet  above  the  sea. 

The  Diomcdes  are  two  small  islands  in  the  middle  of  Bering 
Strait.  Between  them  passes,  the  boundary  line  between  Russian 
and  American  territory.  The  Russian  island  is  called  Ratmdnoff 
or  Imdklit,  and  the  American  goes  by  the  name  of  Krusenstern  or 
Ingdliuk. 

A  few  miles  southward  lies  the  Fairway  Rock,  in  lat.  65°  38' 
42"  N.  and  Ion.  168°  43°  42"  W.  All  these  islets  are  inhabited, 
and  the  natives  are  known  as  Okee-ogmuts. 

In  the  Arctic  Ocean,  recent  discoveries  by  American  whalers 
show  the  existence  of  an  island  or  large  extent  of  land,  of  which 
the  west  cape  (lat.  70°  46'  N.  and  Ion.  178°  30'  W.)  has  received 
the  name  of  Cape  Thomas,  and  the  southeast  point  (lat.  70°  40' 
and  Ion.  178°  51'  W.)  that  of  Cape  Hawaii,  from  the  discov- 
32 


250  GEOGRAPHY   OF   ALASKA. 

erer,  Captain  Long  of  the  bark  Nile.  Captain  Raynor  found 
the  southeast  extremity  to  be  in  Ion.  176°  40'  W.,  and  Captain 
Bliven  of  the  Nautilus  traced  the  land  as  far  north  as  lat.  "ji^  N. 
without  observing  its  northward  termination.  This  discovery 
is  elsewhere  spoken  of  at  length,  and  has  appropriately  received 
the  name  of  Wrangell  Land.  To  the  eastward,  Captain  Kel- 
lett,  R.  N.,  discovered  an  island  in  lat.  71°  20'  N.  and  Ion.  175''  16' 
W.,  which  he  landed  upon  and  called  Herald  Island.  Another 
island  was  reported  to  have  been  seen  by  him  August  17,  1849, 
and  was  called  Plover  Island.  The  latter  has  not  since  been  con- 
firmed. Captain  Raynor  reports  another  island  in  lat.  70'  N.,  to 
the  eastward  of  Herald  Island,  and  bearing  W.N.W.  from  Point 
Barrow.  A  fertile  field  for  discovery  is  here  laid  open  for  Amer- 
ican explorers. 

Coasts  and  Harbors.  —  It  would  be  out  of  place,  and  will  not 
here  be  attempted,  to  give  a  minute  description  of  the  labyrinth 
of  bays,  channels,  sounds,  and  straits  which  are  found  in  the 
Alexander  Archipelago.  The  briefest  enumeration  possible  of 
the  principal  points  of  interest  is  all  that  belongs  here.  For 
more  minute  inquiry  the  investigator  is  referred  to  the  charts  of 
Tebenkofif  and  Vancouver,  to  the  works  of  the  latter,  and  those  of 
Cook  and  Meares.  All  that  most  readers  will  care  to  know  will 
be  found  in  the  "  Coast  Pilot  of  Alaska,"  recently  published  by  the 
Coast  Survey,  and  with  it  much  other  detailed  information  derived 
from  the  works  of  the  older  navigators. 

The  Gj-eat  Archipelago  of  Meares  extends  from  the  head  of 
Puget  Sound  to  the  head  of  Lynn  Channel  and  Cross  Sound. 
That  part  of  it  which  has  received  the  name  of  the  Alexander 
Archipelago  lies  north  of  Dixon  Entrance  (lat.  54"  40'  N.),  which 
separates  the  British  and  American  islands.  But  a  few  of  the 
eleven  hundred  islands  will  be  mentioned  here.  Among  those 
distinguished  for  their  size  are  those  of  Bardnojf,  Prince  of 
Wales,  Revilla  Gigedo,  Admiralty,  Chichagoff,  Kiipridnojf,  Kou 
or  Kon-i-n,  Etolin,  and  Zarcviba. 

The  principal  channels  by  which  they  are  divided  are  Chatham, 
Peril,  Icy,  and  Clarence  straits  ;  Cross,  Christian,  and  Frederick 
sounds  ;  Lynn  Channel,  and  Stephen's  Pass.  The  smaller  arms 
which  diverge  in  every  direction  from  these  are  innumerable,  and 
aftbrd  access  to  every  portion  of  the  archipelago  without  setting 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA.  25  T 

foot  on  land.  These  are  far  from  being  explored  as  yet,  and  Mr. 
Davidson  says,  "There  is  not  even  a  small  map  of  any  part  of  the 
coast,  or  of  an}^  harbor,  which  can  be  counted  as  worth  more  than 
a  reconnoissance  or  preliminary  survey." 

The  first  anchorage  in  the  southeast  part  of  Alaska  is  Tay- 
akJwnsiti  Harbor.  This  is  situated  in  lat.  54°  46'  N.  and  Ion. 
130°  35'  W.,  and  contains  a  village  of  the  Tongas  Indians.  Here, 
in  1867,  the  United  States  military  post  of  Fort  Tongas  was 
established.  It  is  about  ten  miles  northwest  of  Fort  Simpson. 
In  clearing  the  timber  for  this  post,  it  is  reported  that  yellow 
cedar  trees  eight  feet  in  diameter  were  cut  down.  The  flanks  of 
all  the  islands  of  this  archipelago  bear  a  magnificent  growth  of 
the  finest  timber,  from  the  water's  edge  to  fifteen  hundred  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  two  most  prominent  capes  which  put  out 
into  Dixon  Entrance  from  the  American  islands  are  Cape  Mitzon, 
or  more  properly  Kygdni,  and  Cape  Chacon. 

The  first  anchorage  in  Clarence  Sound  is  Port  Gardner,  in  lat. 
54^  49'  N.  and  Ion.  131°  45'  W.  An  anchorage  near  the  entrance 
of  Kazdrn  Bay  (lat.  55°  27'  and  Ion.  132°  01')  is  reported  good  and 
easy  of  access.  A  Russian  established  a  salmon  fishery  here  in 
1868.  The  timber  is  said  to  be  very  abundant  and  of  good 
quality. 

On  the  northwest  part  of  Wrangell  Island  in  lat.  56°  31'  30" 
and  Ion.  132°  23'  30"  is  situated  Etolin  Harbor.  Here  the  Rus- 
sians formerly  had  a  stockaded  trading-post,  called  St.  Dionyshis. 
Here  the  United  States  post  Fort  Wrangell  is  situated.  The 
harbor  is  good  ;  coal  and  abundance  of  timber  is  reported.  To 
the  east  of  Dixon  Entrance,  with  a  general  northerly  direction, 
lies  the  Portland  Canal,  chiefly  interesting  as  being  throughout  its 
extent  the  dividing  line  between  British  and  American  territory. 
Near  its  southern  termination  is  the  mouth  of  Observatory  Canal. 
Here,  on  a  point  of  land  west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Nasse  River, 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company  established  a  factory  in  1835.  This 
vicinity  is  renowned  for  the  incredible  amount  of  fish  which  visit 
it  at  certain  seasons.  By  striking  a  lath,  armed  with  three  pointed 
nails,  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  as  if  raking,  an  Indian  will 
fill  his  canoe  with  herring  in  twenty  minutes,  during  their  season. 
At  the  junction  of  the  eastern  part  of  Dixon  Sound  with  the 
northern  part  of  Chatham  Sound  lies  Port  Simpson.     Here,  on 


252  GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA. 

Chim-shydn  Island,  is  a  large  village  of  Indians  of  the  same  name, 
and  the  stockaded  Hudson  Bay  post  of  Fort  Simpson.  This,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Davidson,  is  the  most  important  British  post  in 
this  section  of  the  English  possessions.  It  consists  of  a  stockade 
two  hundred  by  one  hundred  and  sixty  feet,  with  bastions  at  two 
of  the  angles.  Inside  are  dwellings  for  the  traders  and  their 
families,  storehouses,  a  kitchen,  and  a  magazine  for  the  furs. 
The  houses  show  many  marks  of  rifle-balls  directed  by  hostile 
Indians  at  the  fort,  and  at  each  other. 

The  country  around  the  fort  is  not  high.  It  has  been  cleared 
of  timber  for  half  a  mile  around,  and  there  are  vegetable  gardens 
in  the  rear  of  the  stockade,  where  root  crops  mature  well.  The 
latitude  is  estimated  at  54°  33'  35"  N.  and  the  longitude  at  130^ 
22'  49"  W. 

The  southern  mouth  of  the  Stiki'ne  River  opens  into  Stikine 
Strait  about  lat.  56°  41'  N.  and  Ion.  132°  22'  W.  A  smaller 
mouth  enters  Frederick  Strait  or  Sound  about  lat.  56'  48'  N. 
This  river  closes  in  December,  and  opens  early  in  May.  In  lat. 
56°  46'  N.  and  Ion.  132°  45'  30"  W.  is  situated  Kygdni  Harbor, 
opening  upon  Cordova  Bay. 

In  lat.  57°  06'  N.,  Ion.  132°  54'  W.,  is  situated  the  first  large  gla- 
cier seen  in  the  Alexander  Archipelago  as  we  approach  from  the 
south.  In  the  winter  of  1853  -  54  one  of  the  California  ice-ships 
loaded  with  ice  from  this  glacier. 

The  extreme  southwest  point  of  Alaska  Territory  is  Cape 
Kygani,  situated  about  lat.  54' 42'  N.  and  Ion.  132°  43'  48"  W. 
The  northwest  point  of  Queen  Charlotte's  Island  bears  south 
39°  W.  about  twenty-eight  miles. 

On  the  western  shore  of  Chatham  Strait,  in  lat.  57^  51',  Ion. 
134°  57'  ^V.,  lies  Pdvlojf  Harbor.  The  shores  are  reported  to  be 
covered  with  a  very  dense  growth  of  timber. 

Icy  Strait  connects  Chatham  Strait  with  the  ocean,  and  was  so 
named  by  Vancouver  on  account  of  the  masses  of  floating  ice 
from  the  glaciers  which  are  encountered  there.  From  abreast 
of  a  point  known  as  Seduction  Tongue,  a  magnificent  glacier, 
which  has  been  named  the  Davidson  Glacier,  enters  Chatham 
Strait  in  lat.  59°  07'  N. 

The  mouth  of  the  Chilkaht  River  enters  Lynn  Channel  in  lat. 
59°  13'.     In  Frederick  Strait,  lat.  56°  55'  30",  is.  Saginazu  Bay,  so 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA.  253 

named  from  the  United  States  vessel  which  entered  it  in  1868. 
The  longitude  of  the  Indian  village  here  is  about  134°  W.  Fish 
are  said  to  abound  here.  Northeast  of  Point  Cormvallis  is  Kake 
Strait,  so  named  from  the  Indians  which  inhabit  it.  Its  north- 
east entrance  is  in  lat.  57°  N.,  Ion.  133°  56'  W.  In  Hamilton  Har- 
bor ow  the  east  shore  (lat.  56°  52'  N.,  Ion.  133°  34'  W.),  Vancouver 
found  the  remains  of  eight  Indian  villages.  Coal  has  been  re- 
ported here. 

Vancouver  says  the  land  between  Kake  Strait  and  the  main 
"  produces  a  noble  forest  of  large  and  stately  pine-trees,"  and  the 
shores  are  in  general  low  and  apparently  fit  for  cultivation  if 
cleared  of  wood. 

Glacier  Arm  opens  from  Stephen's  Strait  about  lat.  58°  12' 
and  Ion.  134°  13'  W.  It  is  really  the  outlet  of  a  small  river 
called  the  Taku,  which  has  been  confounded  with  the  Tahco 
River  of  the  interior.  The  shores  are  high,  and  the  ravines  full 
of  glaciers.  In  1840  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  established  a 
stockaded  post  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  with  bastions,  and  gar- 
risoned with  twenty-two  men.  Deer  are  very  abundant  here  ;  in 
1842  twelve  hundred  skins  were  obtained.  The  mountain  sheep 
and  goat  also  abound.  The  trading-post  is  situated  in  a  snug, 
well-protected  harbor,  opening  by  a  narrow  entrance  into  Ste- 
phen's Passage. 

Between  Point  WoodJionse  and  Cape  Edgecnmbe  lies  the  en- 
trance to  Sitka  Sound. 

Sitka  Harbor  is  very  contracted,  and  contains  two  anchorages, 
the  eastern  and  western.  Numerous  buoys  have  been  laid  down 
by  the  Russian  American  Company,  to  which  vessels  usually 
moor.  The  eastern  is  recommended  as  the  best  by  the  officers  of 
the  Coast  Survey. 

The  geographical  position  of  the  Coast  Survey  Station  between 
the  United  States  barracks  and  the  church  is  in  lat.  57°  02'  52" 
N.  and  Ion.  135°  17'  45"  W.  The  variation  of  the  compass  was 
28°  49'  E.  in  August,  1867.  The  mean  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  is 
stated  to  be  7.8  feet,  and  spring  tides  11.9.  The  highest  range 
was  13  and  the  least  2.1  feet. 

About  nine  miles  south  of  Sitka  are  the  Rapids,  which  connect 
the  waters  of  Deep  {Glubokoi)  Lake  with  Lake  {Oserski)  Bay.  At 
these  rapids,  according  to  Galovi'n,  are  the  salmon  fisheries  of  the 


254  GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA. 

Russian  American  Company.  There  is  a  fall  of  nine  feet,  where 
weirs  are  constructed,  and  great  quantities  are  caught.  These 
fish  were  given  away  to  all  who  needed  food,  and  the  surplus  over 
this  consumption  amounted  to  fiv^e  or  six  hundred  barrels. 

In  January,  1867,  the  town  and  post  of  New  Archangel  (now 
usually  called  Sitka,  from  the  Indian  name  of  the  bay  on  which  it 
is  situated)  contained  nine  hundred  and  sixty-eight  inhabitants, 
of  whom  three  hundred  and  forty-nine  were  Russians,  and  the 
remainder  Aleuts  or  Creoles.  Few  of  the  Russians  now  remain  ; 
the  closing  up  of  the  affairs  of  the  Russian  American  Company 
having  deprived  them  of  the  means  of  obtaining  a  livelihood, 
nearly  all  have  returned  to  Siberia  or  Russia. 

Cape  Edgecumbe,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Sound,  is  well  marked 
by  the  extinct  volcano  of  Mount  Edgecumbe.  This  was  discovered 
and  named  Mount  San  Jacinto  by  Bodega  in  1775.  The  top, 
which  is  the  rim  of  a  great  crater,  is  nearly  level,  and,  according 
to  Coast  Survey  measurements,  attains  a  height  of  2,855  feet 
above  the  sea.  It  has  a  most  remarkable  appearance  from  the 
Sound.  The  lower  flanks  are  covered  with  a  dense  forest,  but  the 
upper  portion  is  quite  bare,  and  in  winter  snow-covered  and  dis- 
tinguished by  deep  ravines,  which  radiate  regularly  from  the  sum- 
mit. No  other  mountain  on  the  coast  has  such  an  appearance. 
It  is  situated  upon  Kruzojf  Island. 

Back  of  the  town  of  Sitka,  which  is  on  Baranoff  Island,  are  two 
mountains.  The  nearer  one  is  rounded  and  covered  with  trees, 
and  the  sharp  snowy  peak  of  VostSvia  immediately  behind  it  gives 
the  appearance  of  a  single  mountain.  Vostovia  was  ascended  by 
a  party  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Expedition,  in  August, 
1865,  and  found  to  be  3,216  feet  high  by  mercurial  barometer. 
The  rocks  of  the  summit  were  syenitic.  Its  latitude  is  57''  03'  2}l\ 
and  longitude  135°  12'  57".  The  old  Russian  observatory  was 
situated  opposite  the  town,  on  Japan  {Japonski)  Island. 

Sitka  was  the  capital  of  the  Russian  Colonies  in  America. 
The  Governor  or  chief  Director  of  the  Company  had  his  resi- 
dence here.  The  Governor  s  house  is  situated  on  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  rocky  peninsula  on  which  the  town  was  first  built.  A 
cupola  is  placed  on  top  of  it,  one  hundred  and  ten  feet  above  the 
sea.  From  this  cupola  a  light  was  shown  when  two  guns  were 
fired  in  the  harbor  below. 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA. 


'55 


According  to  Mr.  Davidson  the  shortest  distance  from  San 
Francisco  Harbor  to  Sitka  is  twelve  hundred  and  ninety-six  miles. 
From  a  point  ten  miles  west  of  the  south  Farralon,  off  the  Gold- 
en Gate,  a  direct  course  for  the  entrance  to  Sitka  Bay  can  be 
laid.  It  is  north,  23°  W.,  twelve  hundred  and  fifty-five  miles. 
By  the  inner  passage  between  the  archipelago  and  the  coast 
of  British  Columbia  and  Alaska,  the  distance  is  sixteen  hun- 
dred and  forty-seven  miles.  Large  sailing  vessels  must  go  out- 
side. 

The  town  of  Sitka,  at  the  time  of  our  visit  in  1865,  contained 
about  one  hundred  and  twenty  buildings.  As  we  saw  the  town 
from  our  moorings  in  the  western  harbor,  the  Governor's  house 
and  flagstaff,  standing  high  above  all  the  rest,  were  the  most 
prominent  objects.  Beyond  were  the  steeple  and  dome  of  the 
Greek  church,  and  nearer  the  water  the  large  storehouses,  the 
counting-house,  and  various  hulks,  drawn  up  and  used  as  store- 
ships.  The  houses  were  all  of  logs,  but  painted  a  dull  yellow  ; 
the  metal  roofs  were  red,  and  with  the  emerald  green  spire  of  the 
church,  projected  against  the  dark  evergreens  of  the  adjacent 
hills,  presented  an  extremely  picturesque  appearance.  It  was 
quite  unlike  anything  else  in  America,  and  seemed  to  belong  to  a 
world  of  its  own.  Much  of  it  was  more  primitive  than  many 
western  towns  where  the  shingles  are  yet  bright  from  the  saw- 
mill ;  yet  the  place  was  eighty  years  old. 

Our  reception  from  the  officers  of  the  Russian  American  Com- 
pany was  most  cordial.  All,  including  the  ladies,  vied  with  each 
other  in  trying  to  render  our  stay  in  Sitka  agreeable.  I  need 
hardly  add  that  they  were  quite  successful. 

The  moisture  of  the  climate  renders  Sitka  disagreeable,  and 
the  continued  cloudy  weather  makes  it  gloomy;  but  the  one  or 
two  days  during  our  stay,  when  the  sun  came  out  and  the  sky 
was  clear,  were  exceedingly  pleasant.  The  islets,  with  which 
the  bay  is  crowded,  are  covered  with  wood  to  the  water's  edge, 
and  many  of  the  views  in  the  harbor  are  exceedingly  attractive. 
The  principal  buildings  are  the  Governor's  house,  the  counting- 
house,  the  barracks,  church,  and  hospitals.  The  lions  of  the  town 
consisted  of  the  Governor's  garden  and  a  steam  sawmill,  to  both 
of  which  we  were  introduced.  The  Indian  village  outside  the 
stockade  consisted  of  large  log-houses,  with  a  round  hole  in  front 


256  GEOGRAPHY   OF   ALASKA. 

which  served  as  a  door.  There  were  many  curiously  carved  and 
painted  sarcophagi  of  wood,  in  which  the  ashes  of  dead  Indians 
were  preserved. 

BaranofF  Island,  on  which  Sitka  is  situated,  is  unexplored. 
The  dense  forest  and  moist  soil,  as  well  as  the  mountainous 
character  of  the  island,  renders  exploration  difficult  and  often 
dangerous.  Manufactures  of  various  articles  used  in  their  trade 
were  established  by  the  Russian  American  Company  at  Sitka. 
The  population  in  1867  was  about  one  thousand,  of  which  one 
third  were  Russians. 

The  archipelago  ends  at  Cape  Spencer.  The  ocean  coast 
north  of  Cross  Sound,  according  to  Vancouver,  is  steep,  woody, 
and  much  indented  with  coves  and  small  rocky  bays.  Cape 
Spencer  is  the  northwest  point  of  Cross  Sound.  Fifteen  miles 
northwest  is  Icy  Cape  of  the  Russians,  on  the  mainland.  Thirty- 
two  miles  northwest  is  the  remarkable  bay  described  by  La 
Perouse,  and  called  by  the  natives  Lituya  Bay.  It  is  sometimes 
known  as  Port  Francais.  It  presents  the  appearance  of  a  great 
fissure  or  rent  in  the  high  plateau  which  forms  this  part  of  the 
coast.  It  divides  in  the  interior  into  two  arms.  It  is  said  by 
La  Perouse  to  be  destitute  of  fish,  except  halibut,  which  were 
caught  weighing  over  one  hundred  pounds.  Salmon  and  trout 
abounded  in  the  streams  which  fell  into  it.  The  mountains  are 
precipitous,  rising  to  the  height  of  five  or  six  thousand  feet,  and 
densely  clothed  with  forests.  The  woods  were  full  of  berries  ; 
bears,  martens,  and  squirrels  were  plenty.  Four  great  glaciers 
enter  the  bay,  and  the  magnificent  scenery  was  declared  by  that 
navigator  to  surpass  in  grandeur  the  profound  valleys  of  the 
Alps  and  Pyrenees. 

The  Russians  had  entered  this  bay  long  before  La  Perouse, 
and  at  one  time  contemplated  establishing  a  post  here.  There 
are  several  Indian  villages  of  the  Thlinket  family,  in  or  near  the 
bay,  and  a  large  fishery  at  the  mouth  of  a  stream  on  the  coast  a 
few  miles  north  of  the  entrance.  The  next  most  important  prom- 
ontory, northwest  (twenty-two  miles)  from  Lituya  Bay  is  Cape 
FairweatJicr.  It  is  said  to  be  in  lat.  58°  50'  12"  N.  and  Ion.  137° 
48'  W.  The  coast  northwest  of  this  point  to  Bering  or  Ydkntat 
Bay  is  narrow,  low,  covered  with  wood  and  backed  by  high  moun- 
tains.     Between  Cape  PJiipps,  or  Ocean  Cape  of  the  Russians,  and 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA.  257 

Cape  Manbj,  is  the  entrance  to  Bering  Bay.  It  was  so  called  by 
Cook  and  Vancouver,  as  being  the  bay  in  which  Bering  probably 
anchored  in  1741.  It  was  called  Admiralty  Bay  by  Dixon, 
Baic  dc  Monte  by  La  Perouse,  and  Yakutat  by  the  natives.  Here 
a  Russian  post  was  established.  The  coast  from  Cape  Manby  to 
Cape  Suckling  is  forbidding  in  the  extreme.  La  Perouse  said 
that  masses  of  snow  covered  a  barren  soil  without  trees.  The 
mountains  appeared  to  be  a  very  little  distance  from  the  sea.  A 
low  table-land  at  their  bases  was  covered  with  trees.  This  part 
of  the  coast  is  indented  by  a  small  bay,  called  Icy  Bay  on  account 
of  the  glaciers  which  surround  it.  Off  this  stretch  of  coast  for 
about  one  hundred  miles  are  moderate  soundings,  known  to 
the  whalers  as  the  Fairiveather  Ground. 

Between  Kaye  or  Kayak  Island,  in  Ion.  144°  53'  W.,  and  the 
main  is  a  shallow  bay  known  as  Comptroller  s  Bay.  Between  the 
145th  and  146th  meridians,  along  the  coast,  lie  the  shoals  and 
flats  off  the  mouths  of  the  Copper  or  Atna  River. 

West  of  Ion.  146°,  extending  to  149°,  lies  the  great  Cliugdch 
Gulf,  sometimes  called  Prince  William  Sound.  It  is  crowded  with 
islands,  and  extends  its  arms  like  tentaculae  in  every  direction, 
covering  an  extent  of  over  twenty-five  hundred  square  miles. 
The  entrance  is  about  fifty-five  miles  wide,  and  blocked  with 
islands.  The  most  important  of  these  are  Montagu,  Hinchinbrook, 
Knight,  and  Hawkin  islands. 

Port  Etches  is  on  the  southwest  part  of  Hinchinbrook  Isl- 
and, in  lat.  60°  16'  and  Ion.  146°  56'.  Constantine  Harbor  opens 
into  it.  On  this  lagoon  was  situated  the  Redoubt  Constantine 
and  Elena,  a  post  of  the  Russian  American  Company.  It  is 
described  as  being  a  well-built,  stockaded  fort,  with  two  bas- 
tions. 

Chugach  Gulf,  and  the  various  islands  in  it,  contain  many  ex- 
cellent harbors.  The  Russians  in  old  times  built  many  vessels 
here.  In  Chalmers  Bay  a  remarkable  point  was  noticed  by  Van- 
couver, which  bore  stumps  of  trees  cut  with  the  axe,  but  far  below 
low-water  mark  at  the  time  of  his  visit.  It  has  been  appropriately 
named  Sinking  Point. 

The  climate  of  the  Gulf  is  more  severe  than  that  of  the  coast 
to  the  southward,  but  in  June,  according  to  Portlock,  most  of  the 
snow  was  melted.  Fish,  excellent  timber,  and  berries,  beside  in- 
17 


25S  GEOGRAPHY   OF   ALASKA. 

digenous  grain  {Elymus)  and  wild  peas,  are  reported  to  abound 
exceedingly.  From  the  head  of  the  Gulf  a  portage  can  be  made 
to  the  head  of  Cook's  Inlet.  The  natives  are  of  the  Innuit 
family,  and  are  called   CJingdcJics  or  CJutgdcJiigmiit. 

Between  the  Gulf  and  Cook's  Inlet  is  the  great  peninsula  of 
Kaidi.  The  ocean  coast  of  this  peninsula  extends  from  Cape 
Puget,  in  lat.  59°  55'  and  Ion.  148°  33'  W.,  to  Cape  Elizabeth,  in 
lat.  59°  09'  and  Ion.  151°  5  i'  W.  This  coast  is  indented  by  many 
inlets  and  bays,  of  which  Days  Harbor  and  Resurrection  Bay 
afford  good  anchorages.  The  latter  was  long  the  shipyard  of 
the  Russian  American  Company,  and  a  post  was  situated  there. 
The  whole  coast  is  abundantly  supplied  with  wood,  and  glaciers 
occupy  many  of  the  gorges.  Several  groups  of  islets,  called  the 
Chiswells  and  Pye  Islands,  lie  off  the  shores. 

Near  Cape  Elizabeth  are  situated  the  Chugatz  Islands  (iiot  to 
be  confounded  with  the  islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Chugach),  and  a 
cluster  called  the  Barren  Islands.  These  are  one  thousand  six 
hundred  and  seventy  miles  north,  42°  W.,  from  the  Farralones 
off  San  Francisco  Harbor. 

The  entrance  to  Cook's  Inlet  is  between  Capes  Douglas  and 
Elizabeth,  with  a  passage  on  either  side  of  the  Barren  Islands. 
Within  the  capes  the  inlet  is  sixty-five  miles  wide  ;  fifty  miles 
farther  up  it  contracts  to  twenty-five  miles,  whence  it  gradually 
diminishes  to  twelve  or  fifteen.  At  its  most  northern  latitude  the 
river  Suchi'tna  enters  the  inlet  in  61°  16'.  Here  the  inlet  turns 
to  the  eastward  and  southward,  and  is  known  as  the  Tnrnagain 
Arm.  It  is  shallow,  with  a  narrow  channel,  and  receives  the  Fire 
{Kneek)  River  about  Ion.  150°  W. 

On  the  eastern  shores  of  the  inlet  are  Port  Chatham,  where 
the  settlement  of  Alcxdndi'ovsk  is  situated,  English  Harbor,  Chn- 
gdchik  Bay,  and  St.  Chrysostom  Harbor.  The  small  river  Kaknu 
also  enters  from  the  east.  The  eastern  shores  are  low  and  cov- 
ered with  herbage  and  clumps  of  timber.  Farther  back  the 
mountains  rise  to  a  considerable  height,  and  contain  large  gla- 
ciers. The  tides  in  the  eastern  portion  are  said  to  rise  and  fall 
thirty  feet,  so  that  the  arm  must  be  nearly  dry  at  low  tide.  There 
are  two  islands,  Augnstin  and  Kalgin,  in  the  inlet,  and  the  water 
between  Cape  Douglas  and  the  coast  north  of  Augustin  Island  is 
known  as  Kdmchak  or  Kdmishak  bay.     On   the   east  coast  of 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA.  259 

Cook's  Inlet,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kaknu  River,  is  situated  Redoubt 
St.  Nicholas.  Some  miles  farther  south  is  the  settlement  of  St. 
George.  These  were  both  posts  of  the  Russian  American  Com- 
pany. 

Leaving  the  Inlet,  the  southeast  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Ali- 
aska  is  abrupt,  rugged,  destitute  of  trees  for  the  most  part,  in- 
dented with  countless  bays  and  coves  of  small  size,  and  full  of 
rocks.  The  first  inlet  of  importance  is  the  bay  of  Katmdi  in  lat. 
58°.  Here  Jurassic  fossils  were  found  by  Wosnessensky.  On  a 
lake  in  the  vicinity  petroleum  is  found  floating.  This  part  of  the 
peninsula  is  separated  from  the  Kadiak  Archipelago  by  Shelikoff 
Strait,  so  named  in  honor  of  one  of  the  most  energetic  pioneers 
who  explored  and  developed  this  territory. 

Kadiak  and  the  adjoining  islands,  though  separated  by  a  broad 
expanse  of  water,  appear  to  be  a  prolongation  of  the  range  which 
forms  the  peninsula  of  Kenai.  The  rocks  are  similar  and  the 
general  trend  is  the  same.  The  more  protected  portions  of  these 
islands  are  well  wooded  with  fine  timber,  and  they  also  contain, 
with  the  shores  of  Cook's  Inlet,  much  of  the  best  farming  and 
grazing  land.  They  are  well  populated  and  are  really  the  centre 
of  trade  of  the  territory.  St.  Paul,  the  principal  settlement,  by  its 
position  and  importance,  deserves,  far  more  than  Sitka,  the  honor 
of  being  the  capital  of  the  territory  of  Alaska.  It  has  been 
several  times  the  principal  depot  of  the  Company,  but  political 
reasons  determined  them  to  keep  the  capital  as  far  south  as  pos- 
sible. Beside  the  settlement  at  St.  Paul,  there  are  three  villages 
on  Three  Saints  Bay,  Afogndk,  Spruce,  and  Woody  islands,  and 
a  number  of  native  settlements.  The  depot  of  the  Ice  Company 
is  on  Woody  Island.  A  frequent  and  noticeable  feature  of  this 
part  of  the  coast  is  the  pinnacles,  or  needle  rocks,  which  may 
be  found  off  almost  every  bluff  or  point. 

Westward  from  Kadiak  we  pass  the  Semidi  Islands  and  CJiir- 
ikoff  {or  Ukamok)  Island,  on  which  the  Company  had  a  factory. 
The  marmot  {Sp.  Parryi)  was  introduced  here  and  multiplied  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  give  employment  to  a  number  of  persons 
who  were  sent  here  from  Sitka  (as  a  punishment  for  slight  of- 
ences)  to  prepare  the  skins.  On  P opoff  2ind  Unga,  islands  of  the 
Shumagin  group,  are  settlements.  Unga  contains  two  excellent 
harbors.     Coal  Harbor  on  the  north  abounds  with  cod,  and  is  a 


26o  GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA. 

frequent  rendezvous  for  the  fishermen.  Dclaroff  Bay,  at  the 
southeast  end  of  the  island,  has  a  settlement  upon  it.  Nearly  due 
west  from  Unga,  on  the  peninsula  of  Aliaska,  is  the  Bclkoffski  or 
Squirrel  settlement.  It  would  be  out  of  place  to  describe  here  the 
myriads  of  rocks,  shoals,  and  islets  which  cluster  about  the  shores 
of  the  peninsula.  It  terminates  at  False  Pass,  otherwise  known 
as  Isanoiski  Strait ;  long  marked  as  navigable  from  French  sur- 
veys in  the  last  century,  but  really  an  impassable  lagoon.  Upon 
it  is  situated  the  Morse  settlement  of  Aleutians.  West  of  it  ex- 
tends the  island  of  Unimak,  separated  from  Akhun  and  Tigalda 
by  the  Unimak  Pass. 

In  the  Aleutian  chain,  which  has  already  been  described,  the 
principal  settlements  are  upon  the  islands  of  Unalashka,  Akhun, 
Tigalda,  tJmnak,  Amlia,  Atka,  Adakh,  and  Attii.  The  principal 
harbors  or  anchorages  are,  in  Unalashka,  Iliuliiik  or  Captains  Har- 
bor, Beaver,  and  Mdkiishin  bays  ;  in  Amlia,  Svechnikoff  Bay  and 
Korovinski  Bay ;  in  Tanaga,  Slavardssi  Bay ;  in  Amchi'tka,  A'/r- 
loff  Bay  ;  finally,  in  Attu,  CJiicJiagoff  Harbor. 

Captain's  Harbor,  Unalashka,  next  to  Kadiak  and  Sitka,  is  the 
most  important  place  in  the  territory.  A  considerable  trade  has 
sprung  up  here  since  the  purchase  of  the  territory,  and  it  is  a 
favorite  point  for  vessels  to  touch  and  obtain  water,  wood,  or 
fresh  vegetables. 

Chi'chagoff  Harbor  in  Attu,  if  we  may  believe  reports,  is  al- 
ready the  seat  of  smuggling  operations  more  or  less  extensive,  by 
which  Siberian  sables  and  Chinese  opium  are  made  to  do  duty  as 
the  productions  of  Alaska. 

Returning  to  Aliaska,  and  going  eastward  after  leaving  False 
Pass,  the  first  point  is  Granite  Cape,*  in  Ion.  163'  15'  \\\  and 
lat  55°  12'  N.  (approximate).  East  of  this  cape  the  coast  is  deep- 
ly indented  with  bays  and  coves,  all  very  shallow  ;  the  shoals 
extend  off  the  coast  for  several  miles.  The  general  trend  is  to 
the  northeast.  Amak  Island,  a  sharp  volcanic  peak  about  two 
thousand  feet  high,  lies  in  Ion.  163°  W.,  and  lat.  56°  32'  30"  N., 
with  unexplored  shoals  W.N.W.  and  S.S.E.  of  it.  Passing  Cape 
Leonovich  in  Ion.  162°  15'  W.,  we  arrive  at  Caf^e  RSdgnoff  in  161° 
08'  15".  East  of  Cape  Rodgnofif  is  a  shallow  bay,  and  a  long  island 
known  as  Walrus  Island.  The  eastern  end  of  the  lagoon  is  called 
*  These  positions  are  from  the  sketch  charts  of  the  Russian  American  Company. 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA.  261 

Port  Mdllcr,  and  it  is  said  to  carry  six  fathoms  well  in.  The 
coast  beyond  trends  N.E.  by  E.  and  is  straight  and  even,  with 
shallow  water  oft'  of  it.  About  Ion.  159°  20',  stretching  north- 
eastward to  Cape  Strogoiiojf  is  a  shoal  with  some  small  islands 
called  the  Nerpichoi  or  Seal  Islands.  The  coast  trends  in  a 
more  and  more  northerly  direction,  with  from  five  to  ten  fathoms 
ten  miles  off  shore.  Passing  the  shallow  mouths  of  the  Suli'ma, 
I'gaguk,  and  Naknek  Rivers,  the  long  and  shallow  northeastern 
end  of  Bristol  Bay  makes  up  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kwi'chak  River, 
in  lat.  59°  N.,  Ion.  156"  57'  W.  To  the  west,  broad  shoals  extend 
far  oft"  shore  to  the  mouth  of  Nushergdk  Bay.  This  bay  is  about 
fifteen  miles  long  and  ten  wide,  very  shallow,  and  obstructed 
by  sand-bars  and  shoals.  Upon  its  northeast  extremity,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Nushergak  River,  is  situated  the  Redoubt  Alexandra 
in  lat.  58°  57'  06",  Ion.  158°  18'  24"  (Wrangell).  The  west  shore 
of  the  bay  is  formed  by  a  broad,  low  point,  rising  to  the  northward 
into  hills,  and  said  to  be  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  slough, 
which  passes  from  Nushergak  Bay  to  the  shallow  lagoon  of  Ki'di- 
kak,  opening  on  Kuhikak  Bay.  The  southernmost  extremity  of 
this  point  is  called  Cape  Constantino,  (lat.  58^  25'  05"  and  Ion. 
158^  51'  30")  and  is  said  to  have  a  long,  narrow  shoal  extending 
S.  E.  by  S.  ten  miles  from  shore.  West  of  Cape  Constantine  the 
shore  trends  northwesterly  upon  Kulukak  Bay,  which  contains 
several  islands.  The  most  western  and  largest  is  Hdgenmeister 
Island,  named  after  one  of  the  governors  of  the  territory.  It  is 
separated  by  a  narrow  and  shallow  pasage  from  the  mainland  ; 
the  waters  northeast  of  it  are  called  Gngiak  Bay,  from  a  river  of 
the  same  name  which  empties  there,  in  lat.  59°  N.,  Ion.  160°  23'  W. 
Westward  of  the  island  the  shore  is  high,  rapidly  rising  inland 
into  mountains.  The  southern  point  of  this  promontory,  in  Ion. 
161°  48'  30",  is  nearly  due  west  from  the  southern  point  of  Hd- 
genmeister Island,  distance  about  twenty-four  miles,  and  is  situ- 
ated in  lat.  58^  35'  (approximate).  This  important  promontory 
being  unnamed  in  the  Russian  charts,  I  propose  to  name  it  after 
the  distinguished  head  of  the  Coast  Survey,  Cape  Peirce.  A 
small  island  is  reported  to  the  east  of  it  at  a  distance  of  less  than 
a  mile.  Just  west  and  north  of  it  is  a  small  protected  cove, 
from  which,  due  west,  extends  the  long,  narrow  promontory  of 
Cape   XeioenJiani.       From   the    north    side    of  the    neck    of  this 


262  GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA. 

promontory  the  coast  extends  nearly  due  northward,  intersected 
by  Chdkwan  and  Goodnezus  bays.  From  the  north  point  of  the 
latter  well  into  the  mouth  of  the  Kuskoqui'm  extend  wide  shoals 
along  shore.  The  same  is  true  in  a  still  greater  degree  of  the 
opposite  shore.  This  bay  is  called  Knskoquiin  Bay  from  the  great 
river  which  empties  into  it.  Under  a  line  drawn  from  the  north 
point  of  Goodnews  Bay  to  Cape  Avinoff,  the  greatest  depth 
between  the  shoals  is  eight  fathoms.  In  lat.  59°  48'  is  the  bar 
with  only  two  fathoms,  and  a  little  lower  down  the  channel  is 
divided  by  a  sand-bar  which  has  six  fathoms  in  the  narrow 
channel  to  the  east,  and  only  two  in   the  broader  western  one. 

West  of  the  mouth  of  the  Kuskoqui'm  the  shore  is  moderately 
low,  with  very  broad  shoals  extending  from  ten  to  twenty-five 
miles  off  shore.  Entering  Etolin  Strait,  sometimes  marked  as 
Cook's  Strait,  we  have  to  the  west  of  us  Niinivak  Island,  and  to 
the  east  the  coast  of  the  continent,  fringed  with  broad  shoals, 
and  indented  with  large,  shallow  bays.  The  southeast  point  of 
the  island,  which  has  rocks  off  of  it  for  several  miles,  is  called 
Cape  Etolin,  after  the  explorer  of  the  strait.  The  average  depth 
is  five  to  eight  fathoms,  deeper  toward  the  island. 

Niinivak  is  lightly  wooded  in  sheltered  parts,  and  contains 
many  high  hills.  It  is  inhabited  by  Innuit,  very  degraded  and 
filthy,  but  noted  for  the  beauty  of  their  ivory  weapons  and  kyaks. 
Tobacco  trades  well  here.  There  are  no  harbors  in  Nunivak. 
The  island  is  of  a  triangular  shape,  lowest  toward  the  north. 

The  east  head  of  the  northern  entrance  to  the  strait  is  Cape 
Vancouver,  in  lat.  60°  36'  N.,  Ion.  165°  15'  W.  The  west  head 
is  Cape  Khramchcnko  in  lat.  60°  42'  N.  and  Ion.  165°  50'  W. 
The  former  is  elevated  and  hilly. 

North  of  Cape  Vancouver  is  Etolin  Bay,  a  wide  and  shallow 
indentation  of  the  coast  into  which  the  Kwinchagak  River  falls  a 
mile  or  two  south  of  lat.  61°  N.  The  north  shore  of  the  bay 
trends  nearly  east  and  west;  about  Ion.  165°  15' it  bends  more 
toward  the  north,  and  in  Ion.  166°  10'  W.  and  lat.  61°  14'  N. 
is  the  first  of  a  series  of  capes  which  make  out  from  the  coast, 
enclosing  a  series  of  bays  more  or  less  shallow.  The  mainland  is 
rolling  with  low  hills.  These  capes,  with  one  exception,  being 
unnamed,  it  has  been  proposed  to  dedicate  them  to  the  later 
explorers  on  the  Yukon.     The  first  has  been  named  Cape    Whyui- 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA.  263 

per.  The  next  to  the  northward  in  lat.  61°  22'  and  Ion.  166° 
24'  has  received  the  name  of  Cape  Dull.  The  next,  a  high  pro- 
montory, from  which  a  long  arm  extends  some  eight  miles  in  a 
northerly  direction,  is  Cape  Romdnzojf,  named  after  the  Russian 
nobleman  and  statesman  who  fitted  out  Kotzebue's  expedition. 
The  southern  and  boldest  portion  of  the  cape  is  situated  in  Ion. 
166°  17'  and  lat.  61°  29'  and  the  western  face  trends,  with  some 
indentations,  in  a  nearly  north  and  south  direction.  On  the  Rus- 
sian charts  shoal  water  is  laid  down  extending  several  miles  out 
from  the  cape,  with  six  fathoms  six  miles  from  shore. 

North  of  Cape  Romanzofif  is  a  shallow  bay  with  three  fathoms 
oft'  the  entrance.  The  next.  Cape  Smith  (named  for  Captain  E. 
E.  Smith,  to  whom  we  owe  the  first  chart  of  the  Yukon  delta),  is 
a  long,  low  point  extending  in  a  northeast  direction,  the  extreme 
end  being  in  lat.  61°  47'  and  Ion.  166°  23'  30."  In  the  narrow 
bay  north  of  this  cape,  which  has  not  been  sounded,  two  small 
streams  empty.  The  north  shore  of  this  is  formed  by  Cape  Dyer 
(named  for  Lieutenant  J.  T.  Dyer,  who  assisted  in  the  reconnois- 
sance  of  the  Yukon- mouth),  a  moderately  high,  rounded  cape, 
the  extremity  of  which  is  in  Ion.  166°  08'  and  lat.  61°  49'.*  Its 
trend  is  nearly  parallel  with  Cape  Smith.  North  of  Cape 
Dyer,  the  shore  trends  in  a  southerly  and  easterly  direction,  ten 
or  twelve  miles,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kun  or  Maria  Louisa  Rivei-, 
so  named  by  Captain  Smith.  From  this  point  the  coast  takes  a 
northerly  direction  to  the  mouth  of  the  Muganolwik  River,  in  lat. 
62°  N.  Seven  miles  oft"  the  coast  are  two  long  islands,  or  dry 
sand-bars,  known  as  the  Sandy  Islands.  The  southwest  point  of 
the  southern  i.sland  is  six  miles  distant  from  the  north  shore  of 
Cape  Dyer.  Between  them  we  have  three  and  a  half,  four,  and 
eight  fathoms  going  from  the  cape  to  the  island.  Eastward  from 
the  same  point  on  the  cape  we  find  three  and  a  half,  three,  one 
and  a  half,  two,  one  and  a  half,  and  one  fathom  to  the  shore,  nine 
miles  north  of  the  river  mouth.  North  of  this  point,  between  the 
islands  and  the  coast,  and  beyond,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kipni'uk 
or  Black  River,  in  lat.  62°  12'  and  Ion.  165,  the  shore  in  strong 
north  winds  is  dry  for  a  distance  of  six  or  seven  miles  from  the 
usual  coast  line. 

*  The  latitude  and  longitude  of  these  capes  is  appro.ximate,  determined  by  bearings 
from  Cape  Romanzoff. 


264 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA. 


The  bay  north  and  east  of  Cape  Dyer  and  southeast  of  the 
southern  sand  island,  it  is  proposed  to  call  Scanunon  Bay,  in 
honor  of  Captain  C.  M.  Scammon,  U.  S.  R.  S.,  Chief  of  Marine 
of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Expedition.  It  aftbrds  good 
anchorage  for  small  vessels  except  in  a  northwest  wind.  The 
country  in  from  this  part  of  the  coast  is  low,  marshy,  and  full 
of  small  sloughs,  lakes,  and  rivers. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Kipni'uk  River  to  Pdstol  Bay  the  coast 
is  occupied  with  the  Yukon  delta.  It  is  everywhere  low  and 
nearly  level ;  from  Cape  Dyer  to  Cape  Shalloiv  Water  of  Cook 
{Point  Roindnoff  and  Point  Azidgakak  of  the  Russian  charts) 
there  are  no  landmarks  whatever. 

The  water  off  this  part  of  the  coast  is  very  shallow,  and  close 
to  shore  is  often  nearly  dry  in  strong  northers,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Kusilvak  and  Kntlik  channels.  The  Kipni'uk  or  Black 
River  is  a  narrow  and  rather  shallow  stream,  and  empties  by 
three  or  four  sloughs,  the  most  northerly  of  which  has  been  called 
the  Devil's  Slough,  because  it  is  so  extremely  tortuous.  Here 
immense  quantities  of  wild  fowl  breed  ;  eggs  and  birds  in  their 
season  are  found  in  incalculable  numbers.  At  the  mouth  of  al- 
most every  slough  or  river,  Innuit  villages  may  be  found.  North- 
east three  or  four  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Devil's  Slough  is  a 
small  river,  at  the  mouth  of  which  is  situated  the  Tce-atce-oge- 
miit  village.  About  five  miles  farther  in  the  same  direction  is 
the  mouth  of  the  South  Slough  of  the  Yukon.  This  is  one  of 
the  longest  and  most  shallow  of  the  Yukon-mouths.  It  is  fre- 
quently too  dry  for  the  passage  of  bidarkas.  North  of  this 
mouth  off  shore  are  five  dry  sand-bars  or  islands.  Northeast 
three  miles  is  the  mouth  of  the  Kusilvak  Slough.  This  is  the 
true  Yukon -mouth,  being  the  only  one  which  carries  a  deep 
channel  out  to  sea.  The  mouth  of  the  Kusilvak  is  in  (approx- 
imate) Ion.  164°  W.  and  lat.  62°  26'  N.  There  is  a  village  on  the 
south  point  called  Kwee'-ahogemiit,  and  one  on  the  north  point 
known  as  Onug-anugemiit.  Between  them  we  have  nine  fathoms, 
and  the  depth  decreases  as  we  ascend  the  slough  about  a  fathom 
a  mile,  until  we  have  four  or  five  fathoms,  which  may  be  carried 
up  the  Yukon  without  interruption,  three  hundred  miles,  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Anvik  River. 

Passing  to  the  westward  from  between  the  villages,  the  channel 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA.  265 

goes  between  the  two  largest  sand-bars,  carrying  nine,  eight,  sev- 
en, and  just  between  the  eastern  points  of  the  bars  five,  three, 
and  at  last  two  and  a  half  fathoms,  about  eight  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Kusilvak.  This  is  the  shallowest  place.  Thence 
the  channel  trends  southwesterly,  with  three  and  three  and  a  half 
fathoms,  then  passing  on  either  side  of  a  long  bar,  on  the  north 
side  we  get  four  fathoms  steadily  for  as  many  miles,  when  it  de- 
creases off  the  point  of  the  long  bar  to  three,  then  three  and  a 
half,  four,  and  five,  gradually  trending  in  a  more  southerly  direc- 
tion as  far  as  sounded,  which  was  about  eight  miles  west  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Kipniuk  River.  This  channel  is  indicated  in  the 
map  which  accompanies  Baer  and  Helmersen's  Beitrage  (St.  Pe- 
tersburg, 1839),  though  without  any  soundings.  That  map  was 
probably  drawn  from  information  derived  from  the  explorations 
of  Glasunoff,  in  1835-38,  through  Admiral  Wrangell. 

The  length  of  the  Kusilvak  is  about  forty-five  miles,  and  its 
course  from  the  mouth  is  nearly  southeast.  It  is  three  or  four 
miles  in  width.  The  point  north  of  the  mouth  separates  it  from  a 
wide  but  shallow  slough,  named  the  American  mouth  by  Captain 
Smith.  This  trends  in  a  northeast  direction,  and  opens  into  the 
Kzvikhpdk  mouth  of  the  Yukon.  This  is  wide,  but  also  shallow, 
and  offers  no  navigable  channel  by  which  to  enter  the  Yukon.  It 
debouches  on  the  coast  about  lat.  62°  41'.  For  a  description  of  the 
many  and  intricate  sloughs  which  intersect  the  delta,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  map.     The  Kwikhpak  is  about  fifty  miles  long. 

The  most  northern  slough  or  mouth  of  the  Yukon  opens  into  Pas- 
tel Bay,  and  has  a  depth  of  three  fathoms.  It  is  called  the  Uphoon 
by  the  Russians.  Through  this  slough  the  goods  for  the  trading- 
posts  on  the  Yukon  and  Kuskoquim  were  always  carried.  Their 
course  was  about  as  follows.  Taking  advantage  of  a  high  tide, 
the  boat  from  Redoubt  St.  Michael's  entered  the  northern  end  of 
the  channel  or  Canal  which  separates  the  island  of  St.  Michael's 
from  the  mainland.  On  the  bar  at  this  entrance  five  feet  of  water 
may  be  obtained  in  the  channel  during  spring  tides.  Once  over 
this  bar,  which  is  about  two  miles  broad,  two  fathoms  or  more 
water  is  found  in  the  Canal.  Passing  through  the  Canal  and  by 
the  mouth  of  the  Pikmiktalik  River,  the  next  difficulty  is  experi- 
enced off  Point  Romanoff.  Here  the  water  is  very  shallow  for  a 
long  distance  offshore  ;  three  miles  out,  at  a  proper  season  of  the 


266  GEOGRAPHY   OF   ALASKA. 

tide,  four  or  live  feet  may  be  obtained.  With  a  north  wind  ail 
this  is  nearly  dry.  A  pilot  is  needed  to  carry  the  vessel  through 
the  shallows  of  Pastol  Bay  ;  but  once  over  them  and  into  the 
Uphoon,  no  further  trouble  is  experienced.  Vessels  drawing  not 
over  four  feet  can  in  this  way  safely  enter  the  Yukon.  The  tides 
at  the  Yukon-mouth  average  three  feet,  spring  tides  five  feet,  but 
the  rise  is  greater  just  inside  the  mouths  on  account  of  the  slack 
water.  There  is  but  little  saltness  to  the  water  off  the  delta,  and 
it  is  discolored  for  miles  out  of  sight  of  land.  There  is  little  doubt 
that  the  shallow  plateau  of  Bering  Sea  is  due  to  the  detritus 
brought  down  by  the  Yukon,  Kuskoquim,  and  other  rivers.  Near 
the  mouth  of  the  Uphoon  there  is  a  Russian  house  and  barrabora 
called  Kutlik.  Not  far  beyond  is  the  village  of  Pastoltk,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Pastolik  River,  and  the  shore  of  Pastol  Bay  curves 
gently  toward  the  east  and  north  to  Point  Romanoff.  A  small 
stream,  the  Pastoliak,  comes  in  from  the  lakes  and  marshes  back 
of  Pastolik. 

Point  Romanoff  is  a  solitary  rounded  hill  of  metamorphic  sili- 
cious  rock,  in  lat.  63°  06'  and  Ion.  162°  48'  W.  (approximate).  It 
forms  the  north  extremity  of  Pastol  Bay.  Beyond  it  the  coast  is 
low,  strewn  wdth  volcanic  rocks,  and  trending  eastward  and  north- 
eastward to  the  mouth  of  the  Pikmiktalik  River.  Northeast  eight 
miles  in  Ion.  162°  W.  is  the  southwestern  entrance  of  the  Canal. 
Due  north  is  the  channel  between  Stuart  and  St.  Michael  isl- 
ands. In  the  north  entrance  to  this  channel  three  fathoms  may 
be  obtained,  with  shelter  from  most  winds,  and  great  abundfence 
of  dry  driftwood,  much  of  it  large  enough  for  masts  or  spars. 
West  and  southwest  of  the  north  point  of  Stuart  Island,  the  line 
of  three  fathoms  may  be  drawn,  extending  southward  along  the 
coast  to  the  Kusilvak  Channel,  thirty  miles  off  shore.  The  water 
shoals  very  gradually,  and  the  bottom  is  soft  and  makes  good  hold- 
ing ground.  The  shores  of  the  islands  are  rocky,  and  offer  few 
good  points  for  landing.  Good  water  cannot  be  obtained  upon 
them. 

In  Tcbcnkojf  Cove,  on  the  eastern  point  of  St.  Michael  Island, 
is  situated  Redoubt  St.  JSIichacI,  in  lat.  6^°  28'  and  Ion.  161° 
51' 54"  (Kellett).  Northeast  ten  miles  from  the  eastern  point 
of  St.  Michael's  Island  is  Egg  Island,  about  which  anchorage  in 
three  and  a  half  fathoms,  mud  and  shell,  may  be  obtained.     Two 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   ALASKA.  267 

and  a  half  fathoms  may  be  carried  well  up  into  the  Cove,  until 
opposite  the  boat-house.  This  is  the  best  place  for  small  vessels. 
The  rise  and  fall  of  tides  in  the  Cove  will  not  average  over  four 
feet.  The  second  tide  is  very  uncertain,  and  sometimes  hardly 
perceptible.  They  all  depend  much  upon  the  wind.  A  strong 
north  wind  will  sometimes  diminish  the  depth  of  water  by  six 
feet  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  a  strong  south  wind  may  raise  the 
water  three  or  four  feet  in  the  same  time.  Vessels  coming  in  to 
the  Cove  should  keep  well  off  shore  until  past  Egg  Island.  The 
small  cove  where  boats  land  is  full  of  rocks,  and  care  should  be 
taken  to  avoid  one  which  lies  directly  in  the  middle  of  the  en- 
trance. Fresh  fish,  game,  or  deer  meat  can  usually  be  obtained 
here  by  vessels.  Good  water  can  be  obtained  directly  on  the 
shore  of  the  mainland,  in  a  small  rocky  cove  opposite  the  Re- 
doubt. 

The  shores  of  Norton  Sound,  trending  eastwardly  and  northeast- 
wardly to  Tolstoi  Point,  are  rocky,  and  present  no  boat  harbors  or 
good  landing-places.  A  few  —  the  Majors  Cove,  Kegiktownik 
Cove,  and  a  cove  near  the  mouth  of  the  Golsova  River  —  afford 
sonie  protection  for  skin  boats.  Beyond,  and  close  under  Tolstoi 
Point,  small  vessels  will  find  protection  from  south  and  southeast 
winds,  in  four  fathoms,  sandy  bottom.  Beyond  we  have  a  narrow 
sandy  beach,  covered  to  the  base  of  the  perpendicular  blufts  at 
high  water.  Off  the  mouth  of  the  Unalakli'k  River  extensive  shoals 
prevail,  but  three  miles  off  shore  five  fathoms  may  be  obtained. 
The  fort  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  according  to  Kashevaroff,  is  in 
lat.  63°  52'  36"  and  Ion.  161°  51'  54".  North-northwest  from  the 
fort  lies  Bcsboroiigh  Island,  in  lat.  64°  06'  30"  and  Ion.  161°  of . 
This  is  probably  too  far  east,  and  neither  of  the  above  positions 
can  be  relied  upon. 

Inside  of  Besborough  Island,  anchorage  may  be  obtained  in 
four  fathoms  in  northerly  and  easterly  weather.  The  water  near 
the  shores  and  in  the  greater  part  of  Norton  Bay  is  very  shal- 
low ;  hardly  deep  enough  for  boats  in  the  head  of  the  bay.  Cape 
Denbigh  on  the  east  and  Cape  Darby  on  the  west  form  the 
heads.  Numerous  shallow  rivers  empty  into  the  bay.  The  coun- 
try east  of  Norton  Sound  and  Bay  rises  into  rolling  hills  from 
five  to  fifteen  hundred  feet  in  height.  West  of  Cape  Darby 
is   Golofnina  Bay,  named  by  Etolin  from   the  vessel  in  which  he 


268  GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA. 

explored  it  in  1820.  The  shores  are  high  and  rocky,  and  good 
■protection  from  all  winds  is  reported  at  the  head  of  the  bay,  in 
four  fathoms,  sand.  Here  a  shallow  lagoon,  known  as  Golovin 
Sound,  empties.  From  the  similarity  of  the  names  some  con- 
fusion has  resulted.  This  lagoon  is  said  to  be  connected,  by  the 
Fish  River  and  a  series  of  lakes,  with  Grmitley  Harbor,  so  that,  in 
summer,  skin  boats  may  pass  from  the  one  to  the  other  without  a 
portage.  The  northern  shores  of  Norton  Sound  are  high  and 
rolling.  Point  Nome,  the  most  southern  land  west  of  Golofni'na 
Bay,  is  situated  in  Ion.  165°.  Beyond  it,  the  coast  trends  in  a 
northwesterly  direction  to  Point  Rodney  and  Bering  Strait.  The 
former  is  situated  in  lat.  64°  39'  and  Ion.  166°  18',  according  to 
Beechey.  Asiak  or  Sledge  Island  of  Cook,  on  the  same  authority, 
is  in  lat.  64°  29'  30"  and  Ion.  166°  01'  30,"  about  eleven  miles  off 
shore.  J^kivok  or  King  Island  is  situated  in  lat.  64°  58'  30"  and 
Ion.  167°  58'. 

Port  Clarence  is  protected  on  the  south  and  west  by  a  long 
low  point  of  land,  and  affords  a  secure  anchorage.  On  a  small 
sand-spit  is  the  Innuit  village  of  Nodkmnt.  Grantley  Harbor  is 
situated  at  the  head  of  the  bay,  and  affords  excellent  anchorage  in 
four  fathoms.  This  harbor  is  perfectly  protected,  and  vessels  of 
various  exploring  expeditions  have  frequently  wintered  there.  A 
large  lagoon  or  lake  opens  into  it  from  the  east,  near  Tdksuviut 
village. 

The  northern  shore  of  Port  Clarence  is  high,  and  trends  north- 
ward and  westward  to  Cape  Prinze  of  Wales.  This,  the  most 
western  land  of  the  American  continent,  is  situated  in  lat.  65° 
33'  30"  and  Ion.  167°  59'  12".  The  native  name  is  King-egan. 
North  of  it  the  shore  is  low  and  gradually  trends  more  and  more 
to  the  eastward,  the  only  indentation  being  the  shallow  ShisJmia- 
reff  Inlet.  About  Ion.  163°  34',  Cape  Spanberg  forms  the  most 
northern  point  of  the  peninsula,  and  the  western  head  of  Kotzcbuc 
Sound. 

The  great  peninsula  enclosed  l?^  the  waters  of  Norton  Bay  and 
Sound,  Bering  Strait,  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  Kotzebue  Sound,  it 
is  proposed  to  call  the  Kdviak  Peninsula,  from  the  native  name 
of  Kavi-i'ak  and  the  Kaviak  Innuit  who  inhabit  it. 

Kotzebue  Sound  is  comparatively  shallow,  fourteen  fathoms 
being  the  greatest  depth  reported.     To  the  eastward   it  is  pro- 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   ALASKA.  269 

longed  into  several  shallow  inlets.  Escholts  Inlet  or  Bay,  known 
as  Kiiiigiik  to  the  natives,  receives  the  waters  of  the  Kunguk 
River.  Hothain  Inlet  receives  the  Inland  and  Kovvak  rivers, 
and  through  Selawik  Lake  the  waters  of  the  Selawik  River. 

From  Cape  Krusenstern,  the  north  head  of  the  Sound,  the 
coast  trends  to  the  northwest,  with  many  shallow  lagoons  along 
shore.  The  country  inland  is  generally  low,  with  a  few  hills.  In 
lat.  6'^°  21'  Point  Hope  projects  into  the  sea.  It  is  a  long,  low, 
sandy  point,  and  reaches  Ion.  166°  48',  with  a  shoal  extending 
several  miles  west  of  it.  North  of  it  the  coast  is  high,  to  Cape 
Lisburue,  in  lat.  6'^°  56'  and  Ion.  166°  08'.  Here  the  shore  trends 
suddenly  eastward  to  Cape  Beaufort,  in  lat.  69°  13'  and  Ion.  163° 
34'.  Northeasterly  the  coast  is  again  low,  and  we  reach  ley  Cape 
of  Cook,  in  lat.  70°  20'  and  Ion.  161°  40'.  The  next  cape.  Point 
Barroiv,  is  the  most  northern  land  of  Alaska  territory,  and  is  situ- 
ated in  lat.  71°  27'.  The  coast  now  turns  to  the  eastward  and 
southward,  and  about  twenty-two  miles  from  Point  Barrow  is 
Dcasc  Inlet,  a  shallow  and  deep  indentation  of  the  coast.  In  Ion. 
150°  42'  the  Colvile  River  empties  into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Pro- 
ceeding eastward,  we  finally  arrive  at  Demarcation  Point,  in  lat. 
69°  40'  and  Ion.  141°  07'  30"  W.,  which  brings  us  nearly  to  the 
boundary  line.  The  whole  northern  coast  is  low,  without  good 
harbors,  and  fringed  with  numerous  shoals.  Inland  it  rises  into 
hills  and  low  mountains,  which  have  been  plentifully  bespattered 
with  names  by  the  English  explorers.  The  most  important,  as 
regards  height,  is  the  Romanzoff  range.  There  are  a  few  villages 
of  the  western  Eskimo  along  the  coast,  and  between  Point  Bar- 
row and  Cape  Lisburne. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  mention  that  East  Cape,  the 
most  eastern  land  of  Asia,  is  situated  in  lat.  66°  03'  06",  and  Ion. 
169°  43'  48",  according  to  Beechey.  From  Cape  Prince  of  Wales 
to  East  Cape  is  fifty-four  miles,  from  the  former  to  Fairway  Rock 
IS  nineteen  miles,  thence  to  Ratmanoff  Island  thirteen  miles,  and 
thence  to  East  Cape  twenty-two  miles.  Nine  miles  northwest  ot 
Cape  Chukotski,  the  most  southern  land  of  the  Chukchee  penin- 
sula, is  the  entrance  to  Plover  Bay,  in  lat.  64°  23'  30"  and  Ion. 
173°  26'.  This  fine  bay  is  the  general  rendezvous  of  the  whalers 
and  trading  vessels  in  the  fall.  It  contains  several  very  good 
anchorages,  the  most  protected  of  which  is  Snug  Harbor,  at  the 


270  GEOGRAPHY   OF   ALASKA. 

north  end  of  the  bay,  behind  WJialc  Island.  Here,  and  m  Emma 
Hai'bor,  another  arm  of  the  bay,  any  vessel  might  safely  winter. 
The  bay  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  high,  rocky  hills,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which,  Mount  Kennicott,  I  found  to  be  2,343  feet  high. 
The  rounded  hill  which  fronts  the  sea  to  the  east  of  the  entrance 
is  -known  as  Bald  Head.  The  barren  hills  give  this  bay  a  cheer- 
less aspect  to  the  landsman  ;  but  sailors  will  find  comfort  in  the 
bountiful  supply  of  good  water,  the  secure  anchorage,  and  the 
tame  reindeer  meat  and  fish  which  may  be  obtained  from  the  na- 
tives. Scurvy  grass  is  abundant  on  the  sandspit  in  the  bay,  but 
no  wood,  except  a  little  driftwood,  can  be  found. 

The  principal  ports  to  the  southward  are  Nizni  (or  lower) 
Kamchatka,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kamchatka  River,  and  Petro- 
pavlovsk.  The  latter  is  situated  on  Niakina  Cove,  Avdtcha  Bay, 
and  was  founded  in  1739  by  Ivan  Jelagin,  Bering's  pilot,  and 
named  after  the  two  vessels  of  the  expedition.  It  is  at  present 
without  a  garrison,  and  probably  does  not  contain  over  fifteen 
hundred  inhabitants.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  Governor  of 
Kamchatka,  and  the  principal  port  of  the  peninsula.  An  excel- 
lent view  of  It,  by  Frederick  Whymper,  may  be  found  in  the  Lon- 
don edition  of  Hartwig's  "  Polar  World." 

River  System.  —  The  Pacific  watershed  of  Alaska  is  much 
smaller  than  that  of  Bering  Sea.  In  most  places  the  mountains 
approach  closely  to  the  seashore,  and  the  water  discharged  by  the 
rivers  is  collected  far  inland,  and  forces  its  way  to  the  sea  through 
some  narrow  pass  or  perpendicular  caiion.  Much  of  the  rainfall 
is  congealed  on  these  lofty  summits,  and  finally  reaches  the  sea 
by  slow  degrees  as  a  glacier-torrent. 

Just  east  of  the  boundary  line,  the  Nasse  River  oi  British  Co- 
lumbia debouches  into  Observatory  Inlet.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
prolific  in  fish  of  the  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Pacific.  Its  course, 
as  determined  by  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  explorers,  is  very 
different  from  that  laid  down  for  it  on  most  maps.  Rising  in  a 
small  lake,  near  the  head-waters  of  the  Skoot  River,  it  flows  south- 
ward about  fifty  miles,  then  southeast  and  southwest  in  a  broad 
curve,  until  it  falls  into  the  Inlet.  Part  of  its  course  is  narrow 
and  rapid,  over  falls  and  through  caiions,  near  which  are  Indian 
fishing  villages.  It  is  not  navigable  for  more  than  a  quarter  of 
its  length.     At  its  mouth  is  an  English  trading-post. 


GEOGRAPHY   OF    ALASKA. 


271 


The  next  river  of  large  size  is  the  Stikine.  This  has  become 
well  known  on  account  of  the  gold-diggings  on  its  banks.  These 
are  all  situated  in  British  territory.  The  course  of  the  Sti'kine 
has  been  determmed  by  the  explorers  of  the  Western  Union  Tele- 
graph Expedition.  One  of  their  stations  was  situated  near  the 
mouth  of  the  north  fork  in  lat.  57°  28'  N.  and  Ion.  129°  56'  W. 

The  head-waters  of  the  South  Fork  and  Pittfield  branch  extend 
as  far  east  as  Ion.  127°.  The  entire  length  is  over  two  hundred 
and  fifty  miles,  and  it  is  navigable  only  for  boats.*  The  North  Fork 
is  about  forty  miles  long,  and  rises  on  the  east  side  of  the  Bald 
Mountains,  near  the  head- waters  of  the  Yukon.  The  Russians, 
under  Commander  Bassarguine,  explored  the  river  for  about 
sixty-five  miles  in    1863. 

A  small  stream,  called  the  Taku  (not  Tahco),  flows  into  Glacier 
Arm  of  Stephen's  Strait.  About  1840  it  was  ascended  for 
thirty-five  miles,  by  Mr.  Douglas  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company. 
It  is  less  than  sixty  miles  in  length,  and  on  old  maps  was  usually 
prolonged  far  into  the  interior,  and  confounded  with  the  Tahco 
River,  one  of  the  streams  which  form  the  Yukon.  This  error  was 
corrected  by  the  Telegraph  explorers.  The  current  is  very  rapid ; 
the  stream  is  narrow,  flowing  between  stupendous  mountains, 
and  navigable  only  for  canoes,  with  frequent  portages. 

The  Chilkdht  River,  a  much  larger  stream,  enters  the  northern 
extremity  of  Lynn  Channel.  The  general  direction  of  this  river  is 
from  the  north.  It  is  said  to  flow  between  bare  and  precipitous 
cliffs,  destitute  of  timber.  The  Indians  ascend  it,  against  a  very 
rapid  current,  in  twenty  days,  when  they  make  a  portage  by  sev- 
eral lakes  to  the  Lewis  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Yukon.  This 
portage  is  laid  down  on  the  map  which  accompanies  this  volume, 
from  an  Indian  sketch  map.  The  river  is  probably  a  hundred 
miles  long,  with  numerous  branches.  Iron  ore  is  reported  by 
Mr.  Davidson  to  exist  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mouth. 

Northwest  of  Cape  Fairweather  the  river  Ahekh  flows  by  five 
mouths  into  the  sea.  The  ground  through  which  these  pass  is  so 
low,  that  at  very  high  water  it  is  covered  by  the  sea,  forming  a 
lagoon  fifteen  miles  long  and  twelve  wide,  which  has  received  the 
name  of  Djj  Bay.  It  was  named  by  La  Perouse  Bering s  River-, 
and  is  supposed  to  be  a  short  stream. 

*  It  is  said,  during  the  spring  freshets,  which  greatly  swell  the  river,  to  be  navigable 
for  small  steamers,  with  difficulty,  for  a  hundred  miles  or  more. 


272  GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA. 

In  lat.  60°  17'  and  Ion.  145''  20'  lies  the  mouth  of  the  Atna 
or  Copper  River.  The  delta  is  thirty  miles  long  by  four  or  five 
wide,  and  is  overgrown  with  willow.  The  principal  mouth  is 
at  the  northwest  end  of  the  delta.  Here  is  an  Innuit  village 
(Alaganik).  The  lower  part  of  the  river  flows  through  low 
ground,  with  many  lakes.  Our  knowledge  of  the  course  of 
this  river  is  due  to  the  researches  of  a  Russian,  named  Sere- 
branikoft',  and  is  rather  dubious.  He  was  killed  by  the  natives 
for  his  bad  conduct,  but  his  papers  were  delivered  up.  There 
are  said  to  be  rapids  seventeen  miles  above  the  delta,  and  from 
them  the  river  pursues  a  northerly  course.  About  one  hun- 
dred miles  above  the  rapids  a  branch  called  the  CJiecJutno  falls 
into  the  Copper  River.  At  this  point  a  single  Russian  re- 
mained for  a  few  years  and  traded  with  the  natives.  A  river 
enters  from  the  west,  which  heads  in  a  lake  from  which  a  port- 
age can  be  made  to  the  Fire  {Knik)  River,  which  falls  into 
Cook's  Inlet.  Little  is  really  known  about  the  Atna  River,  but 
the  banks  are  said  to  be  mountainous,  well  wooded,  and  with  oc- 
casional glaciers.  The  precise  locality  of  the  copper  from  which 
it  takes  its  name  is  unknown.  It  is  found  in  rolled  masses  of 
native  metal,  similar  to  that  found  in  the  Lake  Superior  district, 
and  the  locality  is  supposed  to  be  within  a  hundred  miles  of  the 
mouth.  It  has  long  been  an  article  of  trade  with  the  Indians  ; 
one  of  the  articles  which  Bering's  expedition  found  on  the  coast 
where  they  landed  in  1741,  was  a  whetstone  on  which  copper 
knives  had  been  sharpened.  The  natives  knew  nothing  of  iron 
before  the  traders  came,  but  it  was  an  easy  matter  to  beat  a  rude 
knife  out  of  native  copper. 

No  streams  of  any  size  fall  into  Chugach  Gulf  Two,  however, 
empty  into  Cook's  Inlet. 

The  Knik*  or  Fire  River  falls  into  Turnagain  Arm  from  the 
northeast.  It  was  examined  by  Cook  and  Vancouver.  It  is  only 
navigable  for  twelve  miles,  when  it  becomes  wide  and  shallow. 
The  Russians  are  said  to  have  ascended  it  in  skin  boats  to  a  lake 
called  Plavejno,  whence  by  portage  and  river  travel  the  Copper 
River  may  be  reached.  Our  knowledge  of  it  is  slight,  and  it  is 
supposed  to  be  less  than  one  hundred  miles  long. 

A  few  miles  northwest  of  the  Fire  River  mouth  lies  the  mouth 

*  Erroneouslv  written  Kuvck,  Kweck,  Knuvk,  Kook,  &c. 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA. 


'^n 


of  the  SiicJiitiia  River,  v.'ith  a  broad  shoal  across  it.  Malakoff  is 
said  to  have  explored  it  in  1834.  Its  course  is  mapped  from 
Russian  sources,  and  it  is  supposed  to  be  several  hundred  miles 
long,  but  we  know  nothing  of  it  with  certainty. 

On  the  east  shore  of  the  Inlet  are  the  small  Starichkoff  and 
Kdknu  rivers.  They  are  insignificant  streams  fed  by  glaciers. 
In  the  sands  of  the  latter,  Doroshin  was  said  to  have  found 
gold. 

West  of  Augustin  Island  is  a  small  stream,  by  which,  through 
the  mountain  gorges,  a  portage  is  made  to  Lake  Iliduina.  From 
the  northwest  slope  of  the  peninsula  of  Aliaska  several  small 
rivers  flow  into  Bristol  Bay.  The  country  between  and  at  the 
bases  of  the  high  mountains,  which  form  the  prolongation  of  the 
Alaskan  Range  in  the  peninsula,  is  very  low  and  marshy.  In 
many  places  large  lakes  are  found,  some  of  which  are  so  near 
the  level  of  the  sea  that  the  water  is  brackish.  These  empty  into 
the  sea  by  rivers  on  either  side,  and  it  is  said,  that  in  some  places 
a  portage,  or  rather  passage,  can  be  made  in  canoes  from  one 
shore  of  the  peninsula  to  the  other,  hardly  lifting  the  canoe  out 
of  water  during  the  journey.  The  larger  of  the  rivers  which 
flow  into  Bristol  Bay  as  we  go  eastward  are  the  Snlinia,  the 
Ugaguk,  the  Ndknek,  and  the  Kzvlekak.  All  derive  their  water 
from  lakes  of  lesser  or  greater  size,  and  the  last  from  the  great 
Lake  Iliamna.  This  lake,  though  known  for  a  generation,  is  yet 
unexplored.  It  is  supposed  to  be  rather  shallow,  and  is  known  to 
be  over  eighty  miles  long,  and  about  twenty-four  broad,  —  fully 
half  as  large  as  Lake  Ontario.  It  has  been  mapped  as  Shelikoff 
Lake,  but  the  native  name  is  quite  as  appropriate  and  more 
euphonious. 

North  of  Bristol  Bay  is  situated  Fort  Alexandra,  one  of  the 
Russian  trading-posts,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Xushergdk  River. 
This  is  a  large  stream,  but  shallow,  and  the  harbor  is  a  poor  one. 
This  river  is  very  tortuous,  flowing  between  hills,  and  deriving  its 
supply  from  large  mountain  lakes. 

In  lat.  61°  20'  N.  the  head-waters  of  a  branch  of  the  Kusko- 
qiiim  interlock  with  those  of  the  Nushergak. 

On  the  right  bank  a  large  stream,  called  the  Aleknagdk,  falls 
into  the  Nushergak  near  its  mouth,  heading  in  a  large  lake  of 
the  same  name.  About  seventy-five  miles  above  the  Russian 
18 


2  74  GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA. 

post,  another  river  is  said  to  come  in  from  the  westward.  The 
head-waters  of  the  Nushergak  are  in  a  very  mountainous  country, 
said  to  be  volcanic. 

The  whole  length  of  the  river  is  said  to  be  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  miles,  but  no  satisfactory  explorations  have  yet  been 
made.  To  the  westward  a  chain  of  rivers  and  lakes  is  said,  on 
the  authority  of  the  natives,  to  connect  with  the  head-waters  ol 
the  Anniak  River,  which  falls  into  the  Kuskoquim.  The  winter 
mail  to  and  from  the  Kolmakoff  Redoubt  on  the  Kuskoquim  is 
carried  by  natives,  who  go  up  the  Nushergak,  crossing  to  the 
Hiclitnak  River,  passing  down  that  to  the  Kuskoquim,  and  then 
down  the  Kuskoquim  fifty  miles  to  the  Redoubt.  No  white  man 
has  ever  penetrated  into  this  wilderness,  and  the  reports  of  the 
natives  greatly  magnify  the  rugged  character  and  grand  scenery 
of  the  portage.  One  part  of  it  is  said  to  be  made  through  a 
chasm  only  a  few  yards  wide  between  two  volcanic  mountains. 
Zeolites,  sulphur,  and  blue  carbonate  of  copper  have  been  received 
as  from  this  region,  and  the  goshawk  is  said  to  abound  there. 

In  lat.  60°  N.  Ion.  162°  W.,  at  the  head  of  Kuskoquim  Bay,  the 
Kuskoquim  River  enters  the  sea.  This  is  the  second  largest 
river  in  Alaska,  and  the  largest  whose  watershed  is  confined  to 
the  territory.  In  latitude  it  extends  from  60°  to  nearly  64°  N., 
and  in  longitude  from  153°  to  162°  W.  Its  total  length  is  esti- 
mated at  between  five  and  six  hundred  miles.  Its  principal 
tributary  is  the  Huli'tnak,  before  mentioned.  The  head-waters, 
though  annually  visited  by  traders,  have  never  been  satisfactorily 
explored  or  mapped. 

In  1832,  Ivan  Simonsen  Lukeen,  a  Creole,*  was  sent,  with  a 
party  of  natives,  up  the  Nushergak  River  to  explore  the  portage 
to  the  Huli'tnak  River  and  the  Kuskoquim  beyond.  In  18 18 
the  mouth  had  been  visited  by  Korsakoff,  and  in  1820,  Kol- 
makoff, bidarshik  of  Nushergak  Fort,  explored  the  river  for  a 
considerable  distance.  Trading  parties  annually  visited  it,  but 
no  post  was  established  until  Lukeen's  expedition,  though  Kol- 
makoff made  a  second  visit  there  in   1830.      About    fifty   miles 

*  Ivan  Lukeen,  was  born  of  Russian  and  Spanish-American  Creole  parents,  in  the 
Ross  colony  in  California,  aliout  1820,  according  to  his  own  statement  to  me.  He  was 
well  educated  in  the  Sitka  school,  and  proved  active,  energetic,  and  intelligent.  At 
the  time  of  his  expedition  he  was  acting  as  clerk  for  K<Jlmakoff.  He  was  extremely 
short,  muscular,  of  a  swarthy  complexion,  and  pleasant  good-humored  expression. 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA. 


275 


below  the  mouth  of  the  Huh'tnak  on  the  Kuskoquim,  Lukeen 
built  a  quadrangular  stockade,  enclosing  several  buildings,  which 
was  called  Lukeen's  Fort.  He  was  installed  as  commander,  and 
reigned  there,  so  to  speak,  for  seven  years.  An  excellent  inter- 
preter, speaking  the  Innuit  languages  of  the  Lower  Kuskoquim 
with  fluency,  he  adopted  a  mode  of  life  not  dissimilar  in  some 
respects  to  that  of  the  natives,  among  whom  he  attained  great 
influence.  In  1835,  Glasunoff'  explored  the  mouth  of  the  Kusko- 
quim, and  from  that  time  forth  the  post  was  elevated  to  the 
dignity  of  a  Redoubt,  for  which  the  supplies  were  carried  in 
boats  up  the  river.  In  1841  some  parts  of  the  post  were  de- 
stroyed with  fire  by  the  Indians.  Kolmakofl",  then  Uprovali'sha 
of  Fort  Alexandra  at  Nushergak,  was  sent  to  the  Kuskoquim  and 
rebuilt  the  Redoubt,  which  then  took  his  name.  In  1866  the 
garrison,  in  charge  of  Uprovali'sha  Dementoff,  was  withdrawn, 
and  the  post  dismantled.  After  the  establishment  of  posts  on 
the  Lower  Yukon,  the  goods  for  Kolmakofl'  Redoubt  were  carried 
up  the  Yukon  and  across  a  portage,  in  lat.  61°  40'  30",  to  the  Kus- 
koquim. This  was  done  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  taking 
goods  up  stream  against  the  rapid  current  of  the  Kuskoquim. 

About  latitude  61°  N.  a  small  river,  known  as  the  KivincJiagdk, 
debouches  into  the  shallow  waters  of  Etolin  Bay  northeast  of 
Cape  Vancouver.  It  has  not  been  explored,  but  is  known  to 
be  shallow,  and  is  supposed  to  be  about  fifty  miles  long. 

North  of  Cape  Dyer,  a  small  river,  called  by  Captain  Smith 
the  Maria  Louisa  River  {Kttn  of  the  Innuit),  empties  into  Scam- 
mon  Bay.  Ten  miles  from  the  mouth  is  a  native  settlement, 
known  as  Kiittenmut.  Several  other  shallow  streams  come  to 
the  coast  between  Scammon  Bay  and  the  Yukon  delta.  These 
are,  as  we  go  northward,  the  Muganolowik,  the  Popes  River,  the 
Black  or  Kipniuk  River,  and  the  Tee-at-iokwik  River.  All  of 
these  were  formerly  supposed  to  be  sloughs  of  the  Yukon,  and 
are  mapped  as  such  on  most  maps.  The  Black  River  is  the 
largest,  and  is  supposed  to  be  about  fifty  miles  long. 

The  Yukon  delta  occupies  the  coast  between  lat.  62°  21'  and 
62°  50'  and  extends  inland  nearly  sixty  miles.  The  deepest 
mouth  and  true  channel  is  the  Kusilvak,  but  the  widest  is  the 
Kwikhpak.  The  Russians  entering  the  delta  by  the  Uphooii  or 
northern  mouth,  which  opens  into  the  Kwikhpak,  and  learning 


276  GEOGRAPHY   OF   ALASKA. 

that  name  from  the  Innuit  tribes  at  the  mouth,  have  erroneously 
appHed  it  to  the  whole  river,  much  as  a  person  first  entering  the 
Ganges  might  apply  the  name  Hooghly  to  the  whole  river,  from 
the  circumstance  that  he  entered  it  by  that  mouth.  The  delta 
has  already  been  described  in  the  account  of  the  coast. 

The  head-waters  of  the  Yukon  were  known  to  the  traders  and 
trappers  of  the  Hudson  Bay  territory  early  in  this  century.  In 
1837,  Glasunoff  explored  the  delta  of  the  Yukon,  and  ascended 
the  river  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Anvik  Riv^er.  The  follow- 
ing year,  Malakoff  explored  as  far  as  Nulato,  where  a  post  was 
established  under  the  command  of  Notarmi.  The  garrison 
returned  to  St.  Michael's  in  the  winter,  and  the  natives  burnt 
the  fort  during  their  absence.  In  1841  a  permanent  post  w^as 
established  by  Derabin.  In  1842,  Lieutenant  Zagoskin  reached 
Nulato,  and  in  the  spring  ascended  the  Yukon  as  far  as  Nowi- 
kakat.  Here  he  turned  back  and  reported  that  it  was  impossible 
for  skin  boats  to  ascend  any  farther.  In  1847,  McMurray  de- 
scended the  Porcupine  River  and  founded  the  trading-post  of 
Fort  Yukon.  Soon  after,  Mr.  Robert  Campbell  descended  the 
Upper  Yukon  from  Fort  Selkirk,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lewis 
River,  to  Fort  Yukon.  In  the  autumn  of  i860,  Robert  Kennicott 
arrived  at  Fort  Yukon,  and  in  the  spring  of  1861  descended  as 
far  as  the  Small  Houses. 

About  this  time  the  Russians  began  to  visit  Nuklukahyet  to 
trade  in  the  spring.  Strachan  Jones,  Esq.,  commander  at  Fort 
Yukon,  had  sent  several  parties  of  Indians  to  trade  at  the  same 
point,  and  in  1862  descended  the  Yukon  in  boats,  as  far  as  Nowi- 
kakat,  thus  really  completing  the  chain  of  exploration  begun  by 
Zagoskin.  Still,  as  there  was  no  communication  between  the 
English  and  Russians,  the  identity  of  the  Yukon  with  the 
Kwi'khpak  of  the  Russians  remained  unknown.  The  Russian 
chief  trader  at  St.  Michael  heard  of  the  visit  of  the  English,  and 
determined  to  find  out  something  about  the  English  fort,  of  which 
vague  rumors  had  reached  him  through  the  Indians.  Ivan 
Simonsen  Lukeen,  before  mentioned,  was  selected  for  this  duty  ; 
he  accompanied  the  trading  party  to  Nuklukahyet,  and  left  them 
there,  reaching  Fort  Yukon,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Indians,  in 
the  summer  of  1863.  He  remained  long  enough  to  fulfil  his 
instructions,  pretending  to  be  a  runaway  from  the  Russian  ser- 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA.  277 

vice;  then  stole  away  by  night  and  reached  Nuluto  in  his  canoe  in 
safety.  Lukeen,  therefore,  was  the  first  man  to  ascend  the  Yukon 
from  the  sea,  and  to  determine  its  identity  with  the  Kwi'khpnk. 
The  Russian  Company  took  no  action  in  the  matter,  and  the 
information  thus  obtained  was  not  made  public.  In  the  spring 
of  1866,  Frank  E.  Ketchum,  of  St.  John,  New  Brunswick,  with 
Michael  Lebarge,  of  Montreal,  Canada,  explorers  for  the  Western 
Union  Telegraph  Expedition,  in  pursuance  of  orders  received 
previous  to  the  death  of  their  coinmander,  Robert  Kennicott, 
ascended  the  Yukon  to  Fort  Yukon  in  a  bidarka  with  Lukeen, 
who  now  a  second  time  visited  the  English  post.  They  returned 
to  Nulato,  and  crossed  the  portage  to  St.  Michael's.  In  the 
month  of  March,  1867,  the  same  undaunted  explorers,  without 
Lukeen,  undertook  their  perilous  journey  with  dogs  and  sleds, 
and  arrived  safely,  May  9th,  at  Fort  Yukon.  Here  they  remained 
until  the  ice  was  well  out  of  the  river.  May  25th  of  the  same 
year,  Frederick  Whymper,  of  London,  and  the  writer  started  for 
Fort  Yukon  in  a  bidarra,  arriving  there  June  23d.  Meanwhile 
Ketchum  and  Lebarge  had  pushed  their  investigations  in  canoes 
as  far  as  Fort  Selkirk.  They  returned  to  Fort  Yukon,  and  in 
company  we  descended  to  the  Yukon -mouth,  and  proceeded  by 
sea  to  St.  Michael's.  During  the  summer,  Peter  McLeod,  an 
employe  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  ran  away,  and  descended 
the  river  to  Nulato,  afterward  crossing  by  the  portage  to  the 
Redoubt.  We  are  the  only  party  who  (up  to  1868)  have  de- 
scended from  the  LTpper  Yukon   to  the  sea  by  the  river. 

In  August,  1867,  Michael  Byrnes,  of  British  Columbia,  explored 
the  head-waters  of  the  Yukon  from  Lakes  Kennicott  and  Ket- 
chum to  Tahco  Lake.  At  this  point  he  was  recalled,  as  the  sus- 
pension of  operations  by  the  Telegraph  Company  rendered  his 
services  no  longer  necessary.  The  short  distance  between  Lake 
Lebarge  and  Tahco  Lake  is  all  that  remains  untrodden  by  the 
white  man.  This  portion  of  the  river  is  well  known  from  Indian 
reports,  so  that  there  is  no  question  as  to  the  identity  of  the 
Tahco  and  the  Lewis  rivers. 

In  1867,  Captain  Elijah  Everett  Smith,  of  Edgartown,  assisted 
by  Lieutenant  Joseph  T.  Dyer,  of  Washington,  D.  C,  explored 
the  delta  of  the  Yukon,  and  to  Captain  Smith  we  owe  the  first 
chart  of  it  which  approximates  in  any  degree  to  accuracy. 


278 


GEOGRAPHY    OF   ALASK/ 


In  the  spring  of  i86S  the  writer  descended  the  Yukon  fron: 
Nulato  to  the  sea,  and  then  proceeded  to  the  Redoubt. 

This  completes  the  history  of  the  explorations  of  the  Yukon, 
Zagoskin,  Surgeon  Adams  and  Lieutenant  Barnard,  of  H.  M= 
Enterprise  in  185 1,  the  servants  of  the  Hudson  Bay  and  Rus- 
sian American  Companies,  one  or  two  missionaries,  Robert  Ken- 
nicott  and  the  explorers  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Expe- 
dition, are  the  only  white  men  who  had  visited  the  Yukon 
previous  to  July,   1868,  as  far  as  is  known  to  me.* 

The  following  arrangement  will  show  the  length  of  the  Yukon, 
its  various  tributaries,  posts,  villages,  and  obstructions  to  naviga- 
tion, more  clearly  than  a  mere  description  could  do.  The  astro- 
nomical positions  are  mostly  approximate. 


Head-waters  Tdhco  River. 

Lake  Kennicott,  in  lat.  57°  45', 
Ion,  130°  45',  true  source  of  the 
Yukon,  and  head  of  the  West  Fork 
of  the  Tahco. 

Lake  Ketchum,  in  lat.  58^  30', 
Ion.  131°  10',  head  of  the  East 
Fork.  These  two  lakes  are  sepa- 
rated only  by  a  narrow  portage  from 
northern  affluents  of  the  Stiki'ne 
River.  The  two  forks  are  on  either 
side  of  the  Bald  Mountains.  The 
West  Fork  is  about  126  (English) 
miles  long,  from  Lake  Kennicott 
to  its  junction  with  the  East  Fork, 
in  lat.  59°  20',  Ion.  132°  45'.  Both 
receive  various  small  streams  on 
their  way. 

From  the  junction  the  Tahco 
flows  through  a  valley,  38  miles, 
into  Vatchee  Lake  (19  miles  long), 
thence,  32  miles,  through  another 
small  lake,  into  a  canon,  and  over 


Head-waters  Pelly  Rivet. 

Frances  Lake,  in  lat.  61^  08', 
Ion.  128°,  on  which  was  once  situ- 
ated Frances  Fort,  H.  B.  Co. 

From  the  X.  E.  end  of  Frances 
Lake  the  Frances  River  Hows,  49 
miles,  into  Lake  Finlayson,  23 
miles  long. 

From  Lake  Finlayson,  27  miles, 
to  the  Pelly  River,  flowing  from  the 
Pelly  lakes.  At  this  junction  Fort 
Pelly  Banks  was  once  situated. 

From  Pelly  Banks,  95  miles,  to 
a  sharp  curve  of  15  miles,  at  the 
end  of  which  are  rapids  with  a  bad 
portage.  On  its  way  the  Pelly  re- 
ceives four  small  streams  from  the 
north  and  one  from  the  south. 

From  the  rapids,  35  miles^  to  the 
mouth  of  Macmillan's  River  (215 
miles  long),  and  thence  to  the 
lower  rapids,  8  miles. 

From  Macmillan's  River,  which 


*  I  have  been  unable  to  obtain  any  account  of  Kiikby's  travels  in  tiie  Hudson  Bay 
territory.  He  is  indirectly  mentioned  by  Dr.  Petermann  as  having  visited  Fort 
Yukon. 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA. 


79 


a  rapid  or  cascade.  Beyond,  12 
miles,  is  another  cascade,  and  the 
river  passes  into  Tahco  Lake,  nar- 
row, but  45  miles  in  length.  From 
Tahco  Lake,  through  a  small  lake, 
to  Lebarge  Lake,  58  miles.  (Here 
the  Portage  River  [30  miles  long] 
flows  into  the  Tahco,  heading  in  a 
lake  from  which  the  Indians  make 
a  portage  to  the  Chilkaht  River, 
by  means  of  a  series  of  lakes  and 
small  rivers.)  Through  Lake  Le- 
barge, 20  miles  long,  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Pelly,  about  90  miles.  Total 
length  of  the  Tahco,  including 
lakes,  from  Lake  Kennicott  to  Fort 
Selkirk,  437  miles. 


drains  the  southern  base  of  the 
great  bend  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, 48  miles,  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Tahco  or  Lewis  River,  where  Fort 
Selkirk  (burned  in  1851)  was  situ- 
ated. Total  length  of  the  Frances 
and  Pelly,  including  lakes,  from 
Frances  Lake  (long  erroneously 
mapped  as  feeding  the  Liard  River) 
to  Fort  Selkirk,  300  miles.  At 
Fort  Selkirk,  Finns  contorta  grows 
six  to  ten  feet  high.  This  is  the 
most  northern  limit  of  true  pines 
on  the  Yukon. 


YUKON     RIVER. 


Left  Bank. 

From  Fort  Selkirk  to  the  mouth 
of  the  White  River  (124  miles  long, 
heading  in  a  large  lake,  and  desig- 
nated from  the  discoloration  of  the 
water  by  a  white  clay  or  mud),  94 
miles. 


Right  Bank. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  White 
River  to  the  mouth  of  the  Stewart 
River  (132  miles  long,  north  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  range,  and  re- 
ceiving many  affluents  and  lakes, 
on  one  of  which  H.  B.  Co.'s  Reid 
House  was  once  established),  24 
miles. 


This  part  of  the  Yukon  cuts  through  the  great  bend  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  chain,  and  flows  through  a  kind  of  canon.  Cap- 
tain Ketchum  reports  the  scenery  as  extremely  grand  ;  the  Yukon 
is  narrow,  deep,  and  very  swift,  but  with  no  other  obstruction  to 
navigation.  The  rocks  were  metamorphic  quartzites  and  black 
slates,  according  to  his  report  and  specimens  brought  down. 


Left  Bank.  Right  Bank. 

Mouth  of  the  Deer  River  to  the  From  the  mouth  of  the  Stewart 

mouth    of  an   unnamed  river    (50  River  to  the  mouth  of  the   Forcier 

miles  long),  38  miles.     Ten  miles  River    (35    miles  long),  38   miles. 


28o 


GEOGRAPHY   OF    ALASKA. 


farther  another  small  stream  flows 
into  the  Yukon  from  the  west. 


Hence  to  the  Deer  River  (40  miles 
long),  37  miles. 

!Mouth  of  the  nameless  river  to 
that  of  the  Sheep  River,  31  miles. 


In  this  vicinity  the  Yukon  emerges  from  the  momitains,  be- 
comes wider  and  full  of  islands.  The  banks  are  hilly,  with  abun- 
dance of  timber,  game,  moose  and  deer.  The  water  of  the  Yukon, 
above  the  mouth  of  the  White  River,  is  clear  and  dark.  This  clear 
water  and  the  white  water  from  the  tributary  flow  for  many  miles 
side  by  side  without  mixing,  but  afterward  the  rapid  current 
forces  them  together,  and  the  Yukon  water  is  discolored  to  the 
sea. 


Left  Bank. 

Mouth  of  Antoine  River  to 
mouth  of  the  Kdtlo  River  (30  miles 
long,  many  bones  of  Pliocene  ani- 
mals reported  by  Rev.  Mr.  Mc- 
Donald), 25  miles.  At  the  mouth 
is  a  rounded  hill,  called  also  Mount 
Kdtlo,  toward  which,  if  arrows  are 
shot,  say  the  Indians,  they  never 
fall  to  the  ground. 

Some  distance  above  Fort  Yukon 
a  large  slough  cuts  off  the  angle  of 
the  bend,  and  enters  the  Yukon 
some  distance  below  the  mouth  of 
the  Porcupine  River.  From  this 
slough  it  is  not  many  days'  journey 
to  the  head-waters  of  the  Tananah, 
according  to  the  Indians. 

From  Fort  Yukon,  in  lat.  67° 
12',  Ion.  142°  35',  to  the  Birch 
River,  40  miles.  (Recent  astro- 
nomical observations  by  Captain 
Raymond,  U.  S.  T.  E.,  place  it  in 
lat.  66°  34'  N.  and  Ion.  144°  21'  W., 
approximate.) 


Right  Bank. 

Mouth  of  the  Sheep  River  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Antoine  River  (25 
miles  long,  named  after  Antoine 
Houle),  45  miles. 

Mouth  of  the  Kdtlo  River  to 
Fort  Yukon,  60  miles.  Haifa  mile 
below,  the  Porcupine  River  enters 
the  Yukon  from  the  east.  (By  it 
the  boats  carry  the  goods  from  and 
the  furs  to  Lapierre's  house,  to 
which  it  is  navigable,  a  distance  of 
150  miles,  and  thence  across  the 
portage  to  Fort  McPherson  [on 
Peel's  River  flowing  into  the  Mac- 
kenzie], 64  miles.  The  course  of 
the  Porcupine  River,  usually  called 
Rat  River  by  the  Hudson  Bay  men, 
is  through  low  country  well  sup- 
plied with  lakes  and  streams.) 

From  the  Birch  River  to  the 
Small  Houses,  80  miles.  From 
these  to  the  mouth  of  the  Dall 
River  (?  45  miles  long  ;  named  by 
Captain  Ketchum  on  his  sketch 
map  5  Indian  name  Ndtokakat),  40 
miles. 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA.  281 

From  Fort  Yukon  to  the  mouth  of  the  Dall  River  and  the 
entrance  of  the  Ramparts  the  Yukon  is  very  wide,  tortuous,  full 
of  sloughs,  islands,  and  cut-ofFs,  which  change  somewhat  every 
year,  with  fresh  deposition  and  denudation  of  material.  The 
country  on  each  side  is  low  and  flat  ;  many  small  rivers  may 
empty  into  the  Yukon,  concealed  by  the  numerous  islands.  Low 
hills  are  seen  in  the  distance,  drawing  together  as  we  approach 
the  Ramparts.  From  near  Fort  Yukon  five  snow-covered  sum- 
mits of  the  Romanzofif  range  are  visible. 

When  we  enter  the  Ramparts  the  change  is  very  great.  Hills 
from  500  to  2,000  feet  come  close  to  the  river,  which  is  narrow, 
deep,  and  rapid,  but  without  obstructions  to  navigation.  The 
so-called  Rapids  are  described  in  another  part  of  this  volume. 

Left  Bank.  Right  Bank. 

Mouth  of  the  Tseetoht  River  to         Mouth  of  the  Dall  River  to  the 
the  mouth  of  the  Whymper  River     mouth  of  the  Tsee'toht  River  in  the 
(named  by  Captain  Ketchum  in  his     Ramparts,  n  miles, 
sketch  map  ;  Indian  name  Yilkuts- 
charkut),  around  a  large  bend,  28 
miles. 

Mouth  of  the  Whymper  River  to 
the  Rapids,  50  miles. 

Rapids  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ta- 
nanah  at  Nuklukahyet,  30  miles, 
leaving  the  Ramparts  a  few  miles 
above  Nuklukahye't. 

The  Tananah  River  enters  the  Yukon  in  lat.  64°  07'  N.,  and  Ion. 
150°  08'  W.,  and  is  entirely  unexplored.  No  white  man  has  dipped 
his  paddle  into  its  waters,  and  we  only  know  of  its  length  and 
character  from  Indian  reports.  They  inform  us  that  it  flows 
from  the  eastward,  that  some  of  its  head-waters  are  not  far  from 
Fort  Yukon,  and  others  not  distant  from  the  upper  Ramparts  of 
the  Yukon  above  the  fort.  The  largest  trees  brought  down  in 
the  spring  freshets  come  from  this  river ;  its  banks  are  said  to  be 
high  and  mountainous,  and  its  course  marked  by  rapids  and 
cascades.  The  length  is  estimated  at  two  hundred  and  fifty 
miles.  The  name  Tananah  means  River  of  Mountains,  and  it 
has  long  been  distributed  in  various  parts  of  Russian  America 


282 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   ALASKA. 


on  the  old  maps,  under  the  name  of  the  River  of  the  Moun- 
tain Men.  The  Hudson  Bay  men  called  it  the  Gens  des  Buttes 
River. 


Left  Bank. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Sitzi- 
kiinten  to  Nowikakat  Harbor,  65 
miles.  (The  Nowikakat  River  [112 
miles  long]  rises  in  the  Kaiyuh 
Mountains,  near  the  sources  of 
the  Innoko  or  Shageluk,  and  the 
Soonkakat  Rivers.  It  flows  north- 
east along  the  base  of  the  Nowika- 
kat Mountains,  and  into  a  small 
cove  or  harbor,  which  opens  by  a 
narrow  passage  into  the  Yukon, 
and  on  which  Nowikakat  village 
is  situated.) 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Kdna- 
ton  to  the  mouth  of  the  Soonka- 
kat, 8  miles. 


The  Koyiikuk  River  enters 
stream,  formed  by  the  fusion 
rivers  from  the  west,  and  the 
length,  including  tributaries,  is 
Other  rivers,  rising  near  it, 
sounds. 

Left  Bank. 

From  Nulato  in  lat.  64°  42',  Ion. 
157°  54' W.,  toWolasatux,  14  miles. 
From  Wolasatux  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Kaiyuh  River,  32  miles. 

Ldf  ka's  to  the  head  of  the  great 
Shageluk  Slough,  30  miles. 


Right  Bauk. 

From  Nuklukahye't  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Tozikakat  River,  13  miles. 
From  the  Tozikakat  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Sitzikiinten  River,  18  miles. 

From  Nowikakat  Harbor  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Ukawiitni  River,  12 
miles.  From  the  latter  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Meldzikakat  (Clear 
River),  35  miles. 

The  Meldzikakat  is  about  75 
miles  long,  and  enters  the  Yukon 
from  the  north,  with  a  wide  bar  at 
its  mouth. 

From  Meldzikakat  to  the  Kdna- 
ton  River,  TyZ  ™iles. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Soon- 
kakat to  the  mouth  of  the  Le- 
barge  River  (a  name  which  I  pro- 
pose to  substitute  for  the  Indian 
name  Miskuntl'kakat),  8  miles. 
From  the  Lebarge  River  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Koyiikuk  River  at 
the  Sopka,  40  miles. 

from  the  north,  and  is  a  large 
of  the  Kuthlatno  and  Kutelno 
Kotelkakat  from  the  east.  Its 
estimated  at  one  hundred  miles, 
fall    into    Kotzebue    and    Norton 

Right  Bank. 

From  Koyiikuk  to  the  Nulato 
River  near  the  Nulato  trading-post, 
22  miles. 

Mouth  of  the  Kaiyuh  River  to 
Ldfka's,  50  miles. 

Head  of  the  Shageluk  to  Anvik, 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA.  283 

Anvik  to  the  winter  Leather  Vil-  22  miles.  (Head  of  the  Shdgekik 
lage,  at  the  end  of  the  Shageluk,  to  tlie  mouth  of  the  Shageluk  or  in- 
27  miles.  (The  Anvi'k  River  is  noko  River,  18  miles.  From  that 
about  50  miles  long,  and  from  Keg-  point  to  the  end  of  the  slough,  at 
iktouTuk  a  winter  portage  is  made  the  summer  Leather  Village,  40 
in  two  days  to  the  Anvi'k  River.)  miles.)  End  of  the  Shageluk  to  the 
Mouth  of  the  Challik  River  to  mouth  of  the  Challik  River,  26 
the  Mission  at  Ekogmut,  43  miles,     miles. 

(Near  the  Mission  is  a  small  river  From  the  Mission  to  the  most 
by  which  the  portage  to  the  Kusko-  southern  part  of  the  second  Great 
quim  is  made.  Head  of  the  South  Bend  in  the  Yukon,  36  miles  (lat. 
Slough  from  :Milavanoff  River,  8  61°  35').  From  this  point  to  the 
miles.)  mouth  of  the  Milavanoff  River,  26 

miles. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Milava- 
noff River  to  Andreafsky  Fort,  13 
miles.  Andreafsky  to  the  head  of 
the  delta,  10  miles. 

The  length  of  the  South  Slough  is  about  64  miles,  that  of  the 
Kusilvak,  or  true  Yukon-mouth,  50  miles;  the  Kwikhpak,  52 
miles,  and  that  of  the  Uphoon,   54  miles. 

The  distance  from  Fort  Selkirk  to  Fort  Yukon  is  thus  about 
392  miles.  Thence  to  Nulato,  549  miles,*  and  thence  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Kusilvak,  357  miles.  From  the  Kusilvak-mouth  to 
the  lower  rapids  on  the  Pelly  (1,352  miles),  or  to  the  Lower  Tahco 
rapids  (1,513  miles),  the  river  is  navigable  throughout  for  vessels 
drawing  not  more  than  four  feet,  and  for  a  great  part  of  its  length 
for  those  drawing  much  more.  The  first  shoals  are  at  Anvi'k,  the 
next  near  Nowikakat  and  near  Fort  Yukon  ;  at  some  seasons  more 
than  four  feet  may  be  difficult  to  obtain.  Elsewhere  the  depth 
may  be  estimated  at  from  two  to  ten  fathoms. 

*  The  manner  of  our  return  voyage  to  Nulato,  steadily  floating  down  stream  night 
and  day,  formed  an  excellent  check  on  the  somewhat  e.xaggerated  estimates  of 
distance  made  in  going  up.  Our  rate  of  progress,  returning,  could  hardly  have 
averaged  less  than  one  hundred  miles  a  day,  the  rate  of  the  current  varying  from 
seven  to  three  knots  an  hour,  while  we  kept  carefully  in  the  most  rapid  portion. 
Below  Nulato  the  current  is  less  rapid,  and  the  distance  seems  much  greater 
on  that  account.  Our  estimate  in  going  up  was  630  miles,  which  was  very  close 
to  Captain  Ketchum's  estimate  of  the  previous  year.  Corrections  reduced  it  to  550 
miles.  Captain  Raymond's  recent  surveys  confirm  the  near  approximation  to  correct- 
ness of  our  mapping  from  distances  and  bearings. 


284  GEOGRAPHY   OF   ALASKA. 

The  total  length  of  the  Yukon  from  the  Kusilvak-mouth  to 
Lake  Kennicott  is  about  1,800  miles.  This  may  be  too  low  an 
estimate  if  we  take  in  all  the  curves  of  the  channel,  which  I  have 
not  done  ;  so  we  may  safely  estimate  the  total  length  of  the  Yu- 
kon with  all  its  windings,  at  about  2,000  miles,  of  which  three 
fourths  are  navigable  for  river  steamers.  In  some  places  on  the 
Lower  Yukon  one  bank  is  invisible  from  the  other.  Above  the 
Ramparts,  including  islands,  the  river  is  sometimes  twenty  miles 
wide.  By  its  size  and  the  important  changes  which  it  is  always 
bringing  about  in  Bering  Sea,  it  is  fairly  entitled  to  rank  as  one 
of  the  largest  rivers  in  the  world.  It  is  larger  than  the  Ganges 
or  the  Orinoco,  about  the  size  of  the  Danube  or  the  La  Plata,  and 
belongs  to  that  great  family  of  northern  rivers,  of  which  the  Obi, 
Lena,  Saskatchewan,  and  Mackenzie  are  the  most  prominent 
members. 

At  Kiitlik  several  small  rivers,  draining  the  adjacent  marshes, 
fall  into  the  Uphoon.  Not  far  beyond,  the  PastSlik  River,  fol- 
lowed by  the  Pastolidk,{d\\s  into  the  sea  southwest  of  Point  Roman- 
off. North  of  the  point  the  Pikmiktdlik  River  drains  a  large 
extent  of  tundra,  and  has  a  village  situated  near  the  mouth.  East 
of  the  Canal  the  Golsova  River,  a  small,  shallow  stream,  empties 
into  Norton  Sound,  and  farther  north  the  Unalaklik  River,  drain- 
ing the  Shaktolik  Hills,  the  Ulukuk  Mountains,  and  the  valley  of 
the  Yukon  Portage.  There  is  a  large  bar  off  the  mouth,  and  in 
high  water  not  more  than  four  feet  can  be  obtained  as  far  as  Ulu- 
kuk. During  the  period  of  low  water  in  the  fall,  only  skin  boats 
can  ascend  it. 

Norton  Bay  receives  the  waters  of  a  number  of  small  rivers, 
which  head  among  the  hills  between  Nulato  and  the  coast.  The 
principal  of  these  are  the  Inghitdlik,  on  which  large  numbers  of 
fossil  bones  are  reported,  and  the  Koyiik  River. 

Golofni'na  Bay  is  connected  with  a  large  lagoon  which  opens 
into  Grantley  Harbor  by  the  extremely  winding  channel  of  the 
Fish  River,  which  has  one  principal  tributary,  the  Kdvi-ava-zak 
River.  The  Kung-iik  River  (Buckland  River  of  English  charts) 
falls  into  Escholtz  Bay,  Kotzebue  Sound.  At  or  near  its  source, 
among  the  Nulato  hills,  is  situated  the  village  of  Attenmut,  near 
the  head  of  the  Seldwik  River,  which  falls  into  Selawik  Lake, 
emptying  into  Hotham  Inlet.     The  Kozvak   and  Inland  rivers. 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA.  285 

small  unexplored  streams,  fall  into  the  same  inlet.  They  are 
prolonged  far  into  the  interior,  to  fill  up  the  unexplored  space 
on  most  maps. 

A  small  river  is  said  to  enter  Wainwright  Inlet  on  the  northern 
coast,  but  the  only  one  of  any  size  falling  into  the  Arctic  Ocean 
is  the  Colvile  in  Ion.  150°  35'.  It  is  unexplored,  but  on  many  old 
maps  the  Yukon  was  represented  as  the  upper  portion  of  it,  and 
in  others,  more  recent,  it  is  gratuitously  represented  as  extending 
several  degrees  to  the  southward.  This  completes  the  list  of  the 
known  rivers  of  importance  in  Alaska.  On  the  opposite  coast 
the  principal  rivers  are  the  Anadyr,  falling  into  Anadyr  Gulf ;  the 
Kamchatka,  emptying  into  a  lagoon  at  Ni'zni  Kamchatka;  and 
the  Avdtcha,  which  enters  the  head  of  Avatcha  Bay. 

Ocean  Qirrents.  —  The  great  currents  which  exist  in  the  North 
Pacific  and  Bering  Sea  should  not  be  left  unmentioned.  To 
these  is  due  the  mild  climate  of  the  southern  portion  of  Alaska, 
and  in  fact  that  of  the  whole  northwest  coast  of  America,  as 
compared  with  the  northeast  coast. 

The  great  warm  current,  the  Gulf  Stream  of  the  Pacific,  is 
known  to  the  Japanese  as  the  Kuro  Shoo  or  Black  Stream,  from 
its  color  as  compared  with  the  other  water  of  the  Pacific.  It  is 
called  by  geographers  the  Japan  current.  It  splits  on  the  west- 
ern end  of  the  Aleutian  chain  ;  one  portion  of  it  sweeps  eastward, 
south  of  the  Aleutians,  and,  striking  the  shores  of  the  continent,  is 
deflected  southward.  It  brings  a  warm,  moist  atmosphere,  which 
is  condensed  on  the  snowy  peaks  of  the  coast  ranges,  and  causes 
the  remarkable  rainfall  which  characterizes  the  coast  as  far  south 
as  Oregon. 

The  other  and  smaller  portion  passes  between  the  Command- 
er's Islands  and  the  end  of  the  Aleutians,  and  northward  through 
Bering  Strait.  Hence  no  ice  floats  southward  through  the  strait 
from  the  Frozen  Ocean,  and  I  learn  that  the  whalers  in  the 
spring  have  seen  large  masses  of  ice  steadily  sailing  northward 
through  the  strait  a  knot  and  a  half  an  hour,  against  a  very  stifl" 
breeze  from  the  north.  In  summer  a  small  cold  current  passes 
southward  along  the  coast  of  Kamchatka,  but  in  May  it  would 
seem  as  if  this  was  wanting.  At  that  time  the  whalers  follow  the 
coast  northward,  as  the  ice  melts  close  to  it,  before  that  to  the 
east  is  affected.     The  vessel   which,  in   this  way,  is  the  first  to 


286  GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA. 

pass    East  Cape  is  sure  of  plenty  of  whales,  beside   the   spring- 
trade. 

The  water  on  the  west  side  of  Bering  Sea  is  deeper  than  that 
to  the  east.  It  would  seem  as  if  an  ocean  valley  existed  here, 
heading  in  Plover  Bay  ;  as  in  the  latter  place  one  hundred  and 
one  fathoms  without  bottom  are  reported  between  the  heads,  and 
'  fifty  farther  in.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  Shumagin  Islands  there 
was  in  August,  1865,  a  strong  current  to  the  north  and  east,  with 
a  surface  temperature  of  56°  Fahr.  The  currents  through  Unimak 
Pass  are  largely  dependent  on  the  tide,  but  run  more  strongly 
and  for  a  larger  part  of  the  day  into  Bering  Sea,  than  the  reverse. 

Through  some  of  the  narrow  passages  in  the  Aleutian  chain 
severe  tide-rips  often  occur,  and  vessels  should  be  cautious  in 
entering  them. 

Moiuitain  Ranges,  Peaks,  and  Volcanoes.  —  The  high  mountains 
of  Alaska  all  lie  south  of  lat.  65°.  The  Coast  or  St.  Elias  Range 
contains  the  highest  peaks  and  most  of  the  volcanoes.  It  extends 
along  the  whole  northwest  coast  from  California  to  the  peninsula 
of  Aliaska.  The  general  trend  is  northwest.  About  Ion.  142°  W. 
it  loses  in  a  measure  the  distinctive  characters  of  a  mountain 
chain,  and  merges  with  the  ranges  which  join  it  from  the  north 
and  east,  forming  the  Alaskan  Range.  That  portion  of  this  range 
immediately  northwest  of  Cook's  Inlet  has  been  termed  on  some 
maps  the  Chigviit  Monjitains,  from  what  cause  I  have  not  been 
able  to  discover.  Back  of  the  Coast  range  in  the  British  territory, 
to  the  east,  are  many  parallel  ranges  of  hills  and  mountains,  as 
yet  slightly  explored.  The  Rocky  Mountain  chain  extends  east 
of  the  basin  of  the  Yukon,  between  it  and  the  Mackenzie,  as  far 
north  as  lat.  64°.  Here  it  bends  westward,  and,  becoming  broken, 
it  passes  to  the  west  and  south,  combining  with  the  coast  ranges 
to  form  the  Alaskan  Range.  To  the  north  the  country,  though 
broken,  elevated,  and  containing  many  ranges  of  hills,  yet  bears 
nothing  (except  the  Romanzofif  Range)  worthy  of  the  name  of 
mountains  ;  that  is  to  say,  nothing  which  reaches  the  height  of 
five  thousand  feet.  The  mountains  which  border  on  the  Mac- 
kenzie, as  described  by  Richardson,  are  rather  the  edges  of  a  high 
and  broken  table-land  than  mountains ;  at  all  events,  in  the  light 
of  new  discoveries,  they  must  be  regarded  as  a  small  and  insig- 
nificant spur,  instead  of  the  prolongation  of  the  main  range.     By 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  ALASKA.  287 

the  discovery  of  this  fact,  the  orographic  law,  that  the  coasts  and 
principal  ranges  of  continefits  have  a  general  parallelism  in  their 
trend,  is  vindicated. 

The  old  maps  represent  the  Rocky  Mountain  range  as  reach- 
ing the  Arctic  Ocean  in  a  line  nearly  parallel  with  the  Mackenzie 
River.  The  trend  of  the  mountains  as  thus  laid  down  formed 
the  only  noteworthy  exception  to  the  general  law  above  men- 
tioned, acknowledged  by  all  orographers.  Many  reasons  induced 
a  doubt  of  the  correctness  of  these  maps,  and  led  to  an  investi- 
gation of  the  facts,  which  are  as  follows  :  The  accounts  of  the 
Russians  who  had  been  in  the  region  of  the  Nushergak  and 
Cook's  Inlet  united  in  confirming  the  existence  of  a  great 
range,  continuous  with  that  which  forms  the  backbone  of  the 
peninsula  of  Aliaska.  The  watershed,  or  distribution  of  the 
rivers  of  the  region  to  the  north  of  this  range,  added  confirma- 
tion. Two  years'  exploration  in  the  valley  of  the  Yukon  showed 
that  all  the  ranges  of  hills  and  low  mountains  had  the  same 
general  trend  with  the  great  range  to  the  south.  Ketchum's  ex- 
plorations showed  that  the  Yukon  cut  its  way,  nearly  at  right 
angles,  through  a  great  chain  of  mountains,  which  extended 
to  the  westward  and  eastward,  and  that,  proceeding  northward 
to  a  point  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  southeast  of  Fort  Yukon, 
the  character  of  the  country  changed,  becoming  comparatively 
level  and  entirely  free  from  high  mountains.  The  furs  from 
Fort  Selkirk  were  taken  down  the  Yukon,  up  the  Porcupine, 
across  to  Peel's  River,  and  up  the  Mackenzie,  to  the  usual 
points,  rather  than  one  quarter  of  the  distance  across  the 
Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Mackenzie.  The  Hudson  Bay  men 
at  Fort  Yukon  agreed  in  representing  the  country  between 
that  point  and  the  Mackenzie  as  comparatively  even,  though 
broken  and  hilly  to  the  eastward.  The  character  of  the  Porcu- 
pine River,  surrounded  by  lakes  and  only  obstructed  by  sand- 
bars without  rapids,  forbids  the  idea  that  it  intersects  a  great 
range  of  mountains. 

The  preconceived  opinion  that  we  should  find  a  continua- 
tion of  the  western  fauna  of  America  on  Norton  Sound,  such 
as  exists  south  of  Aliaska,  was  disproved  by  extensive  collec- 
tions. Birds  (such  as  the  Golden  Flicker,  the  Waxwing,  and 
Canada   Jay)    and    fishes    (e.    g.    Esox  eslor)    hitherto    unknown 


288  GEOGRAPHY  OF  ALASKA. 

on  the  west  coast  of  America,  abounded  in  the  Yukon  Valley. 
The  characteristic  western  species  were  absent.  South  of 
Aliaska  and  these  mountains  the  reverse  was  the  case.  Exclud- 
ing Asiatic  stragglers  and  water-birds,  the  fauna  of  the  Yukon 
Valley  was  almost  entirely  Eastern  Canadian.  The  truth  of  this 
is  evident  to  the  naturalist  who  may  examine  the  catalogue  of 
birds.  These  facts  undeniably  indicate  that  a  continuous  range 
of  mountains  exists,*  which,  like  a  great  wall,  retards  the  northern 
and  western  progress  of  the  species  of  the  western  fauna,  while  the 
continuous  table-land,  to  the  north  of  the  western  curve  of  the 
ranges,  offers  no  obstacles  to  the  free  westward  migration  of  truly 
eastern  species,  to  Bering  Sea. 

The  smaller  ranges  worthy  of  mention  are  the  Bald  Moun- 
tains, on  either  side  of  which  the  Yukon  takes  its  rise  ;  the 
Shaktolik  and  Uluknk  hills,  near  Norton  Sound  ;  the  Xuldto 
Hills,  between  the  Yukon  and  Norton  Bay ;  the  KaiynJi  and 
Nowikdkat  mountains  (1,500  feet),  east  of  the  Yukon  ;  the  Yukon 
Mountains,  a  low  range  northwest  of  the  Yukon  ;  and  the  Romdn- 
zoff  Mountains,  north  of  Fort  Yukon,  the  only  mountains  in  the 
Yukon  Valley,  north  of  the  Alaskan  Range,  which  bore  snow  all 
summer  in  1867. 

A  low  range  of  hills  borders  the  Arctic  coast,  which  has  re- 
ceived many  names.  The  southern  portion  of  the  Kaviak 
peninsula  contains  a  range  of  hills.  The  Aleutian  Islands  are 
simply  the  submarine  continuation  of  the  Alaskan  Range. 

A  statement  has  been  circulated,  to  the  effect  that  the  volcanic 
line  of  the  coast  ranges,  the  Aleutian  and  Kurile  Islands,  and 
the  islands  of  Japan,  is  nearly  or  quite  coincident  with  a  Great 
Circle  line.  A  glance  at  a  map  on  which  the  Great  Circles  are 
laid  down  as  straight  lines,  is  sufficient  to  dissipate  this  error.  A 
Great  Circle  line  from  San  Francisco  to  Hakodadi  strikes  across 
the  Pacific,  and  barely  grazes  the  southernmost  islands  of  the 
Catherina  Archipelago. 

The  number  of  known  volcanic  peaks  in  Alaska,  according  to 
Grewingk,  is  about  sixty-one,  of  which  only  ten  show  any  symp- 

*  It  is  probable  that  the  active  volcanoes  of  Aliaska  and  their  allies  are  of  later 
elevation  than  the  more  inland  portions  of  the  Alaskan  Range.  The  latter,  while 
parallel  in  lines  of  elevation,  and  almost  inextricably  interlaced  with  the  former,  are 
probably  of  Triassic  age. 


GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA.  289 

toms  of  activity.       The  principal  peaks,  volcanic  and  otherwise, 
with  their  estimated  heights,  are  as  follows  :  — 


and, 


Mount  Calder,  Prince  of  Wales  Island, 

Mount  Edgecumbe,  Kruzoff  Island, 

Mount  Crillon  (on  the  continent), 

Mount  Fairweather,     "         " 

Mount  St.  Elias,  "         "         .         . 

Mount  Wrangell,  near  the  Copper  River, 

Redoubt  Volcano,  Aliaska  Peninsula,    . 

Iliamna  Volcano,       "  " 

Alai  Volcano,  "  " 

Chigi'nagak  Volcano,  Aliaska  Peninsula, 

Veniaminoff  Volcano,        "  " 

Pavloff  Volcano,  "  " 

Medvidnikoff  Volcano,      "  " 

Walrus  Peak,  "  " 

Mount  Devastation  or  Isandtski,  Unimak 

Mount  Shishaldin,  Unimak  Island, 

Thunder  Mountain  (Pagromnaya),  Unimak  Island 

Akutan  Peak,  Akutan  Island, 

Makushin  Volcano,  Unalashka  Island 

Bogosldva  Volcano, 

Vse'vidoff  Peak,  Umnak  Island,     . 

River  Volcano,         "         " 

Kordvin  Volcano,  Atka  Island,     . 

Si'tkin  Volcano,  Si'tkin  Island, 

Tanaga  Peak,  Tanaga  Island, 

Peak  of  the  Seven  Craters,  Semisopochno; 

Khiistoff  Peak,  Amchitka  Island, 

Gore'loi  Peak,  Goreloi  or  Burned  Island,  . 

Kusilvak  Mountain,  Yukon  Valley, 

Uliikuk  Mountains,  .... 

Vesdlia  Sopka,     ... 

Koyiikuk  Sopka,  .... 

Peaks  of  the  Romanzoff  Mountains,    . 

Mount  Hohoni'la,    ..... 

Mount  Bendeleben,  Kaviak  Peninsula, 

Mount  Kennicott,  Plover  Bay,  East  Siberia, 

Volcano,  Wrangell's  Land, 


Island, 


9,000 

feet 

*2,855 

13,500 

14,000 

?  16,000 

.''   5,000 

11,270 

12,066 

*5,52  5  feet. 

*8,955  " 

5,525  " 

3,332  " 

*5,69i  " 

1,000  " 

?  3,000  " 

?  2,500  " 

4,852  " 

5,033  " 

?  3,500  " 

3,000  " 

.         .   1,873  " 

?  8,000  " 

?  2,500  " 

1,500  " 

.       800  " 

1,000  " 

5,000  to  8,000  " 

1,000  " 


*2,343 
2,480 


All  altitudes  without  an  asterisk  are  only  approximate. 
19 


290  GEOGRAPHY    OF    ALASKA. 

Area.  —  From  calculations  made  by  Fr.  Hanemann  of  Gotha, 
and  reduced  to  geographical  square  miles  (in  the  ratio  of  i  to 
21.16),  the  following  estimate  of  the  superficial  area  of  Alaska  has 
been  computed. 

Islands  of  Bering  Sea,           .  .         .     3,963.0564  G.  sq.  m. 

Aleutian  Islands,      ....         6,391.5896  "  " 

Kadiak  and  Shiimagin  Islands,  .         .     5,676.3816  "  " 

Chugach  and  other  islands,        .  .          1,031.7616  "  " 

Alexander  Archipelago,         .  .         .   14,142.9208  "  " 

Total  area  of  islands,    .         .  .       31,205.7100  "  " 

Area  of  the  mainland,        .  .          548,901.6148  "  " 

Total  area  of  Alaska,    .         .  .     580,107.3248  "  " 

Maps  of  Alaska.  —  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state  that  the 
older  maps  of  the  territory  are  full  of  errors,  especially  in  the 
interior.  There  is  probably  no  part  of  America,  of  equal  extent, 
of  which  less  information  is  obtainable.  A  habit  has  obtained 
among  map-makers  of  filling  in  unexplored  territory  with  a  net- 
work of  lakes  and  rivers  which  are  solely  due  to  their  ardent 
imaginations.  This  is  especially  notable  in  Arrowsmith's  earlier 
maps  of  Northwest  America,  in  the  Russian  maps  which  accom- 
pany Tikhmenief's  History  of  the  Russian  American  Company, 
and  in  a  more  recent  map  of  Alaska,  published  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. 

The  older  maps,  except  in  most  of  the  coast-line,  are  so  uni- 
formly erroneous  that  they  need  not  be  mentioned. 

The  only  recent  maps  worthy  of  notice  are  the  map  published 
by  the  Coast  Surrey  in  1866,  and  a  second  edition  of  the 
same  published  in  May,  1867  ;  Arrowsmith's  map  accompany- 
ing Whymper's  "Travels  in  Alaska";  a  map  entitled  "Map 
of  Russian  America,  or  Alaska  Territory,  compiled  from  Russian 
Charts  and  Surveys  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company, 
San  Francisco,  1867,  published  by  Britton  and  Rey";  and  one 
from  information  principally  furnished  by  the  writer,  essentially 
agreeing  with  that  which  accompanies  this  volume,  published  by 
Dr.  A.  Petermann  in  the  G cogmpliiscJicr  Mitthciluiigcn  for  Octo- 
ber, 1869. 

The  first  was  a  compilation  from  the  best  obtainable  informa- 
tion, with  corrections  of  many  old  errors,  and  was  still   further 


GEOGRAPHY    OF   ALASKA.  29  I 

improved  in  the  second  edition  ;  but,  at  the  time  of  its  publica- 
tion, data  in  relation  to  the  interior  was  inaccessible,  and  conse- 
quently that  part  of  the  map  is  unreliable. 

The  second  map,  by  Arrowsmith,  contains  several  inexcusable 
errors,  such  as  the  position  of  Besborough  Island,  the  Mission, 
and  Andreafsky  Fort.  He  has  also  been  guilty  of  the  stupidity 
of  restoring  on  the  general  map,  which  accompanies  his  Yukon 
map,  the  old  error  in  regard  to  the  delta,  which  Captain  Smith 
disproved.  Correct  data,  in  regard  to  the  coast- line  and  the 
positions  of  the  forts  on  the  Lower  Yukon,  has  long  been  obtain- 
able ;  the  carelessness  shown  in  the  construction  of  the  map  is  a 
warning  to  future  explorers  to  be  careful  into  whose  hands  they 
put  their  information.* 

The  nomenclature  of  the  map  is  also  much  confused,  Indians 
and  Innuit  being  confounded. 

The  San  Francisco  map  is  here  noticed  only  because  it  pre- 
tends to  be  the  result  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  explora- 
tions. The  only  points  in  which  it  differs  from  maps  published 
long  before  the  Telegraph  enterprise  was  organized,  are  :  the  ad- 
dition of  a  small  accessory  chart  of  Coal  Harbor,  Unga  (from  a 
survey  by  Captain  C.  M.  Scammon,  Lieutenant  J.  Davison,  the 
writer,  and  other  members  of  the  expedition)  ;  the  gratuitous  in- 
troduction of  a  large  number  of  lakes,  generally  situated  where 
mountains  should  be  ;  the  remarkably  erroneous  course  laid  down 
for  the  Yukon  ;  and  the  general  contradiction  in  all  important 
points  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  surveys. 

The  map  which  accompanies  this  volume  was  derived  from  the 
following  sources  :  — 

The  coast-line,  and  many  particulars  in  regard  to  the  southern 
portion  of  the  territory,  from  the  United  States  Coast  Survey. 
The  head-waters  of  the  Yukon,  Stikine,  and  Liard  rivers,  from  a 

*  It  will  be  observed  that  Whymper  says  (p.  201),  "  With  many  windings  the 
general  direction  to  Fort  Yukon  (from  Saccatalontan)  is  northeast  magnetic."  Now,  if 
this  course  be  laid  down  with  the  necessary  correction  for  variation,  which  rapidly  in- 
creases as  we  go  eastward,  it  will  bring  Fort  Yukon  far  to  the  north  and  east  of  the 
point  where  it  is  laid  down  on  the  accompanying  map.  The  corrections  for  variation 
have  not  been  made  on  Arrowsmith's  map,  which  accompanies  Whymper's  book  ;  in- 
deed, the  course  of  the  river,  as  there  charted,  is  about  east,  15°  north  true,  from 
Saccatalontan,  instead  of  northeast  magnetic ;  while  the  variation  is  to  the  eastward, 
and  the  true  course  varied  from  30°  to  60°  north  of  the  magnetic  course.  Such  work 
is  more  than  reprehensible. 


292  GEOGRAPHY   OF   ALASKA. 

photographic  copy  of  a  manuscript  map  (No.  4)  drawn  under  the 
direction  of  George  H.  Mumford,  Esq.,  Western  Union  Telegraph 
Company,  in  November,  1867,  from  surveys,  partly  astronomical, 
of  Messrs.  Pope,  Butler,  Scoville,  and  other  explorers  of  the 
Western  Union  Telegraph  Expedition.* 

The  course  of  the  Yukon  from  Fort  Yukon  to  Nulato,  from 
Ketchum's  sketch  maps  and  my  own  compass  bearings  and  dis- 
tances, carefully  corrected  for  variation,  and  by  means  of  all  the 
known  points.  That  Fort  Yukon  is  above  the  Arctic  Circle  is 
determined  by  the  statement  of  the  voyageurs,  that  during  mid- 
summer the  sun  does  not  pass  below  the  horizon  for  several  days. 
This  has  been  confirmed  by  later  government  surveys. 

The  course  of  the  Yukon  below  Nulato  is  from  the  Russian 
Admiralty  charts,  corrected  from  my  own  observations. 

The  delta  of  the  Yukon,  coasts  of  Norton  Sound,  and  south  to 
Cape  Romanzoff,  from  the  reconnoissance  of  Captain  Smith  and 
Lieutenant  Dyer,  with  some  minor  corrections  from  my  subse- 
quent explorations.  The  longitude  of  the  shores  of  Norton 
Sound  is  not  definitely  settled,  and  will  need  revision.  The 
Anvi'k  portage,  from  notes  of  Captain  Smith. 

The  country  between  Norton  Bay,  the  Koyiikuk  River,  the 
Yukon,  and  Kotzebue  Sound,  from  explorations  by  Messrs.  Rich- 
ard D.  Cotter  and  J.  T.  Dyer,  in  1866,  and  my  own  explorations 
in  1868.  The  topography  of  the  Kaviak  peninsula,  from  a  re- 
connoissance by  Mr.  W.  H.  Ennis  and  Baron  Otto  de  Bende- 
leben. 

The  course  of  the  Kuskoquim,  Nushergak,  Suchi'tna,  and  Cop- 
per rivers,  from  Russian  explorations  and  charts.  It  is  to  be 
regretted  that  astronomical  observations  were  not  made  on  the 
Yukon.  This  arose  from  circumstances  beyond  the  control  of  the 
Scientific  Corps.  If  any  persons  who  contributed  to  the  explora- 
tions here  laid  down  are  not  mentioned,  it  is  because  further 
information   is  not  accessible.     The  map  as  a  whole  can  be  re- 

*  That  part  of  the  same  map  relating  to  the  Lower  Yukon  is  very  erroneous.  Un- 
fortunately I  am  unable  to  give  the  specific  details  of  these  explorations,  as  I  have 
only  had  access  to  the  unpublished  maps,  upon  which  the  results  had  been  delineated. 
The  principal  part  of  the  astronomical  observations  are  due  to  Mr.  E.  H.  Scoville. 
That  Frances  Lake  connects  with  the  Pelly  instead  of  the  Liard,  as  on  the  old  maps, 
was  determined  by  later  manuscript  maps,  furnished  by  officers  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company  to  the  Telegraph  explorers. 


GEOGRAPHY  OF    ALASKA. 


'■93 


garded  as  approximate  only,  but  it  is  believed  that  it  approxi- 
mates far  more  nearly  to  accuracy  than  anything  yet  published, 
and  is  thus  far  preferable  to  a  state  of  total  ignorance.  All 
matter  which  was  merely  speculative  and  without  definite  au- 
thority has  been  excluded  as  far  as  possible.  The  nomenclature 
is  phonetically  correct,  and  corresponds  with  the  rules  adopted 
in  this   volume  for  the  spelling  of  Indian  and  Russian  names. 

The  field  now  open  to  Americans  for  exploration  and  discovery 
is  grand.  The  interior  everywhere  needs  exploration,  particularly 
the  great  plateau  north  of  the  Yukon,  the  valley  of  the  Kusko- 
quim,  and  that  of  the  Copper  River.  The  Arctic  Ocean,  north  of 
Bering  Strait,  has  so  far  been  unduly  neglected.  Wrangell's  Land 
ofters  to  explorers  a  more  fruitful  field  than  the  well-trodden 
shores  north  of  Hudson  Bay.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  lib- 
erality which  has  been  extended  toward  Arctic  discovery  in 
the  northeast  will  find  a  ready  parallel  in  the  requirements  of 
more  western  exploration,  and  that  American  enterprise,  there 
as  elsewhere,  may  successfully  continue  to  emulate  that  of  Eu- 
ropeans. 

Note.  —  While  these  sheets  are  passing  through  the  press,  additional  information 
(from  the  original  reports  of  the  explorers  on  the  Stikine,  which  were  not  previously 
accessible)  shows  that  Fort  Mumford  and  Lakes  Kennicott  and  Ketchum  are  more  to 
the  northwest  than  they  are  placed  on  the  accompanying  map.  Hence  the  upper 
forks  of  the  Tahco  are  somewhat  shorter  than  here  represented,  but  otherwise  they 
are  correctly  laid  down. 

Information  from  Mr.  Davidson  also  shows  that  the  Chilkaht  River  enters  Lynn 
Canal  on  the  west  instead  of  the  east  side  of  Observatory  Point,  and  that  the  river 
of  the  Indian  Portage  enters  the  Tahco  below  instead  of  above  Lake  Lebarge. 


CHAPTER    II. 

A  chronological  history  of  the  progress  of  exploration  and  trade  in  Alaska  and  the 
adjoining  territories,  from  1542  to  1868. 

THE  history  of  Northwest  America  is,  almost  without  excep- 
tion, the  history  of  exploration  and  trade.  Controlled  for 
eighty  years  by  a  despotism  in  the  shape  of  a  trading  company, 
politics  have  until  recently  had  no  part  in  its  affairs.  The  au- 
thorities from  which  this  chronology  has  been  compiled  will  be 
found  in  the  Appendix. 

1542.  Voyages  of  Coronado  and  Juan  Rodriguez  de  Cabrillo, 
northward  from  Mexico. 

1579.  Sir  Francis  Drake,  in  a  schooner  of  about  two  hundred 
tons,  refitted  in  a  harbor  —  probably  that  of  San  Francisco 
—  in  the  month  of  July. 

1592.  Apostolos  Valerianos,  commonly  known  as  Juan  de  Fuca, 
sailed  from  Mexico,  and  is  supposed  to  have  entered  the 
Straits  of  Fuca  and  the  head  of  Puget  Sound. 

1602.  An  expedition  under  Sebastian  Vizcaino,  sailed  from  Aca- 
pulco  and  examined  the  coast  as  far  north  as  Cape  Mendo- 
cino. 

1646.  The  Russians,  who  had  pushed  their  explorations  east- 
ward in  Siberia  as  far  as  the  Kolyma  River,  actuated  by  the 
spirit  of  trade  rather  than  that  of  discovery,  in  this  year 
attempted  the  first  voyage  east  of  the  Kolyma.  Several 
small  vessels,  under  the  direction  of  Isai  Ignatief,  found  a 
shallow  channel  between  the  grounded  ice  and  the  shore, 
and  reached  a  bay  where  they  obtained  walrus  ivory  by  bar- 
ter from  the  Chukchees,  after  which  they  returned  to  the 
Kolyma. 

1647.  This  success  in  trading  induced  others  to  follow  Igna- 
tief s  example,  and  in  June  of  the  following  year  four  small 


HISTORY.  295 

1647.  half-decked  vessels  sailed  eastward  from  the  Kolyma.  An 
officer  was  needed  to  accompany  them  in  order  to  look  after 
the  interests  of  the  crown,  and  the  Cossack  Simeon  Desh- 
neff  volunteered  for  this  duty.  One  object  of  the  voyage 
was  to  discover  the  Anadyr  River,  of  which  the  Russians 
had  received  vague  reports.  The  same  year  Michael  Stadu- 
kin  was  sent  by  land  to  explore  an  unknown  river  called  the 
Pogi'tcha,  and  endeavor  to  persuade  the  natives  to  acknowl- 
edge themselves  subjects  of  the  Russian  crown,  and  pay 
tribute.  This  undertaking  was  not  successful.  The  expedi- 
tion by  sea  was  obstructed  by  the  ice,  and  obliged  to  return. 

1648.  Not  disheartened  by  the  failure  of  the  previous  year, 
seven  vessels  left  the  Kolyma  on  the  20th  of  June.  Four  of 
them  were  disabled  on  an  island  off  the  mouth  of  the  Koly- 
ma. Three,  commanded  by  Simeon  Deshneff,  Gerasim  An- 
kudinoff,  and  Feodot  Alexieff,  respectively,  passed  on  without 
accident.  The  season  was  uncommonly  open,  and  the  shal- 
lops successfully  rounded  the  northeast  extremity  of  Asia  and 
entered  Bering  Strait.  Ankiidinoff's  vessel  was  lost  on  East 
Cape,  but  his  men  were  taken  on  board  by  the  others.  On 
the  20th  of  September  they  had  a  difficulty  with  the  Chuk- 
chees,  in  which  Alexieff  was  wounded  ;  soon  after,  the  two 
boats  were  separated  by  the  wind  and  saw  each  other  no 
more.  Driven  by  storms  until  October,  Deshneft"  was  finally 
wrecked,  some  distance  southwest  of  Anadyr  Bay,  on  the 
coast  of  Kamchatka.  After  wandering  about  for  ten  weeks, 
he  arrived  on  the  banks  of  the  Anadyr,  and  his  party  sup- 
ported themselves  during  the  winter  by  the  chase. 

1649.  On  the  return  of  summer  they  ascended  the  river,  and  in 
the  fall  built  the  post  of  Anadyrsk.  Stadukin  again  un- 
successfully attempted  to  find  the  Pogi'tcha  River. 

1650.  Information  was  received  from  the  natives  that  showed 
the  identity  of  the  Anadyr  and  Pogi'tcha,  and  during  the 
summer  an  expedition  under  Simeon  Motora,  and  another 
under  Stadukin,  arrived  at  Anadyrsk  by  land,  guided  by  na- 
tives. 

165 1.  Boats  were  constructed  at  Anadyrsk,  and  Motora  was 
killed  in  a  battle  with  the  natives.  Stadukin  went  toward 
Penjinsk  Gulf,  and  was  heard  of  no  more. 


296  HISTORY. 

1652.  Deshneff  descended  the  Anadyr  in  his  boats,  and  discov- 
ered a  sand-bar,  called  the  Korga,  at  the  mouth. 

1653.  This  year  he  built  a  vessel,  in  which  he  proposed  to  send 
his  tribute  from  Anadyrsk  to  Yakutsk  by  sea. 

1654.  On  making  another  trip  to  the  Korga,  he  found  a  Cos- 
sack named  Seliverstoff,  who  had  arrived  from  Yakutsk, 
by  land,  to  collect  tribute.  It  was  afterwards  ascertained  by 
Deshneff,  that  his  companions  in  the  voyage  of  1648  had 
landed  on  the  coast  of  Kamchatka  and  died  of  scurvy,  or 
been  killed  by  the  natives.  About  this  time,  according  to  a 
tradition  (first  recorded  in  1710),  a  merchant  named  Taras 
Stadukin  sailed  from  the  Kolyma,  and  made  a  portage  across 
the  neck  of  East  Cape  with  his  vessel,  being  unable  to  double 
it  on  account  of  ice  ;  he  then  sailed,  following  the  coast  of 
Kamchatka,  doubling  the  peninsula,  making  the  first  discov- 
ery of  the  Kurile  Islands,  and  finally  arrived  in  safety  at  Pen- 
jinsk  Gulf. 

1696.  The  country  of  Kamchatka  had  long  been  known  by 
report  to  the  Russians,  who  had  visited  Anadyrsk ;  but  in 
1696,  Lukas  Simeonoff  Moroscovich,  with  a  party  of  fifteen 
men,  penetrated  as  far  as  a  day's  journey  from  the  Kam- 
chatka River,  bringing  back  with  him  certain  Japanese  pa- 
pers, which  he  found  in  the  village  on  the  Kamchatka  River. 

1697.  Vladimir  Atlassoff  followed  his  example,  and  built  a  winter 
house  {zemowi)  on  the  Upper  Kamchatka  River.  The  Kam- 
shadales  for  several  years  revolted  against  the  tyranny  of  the 
Cossacks,  who  easily  subdued  them  by  their  superior  arms. 
The  Cossacks  lost  no  opportunity  of  inciting  to  hostilities, 
and  then  butchering,  th*e  unfortunate  natives,  so  that  in  forty 
years  the  Kamshadales  were  reduced  to  a  twelfth  of  their 
original  numbers.  They  were  loaded  with  taxes,  and  \ht  yds- 
sak,  or  imperial  tribute,  was  often  raised  tenfold  by  the  avarice 
of  the  conquerors,  who  retained  the  surplus  for  themselves. 

1 70 1.  The  Yukagirs,  a  nomadic  tribe,  demanded  assistance  from 
the  Russians  against  the  hostilities  of  the  Chukchees.  An 
expedition  was  fitted  out  and  hostilities  commenced,  but  the 
Russians  were  unable  to  force  this  brave  people  to  pay  trib- 
ute, deliver  hostages,  or  acknowledge  allegiance  to  the  Rus- 
sian crown. 


HISTORY.  297 

171 T.  In  January  a  Cossack  named  Peter  Iliunsen  Popoft"  was 
sent  to  East  Cape  to  endeavor  to  induce  the  Chukchecs  to 
pay  tribute.  He  failed  in  his  object,  but  brought  back  an 
account  of  islands  (the  Diomedes)  which  lay  beyond  East 
Cape,  and  of  a  continent  (America)  which  the  Chukchees  re- 
ported beyond  these  islands.  In  the  same  year  the  Russians 
first  invaded  the  Kurile  Islands,  and  visited  about  the  same 
time  the  uninhabited  Shantar  Islands  in  the  Ochotsk  Sea. 

171 5.  The  first  sea-going  vessel  was  built  at  Ochotsk,  and  the 
following  year  she  made  a  voyage  to  the  west  coast  of 
Kamchatka. 

1720.  Other  vessels  were  built,  and  voyages  were  made,  includ- 
ing one  under  Jevrinoft^  and  Liishin,  to  the  Shantar  Islands 
in    1720-21. 

1725.  Scientific  men,  desirous  of  further  information  in  regard 
to  the  extension  of  Asia  and  America,  turned  the  attention 
of  Peter  the  Great  to  the  matter.  He  took  great  interest 
in  it,  drew  up  the  instructions  for  an  expedition  with  his 
own  hand,  and  delivered  them  to  Admiral  Apraxin,  with 
orders  to  see  them  executed.  A  few  days  afterward,  in 
January,  1725,  he  died;  but  the  Empress,  desiring  to  carry 
out  all  the  plans  of  her  deceased  husband  as  closely  as  pos- 
sible, ordered  their  execution.  Captain  Vitus  Bering  was 
nominated  commander  of  the  expedition,  and  Lieutenants 
Martin  Spanberg  and  Alexie  Chirikofif  for  his  assistants. 
They  were  confirmed  by  the  Empress  and  Senate,  and  left 
St.  Petersburg  on  the  5th  of  February,  but  the  men  and 
equipment  did  not  reach  Ochotsk  until  the  30th  of  July, 
1727.  • 

1728.  Two  vessels,  the  P^ortuna  and  the  Gabriel,  were  built, 
and  on  the  20th  of  July,  1728,  Bering  sailed  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Kamchatka  River.  He  coasted  along  the  shores  of 
the  peninsula,  and  on  the  loth  of  August  passed  an  island 
which  they  named  St.  Lawrence.  Sailing  through  Bering 
Strait  on  the  15th  of  August,  he  arrived  at  Cape  Serdze 
Kamen,  where  the  coast  trends  to  the  westward.  Here  he 
considered  that  he  had  fulfilled  his  instructions  and  proved 
the  separation  of  Asia  and  America.  Being  naturally  timid, 
hesitating,  and  indolent,  he  determined  to  go  no  farther  for 


290  HISTORY. 

1728.  fear  of  being  frozen  in,  and  returned  through  the  Strait  — 
strange  to  say  —  without  seeing  the  Diomedes  or  the  Ameri- 
can coast,  reaching  the  Kamchatka  River  on  the  20th  of 
September. 

1729.  He  wintered  at  Nizni  Kamchatka,  and  set  sail  eastward 
from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  June  5,  1729.  His  object  was 
to  discover  the  coast  of  America  east  of  Kamchatka.  Meet- 
ing with  contrary  winds,  he  turned  back  after  saihng  some 
sixty  miles,  and  reached  Ochotsk  on  the  23d  of  July,  without 
having  definitely  fulfilled  a  single  article  of  his  instructions. 

1730.  He  arrived  at  St.  Petersburg,  via  Ochotsk  and  Yakutsk, 
March  i,  1730. 

Meanwhile  the  chief  of  the  Yakutsk  Cossacks,  Athanasius 
Shestakoff,  had  volunteered  to  subdue  the  Chukchees  and 
Koriaks.  His  offer  was  accepted,  and  Captain  Demetrius 
Pavlutski,  with  a  squad  of  four  hundred  Cossacks,  was  or- 
dered to  join  him.  A  quarrel  took  place  between  them,  and 
each  departed  on  the  enterprise  separately.  In  1729  Shesta- 
koff took  possession  of  the  vessels  which  had  been  used  by 
Bering,  and  sailed,  in  September,  in  the  Fortuna,  but  was 
driven  ashore  by  the  winds.  He  continued  on  his  way  with 
only  one  hundred  and  fifty  men,  and  on  the  nth  of  March, 
1730,  he  sent  orders  to  a  Cossack,  Tryphon  Krupishefif,  at 
Taviskoi  Fort,  to  equip  a  vessel,  double  the  peninsula  of 
Kamchatka,  and  sail  for  the  Chukchee  country,  taking  with 
him  the  navigator  and  civil  engineer  of  the  expedition, 
Michael  Gwosdefif.  After  sending  these  orders  he  had  a 
battle  with  the  Chukchees  near  Penjinsk  Gulf,  March  14, 
1730,  in  which  his  foit:es  were  routed  and  he  was  killed. 

A  boat  was  constructed  out  of  the  wreck  of  the  P^ortuna, 
and  in  September,  1730,  Gwosdeff  reached  Anadyrsk.  Here 
orders  were  received  from  Pavlutski  to  go  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Kamchatka  River  and  obtain  provisions,  which  they 
were  to  take  to  the  Chukchee  coast,  where  he  expected  to 
meet  them. 

173 1.  In  the  spring  Pavlutski  fought  his  way  through  the 
Chukchee  country  to  Cape  Serdze  Kamen,  and  thence  re- 
turned to  the  Anadyr,  without,  however,  inducing  the  in- 
domitable Chukchees  to  pay  tribute.     Meanwhile,  Gwosdeff 


HISTORY.  299 

173 1.  had  sailed  to  the  Chukchee  coast,  but  saw  nothinf;  of  the 
Cossacks.  They  remained  at  Cape  Serdze  until  a  gale  drove 
them  eastward,  where  they  found  an  island,  and  beyond  it 
the  shores  of  the  continent  of  America.  They  met  a  native 
in  a  kyak,  and  sailed  two  days  along  the  coast  without  being 
able  to  land.  A  storm  came  up,  and  they  returned  to 
Kamchatka.  This  completed  the  exploration  of  Bering 
Strait,  which  had  been  commenced  by  Deshneff  and  his 
companions. 

1732.  The  information  brought  back  by  Bering  excited  great 
interest,  and  he  was  promoted  to  be  a  commander  and  his 
lieutenants  to  be  captains.  A  second  expedition  was  or- 
ganized, and  several  scientific  men  volunteered  to  accom- 
pany him. 

1733.  In  the  spring  the  marine  officers  left  St.  Petersburg. 
The  objects  in  view  were  the  verification  of  former  discov- 
eries, the  extension  of  navigation  between  Archangel  and 
Kamchatka,  and  the  exploration  of  the  American  coast  east- 
ward of  the  latter  peninsula. 

1738.  It  was  late  before  anything  was  ready  at  Ochotsk  for 
a  voyage,  and  in  June  of  this  year  Spanberg  sailed  with 
three  small  vessels  to  examine  the  Kurile  Islands,  and  win- 
tered in  Kamchatka. 

1739.  The  following  year  he  sailed  on  an  expedition  to  Japan, 
all  of  which  much  delayed  the  American  expedition.  Two 
vessels,  the  St.  Peter  and  the  St.  Paul,  were  built  at 
Ochotsk,  and  on  the  4th  of  September,  1740,  they  sailed 
for  Avatcha  Bay. 

1740.  The  previous  autumn,  Ivan  Jelagin,  Bering's  pilot,  had 
been  sent  to  Avatcha,  and  there  built  barracks  and  store- 
houses on  Niaki'na  Cove,  calling  the  little  settlement  after  the 
vessels,  Petropavlovsk.  Wilhelm  Steller  *  and  Louis  de  Lisle 
de  la  Croyere  joined  the  party  at  Ochotsk  in  1740,  the  for- 
mer as  surgeon  and  naturalist. 

1 741.  They  passed  overland  to  Avatcha,  where  they  arrived  in 
the  spring  of  1741.     Spanberg  had  returned  to  St.  Peters- 

*  Georg  Wilhelm  Steller,  born  at  Winsheim  in  Franconia  in  1709,  arrived  at  S' 
Petersburg  in  1734,  was  sent  to  examine  the  natural  history  of  Kamchatka  in  1738, 
accompanied  Bering  in  1741,  and  died  of  a  fever,  or  was  frozen  to  death,  according 
to  some  accounts,  in  the  town  of  Tiumen  in  Siberia,  in  November,  1746. 


300  HISTORY. 

1 741.  burg.  Bering,  with  Steller,  in  the  St.  Peter,  and  Chirikoff 
in  the  St.  Paul,  with  Croyere,  sailed  from  Avatcha  on  the 
4th  of  June,  1 74 1,  in  search  of  the  American  coast.  On  the 
20th  of  June  the  vessels  were  separated  by  a  storm,  and  did 
not  meet  each  other  again.  On  the  15th  of  July,  Chi'rikolf 
anchored  off  the  American  coast,  near  Cross  Sound.  The 
mate,  Abraham  Dementiefif,  and  ten  well-armed  men  were 
sent  ashore  in  the  long-boat.  As  they  did  not  return,  on  the 
2ist  of  July,  Sidor  Saveleff  was  sent,  with  several  men,  in  the 
small  boat,  to  their  assistance.  He  also  did  not  return,  but 
on  the  next  day  two  canoes  came  out  filled  with  savages, 
who  fled  with  loud  cries  to  the  shore  as  soon  as  they  saw  the 
Russians  on  the  vessel's  deck.  Chirikotf  had  no  boats,  and, 
a  west  wind  arising,  he  was  obliged  to  put  to  sea  again,  and 
on  the  27th  of  July  sailed  for  Kamchatka.  He  saw  the 
coast  of  various  islands  on  the  20th  of  September.  On  the 
8th  of  October  they  saw  land,  and  on  the  9th  they  entered 
the  Bay  of  Avatcha.  Of  seventy  men,  Chirikoff  had  lost 
twenty-one,  among  whom  was  the  naturalist,  Louis  de  la 
Croyere,  who  died  of  scurvy  on  the  loth  of  October. 

On  the  i8th  of  July,  Bering  saw  land.  On  the  20th  he 
anchored  under  an  island.  Between  two  capes,  which  he 
called  St.  Elias  and  St.  Hermogenes,  was  a  bay  where  two 
boats  were  sent  for  water  and  to  reconnoitre.  Steller  was 
in  one  of  these,  and  during  his  examinations  he  came  upon 
numerous  traces  of  the  natives.  With  characteristic  imbe- 
cility, Bering  resolved  to  put  to  sea  again  on  the  next  day, 
the  2 1  St  of  July. 

Sailing  to  the  northward,  the  commander  was  confused 
among  the  various  islands,  and  sailed  hither  and  thither,  occa- 
sionally landing,  but  making  no  explorations,  and  showing 
his  total  incapacity  for  the  position  he  occupied.  He  took 
to  his  bed,  and  Lieutenant  Waxel  assumed  the  charge  of  the 
vessel.  On  the  29th  of  August  he  discovered  the  Shumagin 
Islands,  which  were  named  after  the  first  of  the  ship's  com- 
pany who  died  and  was  buried  there.  Driven  by  storms, 
perplexed  by  ignorance  and  anxiety,  reduced  by  scurvy  and 
bad  water,  they  welcomed  the  sight  of  land  on  the  31st  of 
October,  and   on  the  6th  of  November,  Waxel  and  Steller 


HISTORY.  301 

1 74 1.  went  ashore  on  Bering  Island.  They  decided  to  take  up 
their  winter  quarters  there,  and  the  crew,  sick  and  well,  were 
landed,  and  the  vessel  left  at  anchor.  On  the  29th  of  No- 
vember she  was  driven  on  shore  by  a  storm.  Bering,  from 
age  and  disease,  had  become  totally  incompetent,  looking 
upon  every  one  as  his  enemy.  Shelter  was  provided  in  the 
gullies  of  the  watercourses  near  the  shore,  and  on  the  8th 
of  December  Bering  died.*  The  survivors  sustained  life  on 
the  flesh  of  the  marine  animals  which  were  found  on  the 
island. 

1742.  The  following  spring  a  boat  was  constructed  from  the 
remains  of  the  vessel.  On  the  loth  of  August  they  set  sail, 
on  the  25th  they  saw  land,  and  entered  the  Bay  of  Avatcha 
on  the  26th,  casting  anchor  in  the  harbor  the  next  day.  The 
same  spring,  Chirikofif  had  cruised  in  search  of  Bering  with- 
out success.  He  then  returned  to  Ochotsk,  and  by  way  of 
Yakutsk  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  was  made  a  captain 
commander,  but  died  soon  after. 

1743.  Bering's  party  returned  to  Ochotsk,  and  Waxel  reached 
St.  Petersburg  in  1749. 

The  furs  and  skins  which  had  been  brought  back  by  the 
sailors  of  Bering's  company  caused  various  expeditions  to  be 
fitted  out  in  Kamchatka  by  the  Russians  resident  there,  in 
the  hope  of  obtaining  more  by  barter  with  the  natives  or  by 
hunting.  These  traders  were  called,  in  Russian,  ProviisJi- 
leniks.  Their  vessels  were  small,  many  of  them  constructed 
of  planks  lashed  to  the  timbers,  and  calked  with  moss.  They 
were  therefore  called  sJiitiki  or  sewn  vessels.  The  traders 
were  men  of  no  education,  who  sailed  usually  by  dead  reck- 
oning, and  who  were  governed  only  by  their  base  passions 
and  the  love  of  gain.  Nevertheless,  their  voyages  added 
much  to  the  general  knowledge  of  the  islands  between  Kam- 
chatka and  America. 
1745.  Emilian  Bassofif  discovered  the  island  of  Attu,  and 
another  small  one  near  it.  On  the  17th  of  September  in 
the   same  year,  Michael   Nevodtsikofif,  a  native  of  Tobolsk, 

*  Veit  (Vitus)  Bering  was  born  at  Horsens  in  Jutland.  Sailed  to  the  East  and 
West  Indies,  and  afterward  joined  the  Russian  service.  He  was  made  a  lieutenant  in 
1707,  a  captain-lieutenant  in  1710,  afterward  promoted  to  be  captain  and  commander. 


3o: 


HISTORY. 


1745.  sailed  from  the  mouth  of  the  Kamchatka  River  in  the 
shitik  Eudoxia  and  discovered  three  islands. 

1747.  He  returned  to  Kamchatka  July  21,  1747. 

1748.  Rybi'nski  explored  the  Nearer  Islands. 

1749.  Niki'for  Trapesnikoff  sailed  in  August  from  the  Kam- 
chatka River  and  discovered  a  new  island. 

1750.  A  Cossack  named  Yagoff  obtained  the  monopoly  of  hunt- 
ing on  the  Commander's  Islands  from  the  government,  on 
payment  of  the  tribute  and  tithes.  The  effect  of  this  was 
to  urge  other  traders  to  the  eastward. 

1753.  Trapesnikoff  returned  August  16,  and  sailed  again  in 
August,   1754,  having  discovered  another  unknown  island. 

1757.  Trapesnikoff  returned  from  his  second  voyage,  and  Ivan 
Niki'foroff  sailed  as  far  eastward  as  Umnak. 

1758.  In  September,  Simon  Krasilnikofif  and  the  indefatigable 
Trapesnikoff  sailed  in  two  vessels  from  Kamchatka. 

1759.  They  reached  Goreloi  Island  in  September  the  following 
year,  and  wintered,  in  different  parties,  on  the  islands  of 
Amlia,  Sitkin,  and  Atka. 

1760.  In  September,  a  vessel  called  the  Andrean  and  Xathalia^ 
fitted  out  by  Andrean  Tolstoi  and  commanded  by  Maxim 
Lazerofif,  sailed  from  Kamchatka,  and  wintered  at  Bering 
Island.  Pushkareff  sailed  in  the  sloop  Gabriel,  from  Bolshoya 
River,  Kamchatka,  July  31,  1760.  He  afterward  joined 
forces  with  Krasi'lnikoff,  who  had  lost  a  number  of  men  in 
hostilities  with  the  natives,  in  June,   1760. 

1 761.  During  the  winter  they  all  hunted  on  Seguam  Island,  and 
in  the  spring  of  1761  Krasi'lnikoff  returned  to  Kamchatka, 
while  Pushkareff  pushed  on  to  Umnak,  where  he  met  Trapes- 
nikofif's  vessel.  These  voyagers  had  committed  many  atroci- 
ties, and  the  long-enduring  natives  were  already  beginning 
to  retaliate.  In  1761,  Lazerofif  explored  the  islands  which 
have  since  borne  the  name  of  Andreanoffsky,  from  the  owner 
of  the  vessel. 

Having  passed  Umnak,  Pushkareff  wintered  in  False 
Pass,  Aliaska  Peninsula.  He  was  the  first  to  winter  on  the 
continent. 

1762.  In  January,  Piishkarefif  lost  several  men,  and  others  soon 
after  fell  under  the  weapons  of  the  outraged  natives.     These 


HISTORY. 


303 


1763.  hostilities  were  excited  by  the  outrages  committed.  In  June 
they  sailed  for  tJmnak,  where  they  took  two  islanders  as 
guides.  Driven  westward  by  tempests,  they  reached  the 
coast  of  Kamchatka  out  of  provisions.  They  had  torn 
from  their  homes  some  twenty-three  natives,  mostly  women. 
Some  of  these  were  sent  ashore  to  dig  roots  for  the  party. 
One  of  them,  on  returning  to  the  vessel,  was  killed,  for  some 
fancied  oftence,  by  a  sailor  named  Gorelin.  Overcome  by 
anguish  and  despair,  many  of  the  other  women  threw  them- 
selves into  the  sea,  preferring  death  to  a  life  of  such  misery. 
By  order  of  Piishkareff  all  the  remaining  natives,  except  the 
interpreter  and  a  boy,  were  then  thrown  overboard.  The 
perpetrators  of  these  atrocities  finally  reached  a  small  bay  near 
Avatcha,  September  25,  1762.  In  this  year  a  vessel  named 
the  Trinity,  commanded  by  Korovin  ;  another,  the  Zacharias 
and  Elisabeth,  under  Drusenin  ;  one  in  charge  of  Medvedefif, 
with  fifty  men,  and  a  fourth  under  Stephen  Glottoff,  with 
forty-six  men,  sailed  from  Kamchatka  on  trading  voyages  to 
the  islands.  Medvedefif  reached  Umnak,  where  he  and  his 
crew  were  killed  by  the  exasperated  natives. 

1763.  Drusenin  and  all  his  men,  except  four  (who  reached  Koro- 
vin in  1764),  met  the  same  well-deserved  fate  on  Unalashka. 
Korovin  reached  Unalashka  August  15,  1763.  Here  his 
men  were  divided  into  hunting-parties,  many  of  which  were 
cut  off  by  the  natives. 

Glottoff  had  wintered  at  Copper  Island  and  sailed  July 
26,  1763.  He  pas.sed  Umnak  and  discovered  the  island  of 
Kadiak.*  Here  he  wintered,  but  was  obliged  to  use  great 
caution,  as  the  natives,  less  pliant  than  those  to  the  westward, 
evinced  many  symptoms  of  hostility. 

1764.  In  March  the  four  survivors  of  Drusenin's  company,  after 
great  sufifering,  reached  Korovin.  The  party  of  the  latter 
was  reduced  to  twelve  men,  six  of  whom  were  Kamshadales. 
He  lost  his  vessel,  and  proceeded  in  a  bidarra  to  Umnak. 

Glottoff  left  Kadiak  in  May,  1764,  and  arrived  at  Umnak 
July  3d.  Here  he  found  the  bodies  of  a  party  under  Pro- 
tosofif,  who  had  all  been  killed  by  the  natives,  whom  Glot- 

*  Originally  called  Kaniag  by  the  natives,  who  called  themselves  Kaniagist  or  Ka- 
niagmut.     Kadiak  is  a  corruption  of  Kaniag. 


304 


HISTORY 


1764.  toff  attacked  and  defeated.  He  was  soon  joined  by  Koro- 
vin's  boat,  and  they  wintered  in  Umnak,  exploring  it  pretty 
thoroughly. 

During  this  year  a  secret  expedition,  under  Lieutenant 
Synd,  was  organized  at  Ochotsk,  by  order  of  the  Empress 
Catherine.  Lazeroff  arrived  in  'Kamchatka.  On  the  25th 
of  August,  Ivan  Maxi'movich  Solovioff  sailed  from  the  Kam- 
chatka River  in  the  Peter  and  Paul.  He  reached  Umnak 
September  i6th,  and  there  learned  that  a  compact  had  been 
entered  into  by  the  chiefs  of  the  natives  on  Umnak,  Akutan, 
and  Unalashka  to  unite  in  driving  the  Russians  from  the 
islands,  or  to  destroy  them  all. 

1765.  At  Umnak,  Soloviofif  was  joined  by  Korovin,  who  left 
Glottoff  in  the  spring  of  1765. 

1766.  They  proceeded  to  Unalashka,  where  they  wintered,  ex- 
ploring and  hunting,  and  returned  in  July,  1766,  to  Kam- 
chatka.    Glottoff  reached  home  about  the  same  time. 

This  completes  the  list  of  the  discoveries  of  the  Promishle- 
niks.  While  we  cannot  but  admire  the  imdauntcd  energy 
with  which  these  voyages  were  prosecuted,  we  must  admit 
with  abhorrence  that  they  were  prompted  only  by  lust  and 
avarice,  and  were  accompanied  by  many  of  the  most  horrible 
and  inexcusable  atrocities  which  have  ever  disgraced  the 
name  of  humanity.  These  outrages,  unfortunately,  did  not 
end  with  the  Promishleniks,  but  characterized  the  whole 
Russian  administration  of  the  territory  until  the  recall  of 
Baranoff.  They  were  contrary  to  the  express  instructions 
of  the  government,  but,  as  the  Russian  proverb  has  it, 
"  Heaven  is  high,  and  the  Czar  is  distant." 

1767.  The  wreck  of  the  government  vessel  at  Ochotsk  delayed 
Synd's  expedition.  In  1767  he  left  Kamchatka,  sailed  toward 
Bering  Strait,  passed  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Lawrence,  which 
he  supposed  to  be  many  small  islands,  saw  the  Diomedes, 
and  landed  on  the  coast  of  America  south  of  Cape  Prince 
of  Wales.  He  then  returned  along  the  Kamchatka  coast, 
and  reached  Ochotsk  in  1768. 

1768.  On  ^^^  1768,  Captain  Krenitzin  in  the  galliot  St. 
Catherine,  and  Lieutenant  Lcvasheff  in  the  hooker  St. 
Paul,  sailed  from  the  Kamchatka  River  to  explore  the  Fox 


HISTORY 


305 


1768.  Islands,  by  order  of  the  Empress.  Kreni'tzin,  after  touch- 
ing at  Bering  Island,  wintered  at  False  Pass,  and  explored 
somewhat  the  coast  of  Aliaska. 

1769.  The  St.  Paul  wintered  in  Unalashka,  and  after  fixing 
many  points  for  the  first  time  by  astronomical  observation, 
both  vessels  returned  to  Kamchatka  in  the  fall  of  1769. 

Spanish  settlements  were  made  during  this  year  at  San 
Diego,  and  an  exploring  party  by  land  reached  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay. 

1 77 1.  In  May  a  number  of  Polish  exiles,  under  Count  Maurice 
de  Benyowski,  overpowered  the  garrison  at  Bolsheretsk, 
Kamchatka.  They  escaped  to  sea  in  a  vessel  which  lay  in 
the  harbor,  hoisted  the  Polish  flag,  and  visited  many  parts 
of  Bering  Sea  and  the  islands.  With  the  furs  which  they 
had  collected  they  finally  arrived  at  Canton. 

In  this  year  Samuel  Hearne  made  his  explorations  on 
the  Copper-Mine  River. 

1772,  Stephen  Zai'koff  visited  Ahaska,  wintering  in  False  Pass, 
and  remained  among  the  Fox  Islands  until   1778. 

1774.  The  Spanish  ensign,  Juan  Perez,  sailed  on  an  exploring 
expedition  from  Monterey  on  the  i6th  of  June.  On  the 
1 8th  of  July  he  discovered  Queen  Charlotte's  Island,  and, 
on  the  9th  of  August,  Nootka  Sound. 

1775.  Captain  Bruno  Heceta  in  the  Santiago,  and  Juan  de 
Ayala  in  the  Sonora,  sailed  northward  from  San  Bias  on 
the  Californian  coast  in  company  with  the  schooner  San 
Carlos,  for  Monterey,  March  15,  1775.  Lieutenant  Juan 
Francisco  de  la  Bodega  y  Quadra  was  soon  put  in  charge 
of  the  Sonora,  and  Ayala  took  charge  of  the  San  Carlos 
whose  captain  was  disabled.  Leaving  the  schooner,  the  two 
exploring  vessels  proceeded  northward  to  a  small  roadstead 
north  of  Cape  Mendocino,  where  they  anchored,  calling  it 
Port  Trinidad.  After  leaving  this  point  they  sailed  north- 
ward and  anchored  off  Point  Grenville,  where  seven  men 
belonging  to  the  Sonora  were  killed  by  the  natives.  Soon 
after  the  vessels  were  separated  in  a  storm,  and  Heceta 
seized  the  opportunity  to  return  to  Monterey,  while  Bodega 
kept  on  his  way. 

Heceta   discovered,   on    the    15th    of  August,  the    mouth 


3o6  HISTORY. 

1775.  of  the  Columbia  River.  He  arrived  at  Monterey  on  Au- 
gust 30th.  Bodega  and  Maurelle  in  the  schooner  advanced 
northward.  On  the  15th  of  August  they  saw  land,  and 
soon  after  discovered  Mount  Edgecumbe,  which  they  named 
Mount  San  Jacinto.  After  making  various  explorations 
they  sailed  southward,  discovering  Dixon's  Entrance,  which 
they  named  Perez  Inlet,  explored  Bodega  Bay,  and  finally 
arrived  at  San  Bias  on  the  20th  of  November. 

1776.  On  the  I2th  of  July,  Captain  James  Cook  in  the  Resolu- 
tion, and  Captain  Charles  Clerke  in  the  Discovery,  sailed 
from  Plymouth,  England,  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  in  the 
North  Pacific.  Among  the  officers  who  accompanied  this 
expedition  were  King,  Bligh,  Burney,  Gore  (of  Virginia), 
Vancouver  (as  midshipman),  and  John  Ledyard,  of  Connecti- 
cut, who  was  a  corporal  of  marines. 

1778.  Soloviofi",  Bragin,  and  others  trading  among  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  committed  many  enormities  among  the  natives. 

Near  the  end  of  March,  Cook  anchored  in  Nootka  Sound. 
Proceeding  northward,  he  saw  the  mountain  called  San  Ja- 
cinto by  Bodega,  and  named  it  Mount  Edgecumbe,  which 
name  it  still  retains.  On  the  4th  of  May  he  saw  and  named 
Mount  St.  Elias,  and  during  the  month  explored  Chugach 
Gulf  and  Cook's  Inlet.  Touching  at  Unalashka,  he  entered 
Bering  Strait  in  August,  and  traced  the  coast  northeastward 
to  Icy  Cape,  where  he  turned  back.  On  his  return  he  ex- 
plored part  of  Norton  Sound  and  Bay.  On  the  3d  of  Oc- 
tober he  touched  at  Unalashka  again,  and  then  proceeded  to 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  where  he  was  killed  by  the  natives  on 
the  1 6th  of  February,  1779.* 

1779.  Captain  Charles  Clerke,  in  command  of  Cook's  Expedi- 
tion, left  the  Sandwich  Islands  and  reached  Petropavlovsk 
on  the  29th  of  April,  1779.  He  soon  afterward  sailed  for 
Bering  Strait,  but  the  great  accumulation  of  ice  prevented 
any  progress  to  the  ea.stward.  He  returned  to  Kamchatka, 
and  died  of  consumption,  on  board  his  vessel,  off"  Avatcha 
Bay,  August  22d.      Lieutenant  John  Gore  then  took  com- 

*  Captain  James  Cook,  born  at  Marton  in  Yorkshire,  October  27,  1728,  made 
Master  R.  N.  in  1759,  Lieutenant  in  1768,  Commander  in  1771,  and  Captain  in  1775. 
One  of  the  most  di>tinguislied  and  accurate  English  navigators. 


HISTORY. 


307 


1779.  mand,  and  it  was  determined  to  return  to  England.  The 
expedition  left  Kamchatka  for  England,  via  Canton,  in  Oc- 
tober, 1779. 

In  this  year  Catherine  II.  issued  a  ukase,  ordering  the 
Aleuts  to  pay  tribute  {ydssak),  to  assist  all  Russian  trading 
companies,  and  to  sell  furs  to  them  only. 

On  the  7th  of  February,  1779,  a  Spanish  expedition,  under 
Arteaga  and  Bodega,  sailed  from  San  Bias,  visiting  Port  Bu- 
carelli  and  Chugach  Gulf,  from  which  they  sailed  on  the  7th 
of  August  for  San  Bias. 

1 78 1.  Potan  Zaikofif  visited  and  explored  in  detail  Chugach 
Gulf,  and  wintered  on  Bering  Island.  NagaieiT  discovered 
the  mouth  of  the  Copper  River.  Ivan  Golikoft,  Gregory 
Shelikoff,  and  other  fur-merchants  of  Siberia  and  Kam- 
chatka, formed  an  association  for  the  more  effective  manage- 
ment of  their  business. 

1783.  Three  vessels  equipped  by  them  sailed  in  August,  1783, 
from  Ochotsk,  under  the  command  of  Shelikoff.  He  occu- 
pied, in  the  name  of  Russia,  several  points  on  the  island  of 
Kadiak,  and  erected  the  first  factory  there.  A  vessel  called 
the  St.  Alexius,  commanded  by  Alexiefif  PopofF,  was  attacked 
by  the  natives  in  Prince  William's  Sound  or  Chugach  Gulf. 
Zaikofif  explored  Captain's  Harbor,  Unalashka,  July  ~,  1783. 

1785.  The  expedition  of  La  Perouse,*  planned  by  Louis  XVI. 
in  person,  left  France  for  the  Pacific.  James  Hanna,  from 
Macao,  traded  at  Nootka  Sound. 

1786.  In  June,  La  Perouse  saw  Mount  St.  Elias,  and  anchored 
afterward  in  Lituya  Bay.  Here  he  lost  two  boats  and 
twenty-one  men,  in  the  bore  at  the  entrance,  July  13,  1786. 
He  described  this  bay  in  detail,  and  then  sailed  south- 
ward to   Monterey,  and  left  the  American  coast  forever. 

In  this  year,  James  Hanna  made  a  second  trading  voyage 
to  the  northwest  coast.  He  desired  to  establish  trade  be- 
tween Macao  and  Kamchatka,  and  sent  Captain  Peters  in 
the  brig  Lark  to  Petropavlovsk,  where  an  arrangement  was 
made  with  Shelikoff  to  exchange  furs  for  Chinese  and  Eu- 
ropean  goods  with  the   English.     On   her  return  the  Lark 

*  Jean  Fran9ois  de  Galloup  de  la  Perouse,  born  in  Languedoc,  August  22,  1741, 
was  lost  at  sea  on  this  expedition  in  17S8.     He  was  last  heard  from  at  Botany  Bay. 


308  HISTORY. 

1786.  was  lost  on  Copper  Island,  with  nearly  all  on  board,  and  the 
project  was  not  carried  out. 

Several  trading  vessels  from  China,  mostly  manned  by  Eng- 
lishmen, but  under  the  flag  of  the  East  India  Company, 
visited  the  northwest  coast  in  1786.  Among  them  was  one 
under  Captain  John  Meares  and  another  under  Captain 
Tipping,  from  Calcutta.  Captains  Lowrie  and  Guise,  from 
Bombay,  sailed  from  Nootka  to  Chugach  and  back  to  Macao. 
Meares  and  Tipping  visited  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  Chu- 
gach Gulf.  Meares  wintered  here,  and  lost  many  men  by 
scurvy  and  lack  of  provisions.  Tipping  sailed,  but  was 
never  heard  from  afterward. 

The  King  George's  Sound  Company,  a  mercantile  associa- 
tion for  fur-trading,  fitted  out  the  ships  King  George  and 
Queen  Charlotte  under  Captains  Portlock  and  Dixon,  who 
left  England  in  August,  1785.  They  reached  Cook's  Inlet 
in  July,  1786,  and  wintered  in  the  Sandwich  Islands. 

1787.  Lebadeff  Lastochkin  and  Gerasim  Pri'byloff  discovered 
the  island  of  St.  Paul  on  the  29th  of  June,  and  the  suc- 
ceeding year  the  latter  discovered  the  island  of  St.  George. 
He  named  them  the  Suboff  Islands,  but  they  are  more  gen- 
erally known  as  the  Pri'bylofif  Islands.  Samoylofif  took  charge 
of  the  factory  at  Three  Saints'  Bay,  Kadiak ;  and  Shelikoff 
sailed  for  Ochotsk. 

In  the  spring  of  1787,  Portlock  and  Dixon  visited  Cook's 
Inlet  and  Chugach  again.  They  found  Meares  at  the  latter 
place  in  very  bad  condition,  wuth  more  than  half  his  men 
dead  of  scurvy.  Dixon  then  proceeded  to  Nootka,  exploring 
as  he  went.  Portlock  passed  the  trading  season  between 
Chugach  and  Mount  St.  Elias,  and  rejoined  Dixon  in 
Canton. 

Secret  orders  were  sent  from  St.  Petersburg  by  Lieuten- 
ant-General  John  Jacobi  to  Captain  Delareff,  Samoyloft',  and 
others,  in  relation  to  taking  possession  of  any  new  discov- 
eries in  the  name  of  Russia. 

In  this  year,  Captain  Berkeley,  of  the  ship  Imperial  Eagle, 
discovered  the  Straits  of  Fuca. 

Shelikoff,  having  arrived  at  Irkutsk,  found  that  one  of 
the  Golikoff  brothers  had  been  defrauding  the  association. 


HISTORY.  309 

1787.  A  regular  commercial  bureau  was  therefore  organized. 
On  -o'ctobetV^  Shelikoft'  and  Golikoff  received  medals  and 
portraits  from  Catherine  II.  in  acknowledgment  of  their 
services.  Shelikoff  had  been  for  nearly  five  years  engaged 
in  uninterrupted  explorations  and  the  establishment  of  trad- 
ing-posts. During  the  whole  of  this  period  he  had  been  ac- 
companied by  his  wife  Nathalia  Shelikoft^,  a  woman  of  re- 
markable intelligence  and  energy.  Gregory  Shelikoft^,  of 
Rylsk  in  Siberia,  was  a  man  of  great  energy,  and  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  his  calling,  but  unscrupulous  and  grasping, 
never  hesitating  at  any  falsehood  or  outrage  which  would 
advance  his  interests. 

1/88.  On  the  ist  of  January,  John  Meares  and  William  Doug- 
las, supercargoes,  sailed  from  Macao  in  the  Felice  and  Iphi- 
genia,  Portuguese  vessels,  with  captains  of  the  same  nation, 
but  really  under  the  sole  charge  of  Meares.  The  Iphigenia 
sailed  to  Cook's  Inlet,  and  passed  the  summer  trading  there 
and  to  the  southward.  Meares,  in  the  Felice,  went  to  Nootka 
where  he  erected  a  building,  fortified  it  against  the  natives, 
and  left  part  of  his  crew  there  to  build  a  small  vessel,  while 
he  proceeded  to  the  Straits  of  Fuca.  From  that  point  he 
sailed  in  search  of  the  Columbia  River,  which  he  failed  to 
find.  He  then  returned  to  Nootka,  where  the  Iphigenia  had 
arrived,  and,  taking  all  the  furs,  sailed  to  Canton,  leaving  the 
brig  and  the  small  vessel,  which  had  been  named  the  North- 
west-America, to  winter  at  the  Sandwich  Islands.  Before 
Meares  departed,  the  ship  Washington,  fitted  out  by  a  com- 
pany of  Boston  merchants,  entered  Nootka  Sound  on  the 
17th  of  September,  in  charge  of  Captain  Robert  Gray.  Soon 
after,  the  sloop  Columbia  of  the  same  expedition  reached 
Nootka,  in  charge  of  Captain  John  Kendrick,  with  Joseph 
Ingraham  as  second  officer.  The  two  American  vessels  win- 
tered in  the  Sound. 

The  Spanish  authorities,  who  claimed  the  sole  right  to 
navigate  the  Pacific  on  the  northwest  coast  of  America, 
became  aware  of  the  visits  of  the  various  traders,  and  for 
further  information  despatched  vessels  from  San  Bias,  Cali- 
fornia, in  charge  of  Estevan  Martinez  and  Gonzalo  Haro. 
This  expedition  left  San  Bias  March   8,    1788,  and  entered 


3IO 


HISTORY. 


1788.  Chugach  Gulf  on  the  25th  of  May.  In  June,  Haro  visited 
Kadiak  and  obtained  the  desired  information  in  regard  to 
the  Russian  traders  from  E.  Delareff,  who  had  been  left  in 
charge  there  by  Shelikoff.  Haro  rejoined  Martinez  in  July, 
the  latter  having  meanwhile'  explored  the  Gulf  They  then 
sailed  for  Unalashka,  remaining  there  until  September  i8th, 
when  they  returned  to  California. 

Two  vessels  were  sent  in  this  year,  under  Ismyloft'  and 
Bechareff,  as  far  south  as  Mount  St.  Elias,  and  a  Russian 
redoubt  and  trading-post  was  established  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Copper  River.  Delareff  determined  astronomically  the 
situation  of  Three  Saints'  Bay,  Kadiak.  Three  thousand 
sea-otter  skins  were  obtained  by  him  in  Cook's  Inlet. 

An  earthquake  caused  a  tidal  wave,  which  passed  from 
Aliaska  to  Sanak  Island,  and  created  a  great  inundation 
in  the  island  of  Unga,  during  which  many  natives  lost  their 
lives. 

On  the  -i  October,  1788,  Shelikoff  received  from  the  Rus- 
sian government  the  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade  in  the 
Catherina  Archipelago. 

1789.  The  reports  of  the  outrages  committed  by  Glottoft'  and 
Soloviofif  having  reached  St.  Petersburg,  an  expedition  for 
inquiry  and  exploration  was  organized  in  1785.  This  was 
put  in  charge  of  a  timid  and  incompetent  Englishman, 
Joseph  Billings,  who  had  acted  as  assistant  to  Bayly,  the 
astronomer  of  Cook's  expedition.  Dr.  Carl  Merck,  "  a  man 
combining  an  almost  puerile  timidity  with  extraordinary 
intelligence,"  accompanied  him  as  naturahst.  They  arrived 
at  Petropavlovsk  from  Ochotsk  in  1788.  On  the  9th  of 
May,  1789,  they  sailed  from  that  port  to  Unalashka,  and 
afterward  as  far  as  Kadiak,  where  they  wintered.  Martin 
Saur,  a  German  who  acted  as  secretary  of  the  expedition, 
collected  much  information  in  regard  to  the  country  and 
the  natives. 

Early  in  the  year  the  Spaniards,  determined  to  put  an 
end  to  the  encroachments  of  the  English  and  other  traders, 
equipped  Martinez  and  Haro,  who  entered  Nootka  Sound 
May  6,  1789.  Here  they  found  the  Columbia  and  the 
Iphigenia.     Martinez  immediately  informed  them  of  his  in- 


HISTORY.  311 

1789.  tention  to  take  possession  of  the  Sound  in  the  name  of 
Spain,  and,  landing  materials  and  artillery,  built  a  fort  on 
a  small  island  near  Friendly  Cove,  to  enforce  his  instruc- 
tions. Trouble  arose  between  Martinez  and  Colnett  and 
Hudson,  two  captains  who  had  been  sent  from  Macao  by 
Meares  under  the  English  flag.*  Finally,  their  vessels,  the 
Princess  Royal,  the  Argonaut,  and  the  Northwest-America, 
were  seized  by  Martinez.  He  sailed,  with  the  vessels,  car- 
goes, and  some  of  the  prisoners,  for  San  Bias  in  November. 
Some  of  the  prisoners  were  put  on  board  the  Columbia,  to 
be  taken  by  that  vessel  to  China. 

The  American  vessels  had  not  been  disturbed  by  the 
Spaniards.  The  Washington  explored  in  June  the  whole 
east  coast  of  Queen  Charlotte's  Island,  which  had  not  been 
visited  by  white  men  before,  though  Captain  James  Duncan 
had  sailed  through  the  strait  which  separated  it  from  the 
mainland,  in  1788.  In  a  subsequent  excursion  from  Nootka, 
the  Washington  explored  the  Straits  of  Fuca  for  fifty  miles. 
Gray  then  returned,  and  met  the  Columbia  bound  for  China, 
and  made  an  arrangement  by  which  Kendrick  took  charge 
of  the  sloop  and  remained  on  the  coast,  while  Gray  sailed 
for  Macao  and  Canton  f  with  the  Columbia.  Kendrick  im- 
mediately returned  with  the  sloop,  and  more  thoroughly  ex- 
plored the  Straits  of  Fuca,  and  made  the  first  passage 
through  them.  In  November,  1789,  the  schooner  Fair 
American,  Captain  Metcalf,  reached  Nootka,  and  was  seized 
by  Martinez,  but  afterward  released. 

In  this  year  Mackenzie  descended  the  river  which  bears 
his  name. 
1790.    Shelikofif  organized    a   company,  under   the    title    of  the 
Shelikoff  Company,  at  Irkutsk,  for  the  management  of  the 
fur  trade  and  monopoly. 

By  a  ukase,  Catherine  II.  ordered  the  Aleuts  to  send  a 
certain  number  of  bidarras  every  year,  to  hunt,  and  to  sell 
all  furs   to   Shelikofif's  company,  in  consideration  of  which 

*  For  particulars  see  Greenhow's  History  of  Oregon  and  California,  Chap.  VHI. 

t  Gray  reached  Canton  December  6th,  and  took  on  board  a  cargo  of  tea,  with 
which  he  arrived  in  Boston  August  lo,  1790,  having  carried  the  United  States  flag 
round  the  world  for  the  first  time. 


3T2  HISTORY. 

1790.  the  yassak,  or  tribute,  was  renounced  by  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment. E.  Delareff,  a  Greek,  who  had  been  long  at  Ka- 
diak,  was  made  Chief  Director  of  affairs  in  the  colony  ;  and 
Alexander  BaranofF,  a  sailor  who  had  shown  great  energy 
in  the  service,  was  put  in  charge  of  the  Kadiak  and  Cook's 
Inlet  trading-posts.  Baranoff  had  accompanied  Shelikoff  in 
1783,  and  was  a  man  of  indomitable  energy,  destitute  of 
scruples  of  any  kind.  He  received  secretly,  August  f^,  in- 
structions as  to  the  treatment  of  the  natives  and  the  occu- 
pation of  new  territory.  He  was  appointed  one  of  the 
board  of  directors  for  the  colonies. 

Billings  left  Kadiak*  July  31,  1790,  and  sailed  southeast 
as  far  as  Chugach  Gulf,  where  he  was  threatened  by  the 
natives.  He  then  returned  to  Kamchatka,  where  he  arrived 
October   14th. 

The  Spaniards  sent  an  expedition  under  Lieutenant  Sal- 
vator  Fidalgo  to  establish  a  permanent  post  at  Nootka  and 
explore  the  coasts  to  the  northward.  He  reached  Chugach, 
and  spent  several  months  exploring  there  and  in  Cook's 
Inlet,  returning  to  San  Bias  November  14,  1790.  Lieuten- 
ant Quimper,  in  the  sloop  Princess  Royal,  explored  the 
Straits  of  Fuca  for  the  Spanish  government.  He  returned 
to  San  Bias  in  August. 

On  the  return  of  the  Columbia  the  merchants  of  Boston 
fitted  her  out  for  a  new  voyage  to  the  northwest  coast,  under 
Captain  Gray.  The  brig  Hope  was  also  despatched  in 
charge  of  Joseph  Ingraham,  former  mate  of  the  Columbia. 
These  vessels  were  followed  by  the  Hancock,  Captain  Crow- 
ell,  the  Jefferson,  Captain  Roberts,  and  the  Margaret  from 
New  York  under  Captain  Magee. 

1791.  On  the  29th  of  June,  Ingraham  anchored  in  a  harbor 
in  the  southeast  part  of  Queen  Charlotte's  Island.  He  spent 
the  summer  in  trading  and  exploring,  and  sailed  in  the  fall 
for  China.  In  the  summer  of  1791,  Kendrick,  in  the  Wash- 
ington, purchased  from  the  natives  large  tracts  of  land  near 
Nootka   Sound,   and   sailed   for  Macao.     The  Columbia  ar- 

*  I  have  followed  Sarycheffs  version.  As  the  expedition  was  a  secret  one,  the 
accounts  differ,  some  saying  that  the  expedition  first  sailed  in  1790,  but  Sarychcff's 
narrative  is  probably  the  correct  one. 


HISTORY.  313 

1791.  rived  in  the  Straits  of  Fuca  in  June,  1791.  Gray  explored 
much  of  the  coast,  including  the  Portland  Canal,  and  re- 
turned to  Clyoquot,  near  the  Straits  of  Fuca.  Here  the 
crew  built  a  small  vessel,  called  the  Adventure,  and  a  post, 
which  they  named  Fort  Defiance. 

On  the  2d  of  June,  1791,  Captain  Alexandro  Malespina, 
an  Italian  in  the  service  of  Spain,  arrived  on  the  coast  near 
Mount  Edgecumbe  with  two  vessels.  They  explored  the 
coast  between  Chugach  and  Mount  Fairweather,  and  estab- 
lished a  few  points  on  the  coast  to  the  southward,  returning 
to  Nootka  August  13,  1791. 

The  French  ship  Solide,  Captain  Etienne  Marchand, 
visited  Norfolk  Sound  and  other  parts  of  the  coast  in  this 
year,  and  left  the  Straits  of  Fuca  for  Canton  in  the  fall. 

Shelikofif's  first  vessel,  the  Ivdn  Predecha,  was  wrecked 
on  St.  Paul  Island  during  the  summer.  He  visited  the  isl- 
and of  Kadiak,  and  reported  a  population  of  50,000,  to 
enhance  the  supposed  value  of  his  discoveries.  Explora- 
tions were  made  by  Chaedikoff  in  the  Aleutian  Islands. 
Bechereff  explored  more  thoroughly  the  Peninsula  of  Aliaska. 
Baranofif  built  a  vessel  called  the  Fenie,  in  Chugach  Gulf, 
but  she  was  not  launched  for  three  years. 

April  16,  1791,  BilHngs  and  SarychefF  sailed  from  Petro- 
pavlovsk,  visiting  Unalashka,  St.  Paul,  St.  Lawrence,  Aziak, 
and  the  Diomedes.  They  touched  on  the  American  coast 
near  Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  and  then  anchored  in  St.  Law- 
rence Bay  on  the  Asiatic  side.  Saur  gives  an  amusing  ac- 
count of  the  harsh  treatment  he  received  from  the  natives 
on  account  of  his  diminutive  size.  Billings  and  Saur  left 
the  vessel  in  charge  of  a  Captain  Hall,  and  pursued  their 
journey  overland  to  the  Kolyma,  August  4,  1791.  A  boat 
expedition  was  sent  round  to  the  Kolyma  by  sea  to  examine 
the  shore,  but  we  have  no  record  of  their  success.  Sarycheft^ 
and  Hall  sailed  for  Unalashka  August  13th,  and  wintered 
there,  returning  to  Kamchatka  in  the  following  spring. 

1792.  The  viceroy  of  Mexico  equipped  three  vessels,  in  the 
spring  of  1792,  to  continue  the  explorations.  These  were 
the  corvette  Aransasu,  Lieutenant  Jacinto  Caamano ;  the 
schooner  Sutil,  under  Lieutenant  Dionisio  Alcala  Galiano  ; 


314  HISTORY. 

1792.  and  another  named  the  Mexicana,  in  charge  of  Lieutenant 
Cayetano  Valdes.  These  vessels  arrived  from  San  Bias  at 
Nootka  in  May,  and  departed  ;  the  corvette  to  look  for  the 
mouth  of  the  supposed  Rio  del  Reyes,  and  the  others  to 
explore  the  Straits  of  Fuca.  Captain  Bodega  y  Quadra 
also  went  to  Nootka  to  treat  with  Vancouver,*  who  had 
been  sent  out  from  England  to  settle  the  difficulties  at 
Nootka. 

Vancouver,  in  the  ship  Discovery,  with  Lieutenant  Robert 
Broughton,  in  the  brig  Chatham,  sailed  from  England  in 
January,  1791.  He  was  instructed  to  explore  the  Straits 
of  Fuca,  survey  the  northwest  coast  from  the  35  th  to  the 
60th  parallel,  and  determine,  with  the  Spanish  Commissioner, 
what  indemnity  should  be  made  to  English  subjects  on 
account  of  the  Nootka  difficulty.  He  reached  the  west 
coast  April  17,  1792.  Sailed  northward,  and  passed  Cape 
Flattery  without  discovering  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia. 
On  the  29th  of  April  he  met  Captain  Gray  in  the  ship 
Columbia,  and  after  an  interview  he  proceeded  to  survey 
the  Straits  of  Fuca.  At  the  same  time.  Gray  sailed  to  ex- 
amine the  Columbia  River,  the  mouth  of  which  he  had  pre- 
viously noticed.  On  the  nth  of  May  he  entered  the  mouth 
of  the  great  river  which  he  named  after  his  ship.  He  sailed 
up  stream  about  fifteen  miles,  and  left  the  river  on  the  20th, 
after  filling  his  casks.  He  then  proceeded  to  Nootka,  where 
the  Hope  had  also  arrived,  and  after  communicating  his  dis- 
covery to  Captain  Quadra  the  two  vessels  sailed  for  Canton. 
Vancouver  meanwhile  surveyed  the  archipelago  to  lat.  52°  18', 
meeting  the  two  Spanish  schooners  in  Admiralty  Inlet  after 
his  return  to  the  Straits  of  Fuca.  Together  they  continued 
their  explorations,  and  Vancouver  passed  into  the  ocean 
through  Dixon's  Entrance  and  returned  to  Nootka.  Here 
he  found  the  store-ship  Daedalus,  which  brought  his  in- 
structions from  England,  in  charge  of  Lieutenant  New. 
After  some  fruitless  negotiations  with  the  Spaniards  (for 
which  see  Greenhow,  Chap.  XL),  he  proceeded  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia,  which  was  entered  by  the  Chatham,  which 

*  Captain  George  Vancouver,  born  about  1758,  served  on  Cook's  Expedition,  sur- 
veyed the  western  American  coast  as  related,  and  died,  worn  out  with  his  labors,  in 
May,  1798,  before  his  report  was  quite  finished. 


HISTORY. 


15 


1792.  found  there  the  brig  Jenny  of  Bristol,  which  had  left  Nootka 
a  few  days  before.  Vancouver  sailed  to  San  Francisco  Bay, 
where  the  Chatham  afterward  joined  him. 

In  October,  1792,  Mackenzie  started  on  his  journey  across 
the  continent. 

Eustratus  Ivanovich  Delareff,  Chief  Director  of  the  colo- 
nies, resigned  his  position  to  Baranoff,  who  had  shown  him- 
selfwell  fitted  for  the  post.  A  settlement  was  made  on  St. 
Paul's  Bay,  Kadiak.  A  company  of  Russians,  under  Stepan 
Zai'koff  and  Lebedeff  Lastochkin,  established  themselves  in 
Cook's  Inlet  and  Bristol  Bay,  claiming  that  this  territory  was 
not  embraced  in  the  grant  of  the  Shelikoff  Company. 

1793.  Vancouver  reached  Nootka  May  20th  from  the  Sandwich 
Islands  and  the  southern  coast.  He  spent  the  summer  in 
careful  explorations  from  the  51st  to  the  s6th  parallel.  He 
sailed  for  San  Francisco  on  the  19th  of  October. 

Mackenzie  descended  the  Frazer  River,  reached  the  head 
of  the  Gulf  of  Georgia  July  20,  1793,  and  wrote  in  vermilion 
on  the  cliff,  "  Alexander  Mackenzie,  from  Canada  by  land, 
the  22d  of  July,  1793."  He  returned  by  the  route  over 
which  he  came. 

j~^,  1793,  a  ukase  was  issued  by  the  Empress  of  Russia, 
authorizing  the  introduction  of  missionaries  into  the  Ameri- 
can colonies,  and  the  shipment  of  convicts  thither  to  teach 
the  natives  agriculture !  Thirty  of  these  agriculturists  were 
settled  on  the  peninsula  of  Kenai  by  Baranoff.  Baranoff 
and  Ismyloff  were  attacked  by  the  natives  when  exploring 
the  Gulf  of  Chugach ;  the  latter  were  repulsed.  The  Rus- 
sians lost  eleven  men  in  this  encounter,  of  whom  nine  were 
Aleutians. 

A  serious  conflict  arose  between  Baranoff  and  the  Lebe- 
deff Lastochkin  Company  concerning  the  right  of  hunting  in 
Cook's  Inlet. 

1794.  Vancouver,  returning  to  his  explorations,  rediscovered 
Chi'rikofif  Island,  and  entered  Cook's  Inlet  April  12,  1794- 
He  left  it,  after  a  thorough  survey,  in  May,  and  explored 
the  coasts  and  islands  to  the  southward,  reaching  Chatham 
Strait,  and  finishing  his  work.  He  sailed  from  Port  Con- 
clusion  August  22,   1794,  and  touched  at  Nootka  and  on 


3l6  HISTORY. 

1794.  the  California  coast  on  his  way  home.  The  explorations 
which  he  carried  out  have  not  been  excelled  by  any  other 
navigator,  and  were  faithfully  and  thoroughly  performed. 
The  contending  parties  at  Nootka  abandoned  the  contro- 
versy, and  in  1795  withdrew  their  forces,  leaving  the  Sound 
to  the  natives  and  traders. 

Archimandrite  Joasaph,  Elder  of  the  Augustin  friars,  was 
invited  to  settle  in  the  colony  by  Ivan  and  Michael  Golikoft' 
and  Gregory  Shelikoft^,  who  had  returned  to  Siberia. 

May  ~,  Shelikoft^  was  ordered  to  settle  twenty  convicts 
and  their  families  near  Cape  St.  Elias.  In  consequence, 
August  ^,  two  vessels  sailed  for  Kadiak  from  Ochotsk.  The 
first  had  one  hundred  and  ninety  emigrants,  two  overseers, 
and  eleven  monks  on  board.  The  other  carried  sixty  hunt- 
ers, two  overseers,  and  a  valuable  cargo.  There  was  great 
mortality  among  the  colonists  after  their  arrival.  Shelikoft" 
engaged  seventy  more  men  in  Siberia,  who  were  sent  to  the 
colony. 

Baranoff  sent  an  expedition  to  examine  Bering  Bay,  which 
returned  with  2,000  sea-otter  skins. 

The  newly  arrived  monks  and  missionaries  were  obliged 
to  work  for  their  living,  the  Company  refusing  to  support 
them  in  idleness.  This  state  of  things  is  said  to  have  con- 
tinued for  nearly  twenty  years.  On  ^"^e'mber?'  ^^  arrangement 
was  made  to  open  a  trade  with  China. 

In  this  year  the  first  complaint  regularly  entered  by  a 
native  in  his  own  name  was  made  against  the  impositions 
and  cruelties  of  the  Company.  The  cries  of  the  unfortunate 
Aleuts  reached  even  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  on  the  death  of 
Catherine  II.  the  Emperor  Paul  seriously  contemplated  the 
withdrawal  ^of  the  franchise  from  the  Shelikofi"  Company. 
The  expedition  of  Billings,  in  every  other  respect  a  failure 
from  the  incompetency  of  the  commander,  produced  one 
good  effect,  which  was  the  ventilation  of  the  abuses  prac- 
tised by  the  traders. 

1795.  The  Company  extended  its  operations.  Shelikoff  forwarded 
thirty  colonists.  The  settlement  of  New  Russia  was  estab- 
lished on  Bering  or  Yakutat  Bay.  Two  small  vessels,  the 
Dolphin  and  the  Olga,  were  built  in  Resurrection  Bay.     Rev. 


X 


HISTORY.  317 

1795.  Father  Joasaph  complained  officially  of  Baranofif's  conduct 
to  the  missionaries.  He  furthermore  reported  the  conver- 
sion of  12,000  natives,  which  remarkable  statement  was  natu- 
rally received  with  doubt  at  St.  Petersburg 

The  Company  received  a  great  blow  in  the  death  of  its 
founder,  Gregory  Shelikoff,  at  Irkutsk,  in  the  fall  of  1795. 
His  heirs  carried  on  the  operations  without  cessation,  and 
his  wife,  Nathalia  Shelikoff,  acted  several  years  as  President 
of  the  Company.  As  she  could  neither  read  nor  write,  she 
signed  by  her  son,  Ivan  Shelikoff,  as  proxy.  In  the  winter, 
the  first  census  of  Kadiak  showed  about  1,800  adult  native 
males,  and  the  same  number  of  females. 

1796.  The  government  having  authorized  a  fort  to  be  built  on 
Yakutat  Bay,  a  post  and  fortifications  were  erected,  and 
a  number  of  convicts,  assigned  by  the  Czar,  were  settled 
there.  Shultz  explored  Litiiya  Bay  and  the  head  of  Lynn 
Canal  for  the  Company.  An  expedition  under  Samoyloff  to 
the  Copper  River  was  cut  off  by  the  hostile  natives.  Kadiak 
was  designated  as  the  principal  depot  of  the  Company. 
Mount  Edgecumbe  is  said  to  have  emitted  fire  and  smoke 
for  the  last  time. 

July  ^,  1796,  Father  Joasaph  was  made  a  bishop  by  ukase. 
Father  Juvenati  attempted  to  put  down  polygamy  among 
the  inhabitants  of  Kenai.  He  was  afterwards  killed  while 
preaching  to  the  natives  near  Iliamna  Lake.  The  first  Rus- 
so-Greek  church  was  erected  in  Kadiak.  A  vessel  called 
the  Three  Saints,  commanded  by  Medvednikoft",  was  wrecked 
in  Bering  Bay.  Solomin,  a  native,  complained  to  the  Archi- 
mandrite of  the  breaches  of  faith  and  extortions  of  the 
Company. 

1797.  A  company  in  opposition  to  that  of  Shelikoff  was  organ- 
ized by  Mylnikoff  l^^^,  1797  ;  by  consent  of  Mrs.  Shelikoff 
the  two  were  consolidated.  Archimandrite  Joasaph  had  re- 
turned to  Irkutsk  to  receive  his  consecration  as  bishop. 

1798.  The  Shelikoft'  L"^nited  Trading  Company  organized  at 
Irkutsk,  adopted,  January  ^,  a  series  of  regulations,  and  dis- 
tributed them  to  interested  parties.  A  new  company,  called 
the  Atka  Company,  was  formed  by  Ladygin  and  others,  in 
opposition    to    the    United    Company.      Khwostoff  explored 


3l8  HISTORY. 

1798.  Admiralty  Bay.  Lastochkin  visited  the  Copper  River  with 
great  caution.  A  factory  was  erected  at  Nuchek  Harbor. 
A  Siberian  trading  vessel,  in  charge  of  Ki'ssileff,  saw  an  island 
between  lat.  43°  and  44°,  and  Ion.  160°  and  165°.  Various 
parties  of  traders  interfered  with  the  operations  of  the  She- 
likoff  United  Company. 

1799.  The  Emperor  Paul,  at  first  strongly  opposed  to  it,  was  in- 
duced to  take  the  trading  company  under  his  protection. 
A  charter  for  a  new  company  was  drawn  up  at  St.  Peters- 
burg for  the  term  of  twenty  years.  This  charter  was  issued 
on  the  8th  of  June,  1799.  It  gave  to  the  members  of  the 
old  Company,  under  the  name  of  the  Russian  American 
Company,  the  control  of  all  the  coasts  of  America  on  the 
Pacific  north  of  lat.  55°  N.  They  were  required  to  organize 
settlements,  promote  agriculture,  commerce,  discovery,  and 
the  propagation  of  the  Greek  Catholic  faith,  to  extend  the 
Russian  territory  and  influence  on  the  Pacific  as  far  as  they 
could  without  trespassing  on  the  territory  of  any  foreign 
power.  The  capital  of  the  Company  was  fixed  at  98,000 
silver  rubles.  The  Aleuts  were  regarded  as  the  servants  or 
slaves  of  the  Company.  They  were  obliged  to  hunt  and 
work  at  the  command  of  its  officers,  and  each  adult  was 
obliged  to  spend  at  least  three  years  in  the  actual  service 
of  the  Company.  They  were  also  forced  to  sell  all  their 
furs  to  the  Company,  at  whatever  price  the  latter  chose  to 
pay  for  them.  The  natives  of  Kenai  and  Chugach  were 
obliged  to  pay  an  annual  tribute  of  furs,  though  not  to  enter 
the  Company's  service.  Baranoft'  was  placed  in  charge  of 
the  operations  of  the  Company  in  the  colonies.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  territories  was  confided  to  the  Chief  Director  in 
the  colonies.  No  appeal  could  be  made  from  him  except  to 
the  Directory  at  Irkutsk.  All  regulations  and  appointments 
were  made  by  the  latter,  and  all  questions  decided  by  it,  with 
the  approval  of  the  Imperial  Department  of  Commerce.  All 
persons  and  things  in  the  territory  were  under  the  control 
of  the  Chief  Director,  who  resided  in  Kadiak  ;  other  districts 
were  ruled  by  inferior  agents,  chosen  from  among  the  Pro- 
mishleniks,  and  accountable  only  to  the  Chief  Director.  The 
general  regulations  were  just  and  humane,  but  the  enforce- 


HISTORY.  319 

1799.  ment  of  them  was  intrusted  to  men  with  whom  justice  and 
humanity  were  always  subservient  to  interest  and  expedi- 
ency. Baranoff  maintained  for  twenty  years  an  absolute  and 
despotic  sway  over  the  colonies.  The  orders  of  the  Direc- 
tory were  often  unheeded  by  him,  and  it  was  almost  as  easy 
for  complaints  to  reach  the  Directory  from  another  planet  as 
from  Russian  America.  He  was  a  man  of  iron  energy  and 
nerve,  coarse,  unfeeling,  shrewd,  and  enterprising.  Among 
his  inferior  agents  were  men  far  more  intelligent  and  hu- 
mane than  himself,  but  they  were  obliged  to  submit  to  his 
authority  ;  any  proposed  improvements  were  in  vain,  if  in 
his  judgment  they  conflicted  with  the  interests  of  the  Com- 
pany. The  morale  of  the  Company's  servants  may  be  judged 
from  Krusenstern's  account,  which  says,  "  None  but  vaga- 
bonds and  adventurers  ever  entered  the  Company's  service 
as  Promishleniks,"  "  it  was  their  invariable  destiny  to  pass  a 
life  of  wretchedness  in  America,"  and  "  few  had  the  good 
fortune  ever  to  touch  Russian  soil  again."  His  remarks 
coincide  in  every  particular  with  my  own  observations, 
though  among  the  Creoles,  naval  officers,  and  general  officers 
of  the  Company  at  Sitka  it  was  my  good  fortune  to  meet 
many  gentlemen  of  refinement,  intelligence,  and  a  high  sense 
of  honor  and  justice. 

The  Company's  vessel  Fenie  (Phoenix),  with  the  newly 
consecrated  bishop  Joasaph,  eighty-eight  passengers,  and  a 
valuable  cargo,  in  charge  of  Captain  Shultz,  was  lost  with 
all  on  board.  Most  of  the  ecclesiastics  were  on  this  vessel, 
and  it  is  said  that  from  this  time  to  18 10  only  one  monk 
was  left  in  the  colonies. 

The  Company's  vessel  St.  Demetrius  was  built  in  Res- 
urrection Bay.  Khwostoff  explored  the  Alexander  Archi- 
pelago, and  obtained  a  large  number  of  sea-otter  skins. 
The  same  good  fortune  attended  an  Aleutian  party  who 
visited  George's  Strait. 

In  consequence  of  their  reports,  Baranoff  visited  Sitka 
Bay  in  the  Olga,  with  a  large  fleet  of  Aleutians  in  their 
kyaks,  from  Kadiak.  Here  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  them 
died  from  eating  poisonous  mussels.  Baranoff"  made  one  of 
the  natives  of  the  bay  a  chief,  under  the  name  of  Medved- 


320  HISTORY. 

1799.  nikoff,  and  set  about  the  construction  of  a  fortified  factory, 
which  he  called   Fort  Archangel   Gabriel. 

1800.  This  was  completed  in  the  following  spring,  when  Bara- 
nofl"  took  formal  possession  of  the  territory  in  the  name  of 
Russia.  This  proceeding  was  approved  of  by  the  Direc- 
tory. He  then  returned  to  Kadiak.  English  and  Ameri- 
can vessels  visited  the  colony  with  assorted  cargoes,  which 
the  Russians  were  obliged  to  purchase  altogether,  good  and 
bad  as  well,  in  order  to  prevent  independent  trade. 

On  the  |,  October,  1800,  the  Emperor  Alexander  ordered 
the  general  Directory  to  be  transferred  from  Irkutsk  to  St. 
Petersburg ;  only  a  secondary  bureau  was  left  at  Irkutsk. 

1801.  An  issue  was  authorized  of  7,350  shares  of  stock,  each 
valued  at  500  silver  rubles. 

A  scarcity  of  provisions  compelled  the  Chief  Director  to 
purchase  supplies  from  English  and  American  vessels.  An 
American  trader  arrived  at  Kadiak  in  May.  The  vessels 
Petropavlovsk  and  Alexander  Nevski  were  built  in  the  col- 
ony. Troubles  arose  from  among  the  natives.  The  Thlin- 
kets  met  on  one  of  the  islands  of  the  archipelago,  under 
their  chief  Kaniagin,  to  devise  means  of  driving  out  the 
Russians.  Baranofif  was  received  with  hostility  by  the  na- 
tives of  Kenai. 

1802.  The  Emperor,  Empress,  and  Grand  Duke  Constantine 
became  shareholders  in  the  Company  ^^^"^^^^^  ,1802,  to  the 
extent  of  twenty  shares  each.  The  income  of  this  stock 
was  devoted  to  charity.  In  August,  the  Loan  Bank  of  St. 
Petersburg  was  directed  by  a  ukase  to  advance  250,000 
silver  rubles  to  the  Company,  at  legal  interest,  for  eight 
years. 

The  vessel  Zacharias  and  Elisabeth  was  built  in  the  col- 
ony. 

An  expedition  under  Khwostofif  and  Davidofif  began  scien- 
tific researches  among  the  Aleutian  Islands.  The  monopoly 
of  the  Russian  and  Siberian  fur  trade  was  secured  by  the 
Russian  American  Company.  Active  hostilities  were  com- 
menced by  the  natives.  In  May  the  assembled  Thlinkets 
of  Sitka,  under  the  chiefs  who  had  been  appointed  by  the 
Russians,  attacked   the  Fort  Archangel  Gabriel  and   drove 


HISTORY.  321 

1802.  out  the  inmates.  All  the  officers  and  thirty  men  were  killed. 
Two  days  after  the  English  captain  Barbour  arrived,  and 
saved  eighteen  women,  two  Russians,  and  two  Aleutians, 
who  were  hunted  by  the  savages  in  the  woods.  He  also 
appropriated  the  furs  which  remained  unharmed  in  the 
storehouse,  and  demanded  an  exorbitant  ransom  from  the 
Russians  for  the  men.  A  few  days  after  the  American  cap- 
tain Ebbets  arrived,  and  assisted  the  colonists  against  the 
natives.  May  22d,  Kuskofif's  party  of  four  hundred  and  fifty 
Aleuts,  in  their  kyaks,  was  attacked  in  Yakutat  Bay  by  the 
Thlinkets,  who  were  repulsed.  One  Russian  was  killed 
and  five  wounded.  June  20th  a  fleet  of  ninety  kyaks,  under 
Urbanoff,  were  attacked  by  the  Thlinkets  in  Kake  Strait. 
Only  Urbanoff  and  twenty-two  Aleutians  escaped. 

The  American  ship  Atahualpa,  of  Boston,  discovered  the 
mouth  of  the  Stiki'ne  River. 

1803.  An  expedition  under  Krusenstern  and  Lisiansky  was 
organized  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  sailed  in  the  ships  Na- 
deshda  and  Neva  in  August.  In  March,  the  Imperial  Fi- 
nancial Bureau  was  ordered  to  supply  the  Directory  of  the 
Company  with  100,000  silver  rubles,  on  demand,  in  such 
sums  as  might  be  required. 

In  the  colony,  Bazanoff  explored  the  Copper  River  for  a 
short  distance.  An  expedition  under  Petroff  made  further 
explorations  near  Yakutat  Bay.  An  American  named  Owen, 
of  the  bark  Eclipse,  suggested  to  Baranoff  the  extension  of 
the  fur  trade  to  California.  Owen  secured  the  right  to  pur- 
chase all  the  furs.  In  pursuance  of  this  project  an  ex- 
pedition under  Swetzoff  and  Terakanoff  was  sent  to  the 
coast  of  Oregon,  and  returned  with  a  valuable  cargo.  The 
Slavarassi  Colony,  on  Yakutat  Bay,  was  destroyed  by  the 
natives. 

1804.  On  the  loth  of  June,  1804,  Captain  Krusenstern,  in  the 
Nadeshda,  left  the  Neva  under  Lisiansky,  at  the  Washing- 
ton Islands,  and  sailed  with  Resanoff,  the  Imperial  Com- 
missioner, to  Kamchatka,  where  he  arrived  in  July.  They 
attempted  to  open  an  intercourse  with  the  Japanese,  but 
failed,  and  returned  to  Kamchatka. 

The  Neva  arrived   in  Kadiak  July    13,   1804.     Lisiansky 

21 


322  HISTORY. 

1804.  found  that  Baranofif  had  sailed  for  Sitka  in  the  spring  with 
four  small  vessels,  one  hundred  and  twenty  Russians,  and 
about  eight  hundred  Aleutians  in  their  kyaks.  He  there- 
fore determined  to  sail  to  his  assistance,  and  while  detained 
by  contrary  winds  at  Kadiak  made  various  surveys  in  the 
vicinity.  He  left  St.  Paul  August  15th,  and  arrived  in  Nor- 
folk Sound  on  the  20th.  Baranoff  arrived  on  the  19th.  from 
a  hunting  expedition  to  Yakutat  Bay,  in  the  Yermak.  It 
was  determined  to  attack  the  Thlinkets,  who  had  fortified 
themselves  on  a  rock  near  the  old  settlement,  and  now 
defied  the  Russians.  On  the  ist  of  October  the  Neva  fired 
upon  the  fort,  and,  no  reply  being  received,  Baranoft'  and  a 
party  of  Russians  and  Aleutians  attempted  to  storm  it. 
They  were  repulsed  with  some  loss  by  the  natives,  who 
sallied  and  drove  them  to  their  boats.  Baranofif  was  wounded 
in  the  arm.  The  next  day  the  Neva  opened  fire  on  the 
fort  with  heavy  guns,  and  on  the  3d  of  October  the  natives 
hoisted  a  white  flag.  The  fort  was  not  surrendered,  how- 
ever, but  was  evacuated  by  the  natives  on  the  night  of 
the  6th.  They  are  said  by  Lisiansky  to  have  killed  a  num- 
ber of  infants  and  dogs,  lest,  by  making  a  noise,  they  should 
give  the  alarm.  The  garrison  was  estimated  to  have  been 
about  eight  hundred  ;  the  walls  of  the  fort  were  so  thick 
that  the  shot  from  the  Neva  had  not  penetrated  them.  It 
was  defended  by  two  cannon,  and  evidently  evacuated  be- 
cause the  occupants  were  out  of  ammunition.  On  the  8th 
of  October  it  was  burned  by  order  of  Baranofif.  The  Rus- 
sians had  ten  or  twelve  killed,  and  several  wounded. 

On  the  loth  of  November,  Lisiansky  sailed  for  Kadiak, 
leaving  Baranofif  at  Sitka.  The  Neva  anchored,  November 
i6th,  in  St.  Paul  Harbor,  where  she  wintered.  This  vessel 
brought  the  first  supply  of  medicine  which  reached  the 
colony. 

Resanoff,  the  Imperial  Commissioner  for  the  redress  of 
grievances  and  the  better  regulation  of  the  colonies,  arrived 
from  Kamchatka  and  wintered  in  Kadiak.  The  St.  Deme- 
trius was  wrecked  near  Umnak.  Three  vessels — the  Maria, 
the  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  and  the  cutter  Constantine — were 
built  in  the  colony.     On  the  8th  of  October,  Baranofif  laid 


HISTORY. 


323 


1804.  the  foundations  of  the  new  fort  at  Sitka.  He  calls  it  the 
Fort  Archangel  Michael,  and  the  settlement  received  the 
name  of  New  Archangel.  It  was  placed  on  the  rocky  point 
which  had  been  so  well  defended  by  the  natives. 

1805.  Lewis  and  Clarke  descended  the  Columbia  River,  and 
wintered  near  the  mouth  of  it. 

On  the  14th  of  June,  Lisiansky  sailed  from  Kadiak  for 
Sitka,  where  he  arrived  on  the  22d,  and  whence,  after  mak- 
ing various  explorations,  he  sailed,  September  ist,  for  Canton. 
A  hunter  named  Bukadoroft^,  employed  by  the  Company 
among  the  islands,  was  attacked  by  the  natives.  The  ex- 
periment of  planting  trees  on  the  Aleutian  Islands  was  tried 
this  year.  An  expedition  under  Demiankoff  was  obliged  to 
leave  Yakutat  Bay  by  the  hostile  natives ;  in  the  storm 
which  followed,  thirty  Aleutians  were  lost  in  their  bidarkas. 
The  natives  attacked  a  settlement  on  the  bay,  and  massa- 
cred the  inhabitants  ;  out  of  forty  persons  only  thirteen 
escaped.  At  this  time  four  hundred  and  seventy  Russians 
were  employed  in  different  capacities  by  the  Company. 

The  Imperial  Chamberlain  and  Commissioner,  Count  Ni- 
kolai Petrovich  Resanoft",  inaugurated  many  useful  reforms  in 
the  colony.  Notwithstanding  the  unjust  slurs  of  the  usually 
accurate  Greenhow,  Resanofif  was  a  man  of  unusual  capacity, 
intelligence,  and  humanity.  He  organized  a  school  at  Ka- 
diak under  the  name  of  the  "  House  of  Benevolence  of  the 
Empress  Maria."  His  reforms  and  instructions  much  im- 
proved the  prospects  of  the  colony.  He  suggested  a  court 
in  the  territory  for  the  trial  of  minor  offences,  and  ordered 
that  the  Aleutians  should  receive  their  pay  in  money,  and 
not  in  merchandise,  as  formerly.  Printed  parchment,  with 
the  Company's  seal  upon  it,  was  used  as  a  medium  of  ex- 
change in  the  colony  instead  of  coin. 

In  the  autumn,  Resanoff,  urged  by  the  scarcity  of  provis- 
ions, purchased  the  American  ship  Juno,  of  Rhode  Island, 
and  her  cargo.  This  alone  prevented  a  famine  in  the  Rus- 
sian settlements.  He  embarked  in  the  Juno  and  sailed  to 
San  Francisco,  where  he  hoped  to  make  arrangements  with 
the  Spanish  authorities  for  an  annual  supply  of  provisions. 
He  examined  the  coast  for  a  suitable  locality  for  settlement, 
on  his  way. 


324 


HISTORY, 


1805.  He  was  at  first  received  with  coolness  by  the  Spanish 
Governor,  Don  Luis  tie  Arguello.  The  latter  had  a  daughter 
named  Donna  Conception,  who  was  remarkably  beautiful. 
The  polished  manners,  manly  beauty,  accomplishments,  and 
intelligence  of  Resanoff  did  not  fail  to  make  an  impression 
on  her.  Resanoff  was  equally  struck  by  the  beauty,  inno- 
cence, and  simple  grace  of  the  Spanish  maiden.  He  did  not 
conceal  his  love,  and  they  were  betrothed.  After  this,  it 
may  be  imagined  that  the  old  Governor  Hstened  to  Resa- 
noff's  plans  with  more  complacency,  and  an  arrangement 
was  entered  into  as  he  had  proposed. 

1806.  He  sailed  for  Sitka  in  June,  1806,  leaving  his  betrothed 
with  the  assurance  of  his  return  as  soon  as  he  could  obtain 
the  imperial  consent  to  the  marriage.  He  arrived  at  Sitka 
safely  and  concluded  his  business.  Too  impatient  to  wait 
for  the  provision  ships,  and  undertake  another  voyage 
around  the  world,  he  sailed  for  Kamchatka,  intending  to 
make  the  journey  overland,  through  Siberia,  to  St.  Peters- 
burg. 

Baranoff,  who  had  looked  with  contempt  on  the  reforms 
which  Resanoff  had  instituted,  lost  no  time  in  restoring,  as 
far  as  he  could,  the  old  condition  of  things  ;  and  the  same 
exactions  and  injustice  continued  to  mark  his  whole  admin- 
istration. He  concluded  an  agreement  with  Charles  Camp- 
bell to  share  in  a  hunting  expedition  to  California,  which 
proved  very  successful.  Several  similar  expeditions  were 
fitted  out,  and  among  them  one  in  the  American  vessel 
Windship.  The  first  vessels  were  built  at  Sitka  during  this 
year.  The  volcano  of  Jodmia  Bogoslova  (St.  John  the  Theo- 
logian) rose  from  the  sea  on  the  ist  of  May. 

In  St.  Petersburg  the  Government  Financial  Bureau  was 
ordered  to  credit  the  Company  to  the  extent  of  200,000 
silver  rubles.  A  special  flag  (the  Russian  mercantile  flag, 
with  the  addition  of  a  double-headed  black  eagle)  was 
granted  to  the  Company,  and  naval  officers  were  permitted 
to  enroll  themselves  in  the  Company's  service. 

Simon  Frazer,  of  the  Northwest  Company's  service,  estab- 
lished a  trading-post  on  Frazer  Lake,  in  lat.  54"^. 

1807.  Resanoff,  overcome  by  the  exposure  and  fatigue  of  a  Si- 


HISTORY.  325 

1S07.  berian  winter  journey,  died  March  ist,  at  Krasnoyarsk  in 
Siberia,  on  his  way  to  St.  Petersburg.  So  ended  the  Ute  of 
the  most  intelligent  and  skilful  reformer  who  had  yet  visited 
Russian  America.  It  is  related  that  his  betrothed,  who  did 
not  know  of  his  death,  at  least  for  many  years,  continued 
constant  and  expectant,  refusing  many  offers  of  marriage. 
Many  years  after,  when  Americans  first  settled  in  Califor- 
nia, and  she  had  become  an  old  woman,  she  was  still  faithful 
to  her  love,  and  daily  scanned  the  Golden  Gate  for  his  ap- 
proaching vessel. 

The  sloop  of  war  Diana,  in  charge  of  Golofnin  and  Ricord, 
left  Cronstadt  on  a  voyage  to  Kamchatka  and  Japan.  The 
brig  Sitka  was  built  in  Norfolk  Sound  by  an  American 
named  Lincoln.  The  American  vessel  Derby,  Captain  Swift, 
arrived  at  Kadiak  from  Canton. 

Seventy  kyaks,  in  charge  of  Eremin,  sent  to  Chatham 
Strait,  were  driven  away  by  the  Thlinkets. 

The  Company's  ship  Neva,  Captain  Hagenmeister,  arrived 
at  Kadiak  from  Ochotsk  with  provisions. 
1808.     Timotheus  TarakanofF  and  Biilegin  visited  the  northwest 
coast  in  the  Company's  sloop  St.  Nikolai. 

The  frequent  complaints  which  were  made  against  Bara- 
noff  induced  the  Directory  to  send  out  Koch  to  succeed 
him  as  Chief  Director  in  the  colonies  ;  but  Koch  died  in 
Kamchatka  in   1808,  while  on  his  way. 

The  Company's  tender,  Avos,  was  lost  near  Unalashka. 
Kuskoff  was  sent,  with  two  vessels  loaded  with  rum,  to  trade 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.  In  returning,  the  Kadiak 
arrived  safely  at  Sitka,  but  the  St.  Nikolai  was  lost.  Captain 
Erse,  of  the  Mercury,  made  a  contract  with  Baranoff  to 
carry  a  hunting  and  trading  expedition  to  the  same  place, 
and  returned  with  a  valuable  cargo.  In  March  an  expedi- 
tion of  one  hundred  bidarkas,  escorted  by  two  armed  vessels, 
endeavored  unsuccessfully  to  induce  the  Thlinkets  to  trade 
with  the  Russians. 

A  conspiracy,  headed  by  Naplakoff  and  Popoft^,  was  di- 
vulged by  Leshinski.  The  plan  was  to  kill  Baranofif,  take 
one  of  the  vessels  and  provision  her,  and  sail  with  a  number 
of  women  to  some  of  the  South  Sea  islands.     The  conspir- 


326  HISTORY. 

1808.  ators  were  arrested,  and  two  years  afterwards  Baranoff  re- 
ceived instructions  to  judge  them  in  the  colony,  without  an^' 
pubHc  demonstration.  It  may  well  be  doubted  if  his  justice 
was  tempered  with  mercy. 

A  proposition  was  made  to  Spain,  by  the  Directory,  to 
purchase  a  small  piece  of  land  in  California,  suitable  for  an 
agricultural  colony.     It  was,  however,  rejected. 

1809.  A  new  conspiracy  among  the  natives  to  destroy  the  Rus- 
sians was  revealed  by  a  native  woman.  An  application  was 
made  to  the  Directory  by  thirty-seven  Russians,  who  desired 
to  settle  permanently  in  the  colony.  Wasiliefif  described  the 
west  coast  of  Baranoff  Island,  and  several  of  the  adjacent 
islands. 

Peter  Shydekin,  a  native,  renewed  the  protest  against 
the  exactions  of  the  Company.  The  Thlinkets  attacked  a 
hunting  party  among  the  islands.  The  Discovery,  306 
tons,  and  the  Chi'rikoff,  120  tons,  were  built  by  Lincoln  at 
Sitka. 

18 10.  John  Jacob  Astor  formed  an  association  in  New  York 
under  the  name  of  the  Pacific  Fur  Company,  and  fitted  out 
the  ship  Tonquin,  Captain  Thorne,  for  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  River.  He  had  the  previous  year  despatched  the 
ship  Enterprise,  Captain  Ebbets,  which  arrived  in  Sitka  in 
July,  1 8 10. 

Captain  Wasili  M.  Golofnin  reached  Sitka  in  the  sloop 
of  war  Diana,  June  loth.  He  brought  a  priest,  the  first  who 
had  arrived  in  the  colony  since  the  wreck  of  the  Phoenix. 

A  ship  and  brig  were  built  at  Sitka,  making  seventeen 
vessels  constructed  in  the  colony  since   1799. 

In  May  an  expedition,  under  Kuskofif,  among  the  islands, 
was  obliged  to  return,  from  the  hostility  of  the  natives, 
who  were  assisted  by  Captain  Gale,  of  an  American  trading 
vessel.  Eight  of  the  Aleutians  were  killed.  The  govern- 
ment vessel  was  allowed  to  take  the  furs  to  Ochotsk  from 
the  colony.  A  party  of  Russians  on  St.  Matthew  Island  were 
nearly  all  starved  to  death  during  the  winter,  by  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  sea  animals,  on  which  they  relied  for  subsistence. 

Ricord  and  Khlebnikofi"  explored  and  named  the  She- 
likoff  Strait,  between  Aliaska  and  Kadiak. 


HISTORY.  327 

[811.  In  January,  Mr.  Astor  despatched  the  second  detachment 
of  traders,  under  Wilson  P.  Hunt,  to  descend  the  Cokimbia 
River.  On  the  24th  of  March  the  Tonquin  arrived  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Cokmibia,  and  the  settlement  of  Astoria  was 
built.  In  October  the  ship  Beaver,  Captain  Sowles,  left  New 
York  with  another  party  of  traders  for  Astoria.  An  agent 
was  also  sent  to  St.  Petersburg  to  negotiate  with  the  Direc- 
tory of  the  Russian  American  Company. 

In  January,  Kuskoff,  on  the  second  expedition  to  Cali- 
fornia, was  refused  water  by  the  Spanish  authorities  at  San 
Francisco.  He  therefore  removed  his  vessel  to  the  north- 
ward, and  bought  a  small  tract  of  land  from  the  natives  on 
Bodega  Bay.  A  river  falling  into  the  bay  was  named  the 
Slavianka.  October  ^,  a  convention  between  John  Jacob 
Astor  and  the  Russian  American  Company  was  approved 
by  the  Emperor  Alexander  I.  Astor  agreed  to  furnish  pro- 
visions and  supplies  at  fixed  prices,  and  to  take  pay  in  furs 
from  the  Company.  They  were  to  mutually  assist  each  other 
against  smugglers,  and  respect  each  other's  hunting-grounds. 
Astor  was  to  take  the  Company's  furs  to  Canton  at  a  fixed 
price  for  freight,  and  sell  them  on  commission.  Both  agreed 
not  to  sell  intoxicating  liquors  to  the  natives.  This  arrange- 
ment was  broken  up  by  the  subsequent  war  betw^een  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States.  The  ship  Tonquin  was  attacked 
by  the  natives  near  the  Straits  of  Fuca,  and  blown  up  by 
those  on  board. 

David  Thompson,  of  the  Northwest  Company,  descended 
the  north  branch  of  the  Columbia  to  Astoria. 
812.  David  Stuart,  of  the  Pacific  Fur  Company,  accompanied 
Thompson  on  his  return,  and  established  a  trading-post  on  a 
branch  of  the  Upper  Columbia.  The  Beaver  arrived  at 
Astoria  on  the  5  th  of  May. 

Hunt  and  his  party,  after  great  sufferings,  reached  Astoria 
early  in  the  year  ;  many  of  them  had  perished  from  desti- 
tution and  privation.  Hunt  sailed  for  Sitka  in  the  Beaver, 
and  concluded  negotiations  with  Baranoff,  which  were  some- 
what interfered  with  by  the  potations  of  the  latter.  Hunt 
then  sailed  for  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  the  Beaver  pro- 
ceeded to  Canton. 


328  HISTORY. 

18 1 2.  The  first  Russian  settlement  in  California  was  made  on 
Bodega  Bay  by  Kuskoff.  This  was  done  with  the  concur- 
rence of  the  Spanish  Government,  though  against  the  wishes 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  missionaries.  On  the  30th  of  August, 
Kuskoff  removed  the  settlement  to  a  hill  one  hundred  and 
ten  feet  high,  near  the  Slavianka  River.  This  was  named 
the  Russian  (Ross)  Settlement,  and  the  inhabitants  were 
principally  devoted  to  agriculture  and  drying  the  meat  of 
the  wild  cattle.  Wheat  was  raised  here  and  sent  to  Sitka, 
and  a  small  trade  was  carried  on  with  the  natives.  The 
Spaniards  regarded  it  with  a  great  deal  of  hostility,  and  inter- 
fered with  the  operations  of  the  Russians  as  much  as  possible. 

18 1 3.  Robert  Stuart,  who  had  left  Astoria  when  Hunt  sailed 
for  Sitka,  reached  New  York  in  the  spring,  after  a  severe 
journey  across  the  continent.  In  June  the  ship  Albatross, 
of  Boston,  arrived  at  the  Sandwich  Islands,  bringing  the 
news  of  the  war  with  Great  Britain,  and  also  that  the  Beaver 
was  blockaded  in  Canton  by  a  British  vessel.  Hunt  sailed 
in  the  former  for  Astoria,  and  then  proceeded  again  to  the 
Sandwich  Islands  after  a  vessel  to  convey  the  Pacific  Com- 
pany's property  to  a  place  of  safety. 

Meanwhile  a  British  squadron  had  been  sent  to  destroy 
the  settlement  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River,  and 
Mactavish,  of  the  Northwest  Company,  arrived  at  Astoria 
to  meet  it.  A  sale  was  effected  by  the  agent  of  the  Pacific 
Company,  by  which  the  property  was  transferred  to  the 
Northwest  Company  for  $58,000,  on  the  i6th  of  October, 
181 3.  A  short  time  after,  the  British  sloop  of  war  Raccoon 
arrived  to  destroy  the  American  post,  and,  finding  it  was 
sold,  formally  hoisted  the  British  flag  and  changed  the  name 
to  Fort  George.  The  ship  Lark  had  been  despatched  to 
Astoria  in  March,  but  was  wrecked  on  the  Sandwich  Islands. 

Baranoff's  star  still  continued  in  the  ascendant.  The 
ship  Neva,  Captain  Podushkin,  from  Ochotsk,  was  \Vrecked 
near  Sitka  on  the  ^,  of  January.  But  twenty-five  of  the 
crew  were  saved,  while  Barono-wolokoff,  who  had  been  sent 
to  supersede  Baranofif,  was  lost  with  thirty-seven  men.  The 
Company's  vessel,  Alexander  Nevski,  was  wrecked  on  the 
Kurile  Islands,  but  no  lives  were  lost.     The  Thlinkets,  while 


HISTORY.  329 

181 3.  endeavoring  to  excite  other  natives  against  the  colony, 
were  attacked  and  defeated.  The  Company's  vessel  Suwar- 
rowr  arrived  with  the  annual  supply  of  provisions  from  St. 
Petersburg,  in  charge  of  Michael  Petrovich  Lasareft". 

1 8 14.  In  February,  Hunt,  in  the  brig  Pedler,  arrived  at  Astoria 
from  the  Sandwich  Islands.  After  closing  the  concerns  of 
the  Pacific  Company  he  embarked  for  Canton.  On  the  24th 
of  December  the  treaty  of  peace  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain  was  signed  at  Ghent. 

A  special  commission  for  the  examination  of  the  affairs 
of  the  Russian  American  Company  was  ordered  at  St. 
Petersburg. 

Baranofif,  preserving  in  his  old  age  the  audacity  of  his 
youth,  was,  however,  already  less  fortunate  in  his  under- 
takings. He  purchased  three  American  vessels,  —  the  Be- 
ring, the  Trevor,  and  the  Ilmen.  The  Trevor  proved  unsea- 
worthy.  Anxious  to  establish  a  trade  with  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  and  well  aware  of  their  growing  importance,  Bara- 
noff  sent  the  Bering  to  negotiate  with  the  native  monarch, 
at  his  invitation.  The  vessel  was  lost  on  Atuia  Island  of 
the  Sandwich  group. 

18 1 5.  On  the  1 8th  of  July,  181 5,  Mr.  Monroe,  Secretary  of 
State,  announced  to  the  British  representative  at  Washing- 
ton that  the  United  States  intended  to  reoccupy  imme- 
diately the  post  of  Astoria,  in  virtue  of  the  first  article  of 
the  treaty  of  Ghent. 

The  brig  Rurik  was  fitted  out  by  the  liberality  of  Count 
Romanzofif,  Counsellor  of  State.  She  sailed  from  St.  Peters- 
burg early  in  the  year,  in  charge  of  Lieutenant  Otto  von 
Kotzebue,*  accompanied  by  Choris,  Escholtz,  Chamisso,  and 
other  savaus. 

An  expedition  in  the  Discovery  induced  the  Thlinkets  to 
trade  for  the  first  time  since  the  massacres.  The  price  paid 
for  furs  was  raised  in  favor  of  the  hunters,  the  old  rate 
being  very  low.  Intercourse  with  the  Sandwich  Islands 
was  again  attempted.  Dr.  Elliott,  an  American,  sent  on 
the  Ilmen  to  the  Ross  Settlement,  was  seized  and  held  pris- 
oner as  a  Russian  spy,  by  the  Spanish  authorities. 

*  Son  of  August  Friedrich  Ferdinand  von  Kotzebue,  the  celebrated  author.     TTe 
was  born  at  Revel,  December  19,  1787,  and  died  there  February  13,  1S46. 


330  HISTORY. 

1816.  Kotzebue  left  Petropavlovsk,  in  the  Rurik,  July  i8th, 
landed  on  St.  Lawrence  Island  July  27th,  passed  through 
Bering  Strait  on  the  31st,  and  on  the  3d  of  August  entered 
and  proceeded  to  explore  the  Sound  which  bears  his  name. 
He  left  it  on  the  14th,  passed  a  little  way  to  the  north- 
ward, and  then  sailed  for  Unalashka. 

The  hunting  during  this  year  was  unfortunate  and  un- 
profitable. Explorations  north  of  Cook's  Inlet  were  ordered 
by  the  Company.  The  vessel  Mary  Magdalene  was  wrecked 
near  Ochotsk,  but  the  cargo  of  furs  was  saved.  Baranoff 
sent  the  vessel  Isabella  on  a  voyage  to  the  Philippine  Isl- 
ands. Father  Solokoff  arrived  at  Sitka  from  Moscow,  and 
took  charge  of  the  colonial  churches.  The  keels  of  eight 
vessels  were  laid  during  the  year.  Hagenmeister  sailed 
from  Cronstadt  with  two  vessels,  September  3d,  for  the 
colonies. 

1817.  Captain  Biddle,  in  the  sloop-of-war  Ontario,  was  sent  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.  Kotzebue  visited  the  Aleutian 
Islands.  The  schooners  Platoff  and  Baranofif  were  built 
in  the  colony. 

On  ^^;|^^,  the  fourth  expedition  from  St.  Petersburg 
with  provisions  arrived  at  Sitka  in  the  Kutusofif  and  Suwar- 
row.  Baranoff,  feeling  that  the  chills  of  age  were  cooling 
the  current  of  his  blood,  worn  out  with  twenty-seven  years' 
service  to  the  Company,  voluntarily  offered  his  resignation 
in  December. 

Golofnin's  second  expedition  with  Liitke,  Wrangell,  and 
fitolin,  was  organized  in  St.  Petersburg. 

Camilla  de  Rocquefeuil  entered  on  his  journey  round  the 
world,  in  which  he  visited  many  parts  of  the  northwest  coast. 

October  6th,  Astoria  was  delivered  to  J.  B.  Prevost,  agent 
for  the  United  States,  by  the  captain  of  the  British  frigate 
Blossom.  Alexander  A.  Baranoff  sailed  for  Batavia  from 
Sitka  in  the  ship  Kutusoff. 

18 18.  January  i-^.  Captain  Leontius  Andrianovich  Hagenmeister 
assumed  the  duties  of  Cliief  Director  of  the  colonies.  Febru- 
ary 20th  he  ordered  that  the  hunters  should  receive  an  an- 
nual salary  instead  of  being  paid  in  merchandise  as  formerly. 
He  was  obliged  to  use  severe  measures  to  restrain  the  dep- 


HISTORY.  331 

18 18.  redations  of  the  natives.  An  American  vessel  was  bought 
and  named  the  Golofnin.  June  ^^,  VasiU  Michaelovich  Go- 
lofnin,  Imperial  Commissioner  for  the  redress  of  abuses,  ar- 
rived in  Kadiak.  On  the  3d  of  December,  Hagenmeister 
resigned  in  favor  of  Lieutenant  Janoftsky,  and  returned  to 
Russia.  Golofnin  was  instructed  to  report  on  the  state  of 
the  Russian  territories  in  America. 

Ustingoff,  Korsakoff,  and  Kolmakoff  were  sent  to  examine 
the  shores  of  Bristol  Bay.  Korsakoff  crossed  Aliaska  from 
Cook's  Inlet  on  foot,  examined  the  coast  northeast  of  it, 
left  a  party  at  Nushergak  and  travelled  along  the  coast 
until  he  met  Ustingoffs  vessel,  which  took  him  round  Cape 
Newenham,  and  into  Kuskoquim  Bay.  Winter  coming  on, 
he  returned  to  Nushergak,  where  Kolmakoff  had  built  a 
fort,  which  has  been  kept  up  ever  since.      Here  he  wintered. 

In  this  year  the  spirit  of  enterprise,  dormant  in  England 
since  the  day  of  Cook  and  Vancouver,  appeared  to  awake. 
The  Arctic  expeditions  of  Ross,  Franklin,  Parry,  Richard- 
son, and  Back  are  too  well  known  to  need  explanation. 
None,  however,  visited  the  North   Pacific. 

1 8 19.  The  exploring  vessels  Discovery,  Good  Intent,  Western, 
and  Peace,  fitted  out  at  St.  Petersburg  for  a  voyage  of  dis- 
covery, under  Wasilieff,  Shishmareff,  Bellingshausen,  and 
Lazereff. 

Klimoffsky  attempted  to  explore  the  Copper  River.  Us- 
tingoff described  Goodnews  Bay.  Janoffsky  made  official 
visits  to  Kadiak,  Unalashka,  and  the  Pribyloff  Islands.  A 
brig  called  the  Buldakoff  was  built  in  the  Californian  set- 
tlement. The  Spanish  schooner  Fortuna,  discovered  ashore, 
with  seven  natives  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  on  board,  was 
taken  as  a  prize  by  the  Company's  vessels.  On  the  ^ 
April,  Captain  Alexander  Andreavich  Baranoff  died  at  Ba- 
tavia  on  his  way  home  to  Russia.  He  was  about  eighty 
years  old,  and  is  said  by  Denys  to  have  died  without  leav- 
ing any  property,  in  spite  of  his  long  and  active  career. 

Golofnin's  report  having  reached  St.  Petersburg,  the  Em- 
peror determined  to  put  an  end  to  the  mismanagement  of 
the  colonies,  and  curb  the  exactions  of  the  traders.  On 
the  8th  of  July,  regulations  were  put  in  force  by  which  the 


332  HISTORY. 

1 8 19.  Chief  Director  became  directly  responsible  to  the  crown  for 
any  misdemeanor,  and  the  condition  of  the  colonies  was 
greatly  improved.  The  death  of  Baranoff  rendered  the  intro^ 
duction  of  these  reforms  less  difficult,  and  the  subsequent 
direction  of  the  colonies  has  been  generally  committed  to 
honorable  and  enlightened  officers,  under  whose  guidance 
the  abuses,  formerly  prevailing  to  so  great  an  extent,  have 
been  removed  or  much  abated. 

In  1 8 19  the  Company  had  settlements  on  five  of  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  four  on  Cook's  Inlet,  two  on  Chugach  Gulf, 
and  one  on  Baranoff  Island,  Sitka  Bay. 

1820.  Captain  Muravieff  succeeded  Janofifsky  as  Chief  Director 
of  the  colonies.  The  Borodino  arrived  at  Sitka  under  Captain 
Ponafidin  with  merchandise  from  Russia.  Schmidt  was  ap- 
pointed Director  of  the  Ross  Colony.  The  bay  of  Bodega 
had  received  the  name  of  Romanzoff^,  from  the  Russians. 
The  Ross  settlement,  according  to  Belcher,  presented  a  quad- 
rilateral of  twenty-five  metres  in  length.  It  contained  houses 
for  the  Director  and  officers,  an  arsenal,  a  barrack  for  the 
men,  storehouses,  and  a  Greek  chapel  surmounted  with  a 
cross,  and  provided  with  a  chime  of  bells.  The  stockade 
was  four  metres  in  height,  pierced  with  embrasures  furnished 
with  carronades.  At  opposite  corners  were  two  bastions, 
two  stories  high,  and  furnished  with  six  pieces  of  artillery. 
The  gardens  were  very  extensive,  and  large  quantities  of 
wheat  were  raised,  and  sent  to  the  northern  establishments. 

Kolmakoff  explored  the  Kuskoquim  River.  The  expedi- 
tion under  Wasilieff  arrived  in  the  North  Pacific.  The  Dis- 
covery went  to  Petropavlovsk  ;  the  Good  Intent  visited  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  afterwards  passing  through  Bering  Strait 
as  far  as  Icy  Cape,  and,  returning,  described  the  island  of 
Nunivak.     Dokhterofif  sailed  for  the  colonies  from  Cronstadt. 

The  first  regularly  resident  physician  was  settled  in  the 
colony.  In  this  year,  Wrangell  and  his  party  commenced 
their  explorations  in  northeastern  Siberia. 

182 1.  5£i!!^''''"LM^    the  charter  of  the  Russian   American    Company 

October   5     '  I  J 

was  renewed  for  twenty  years  by  the  order  of  the  Emperor. 
The  Senate,  by  ukase,  reorganized  the  Company.  The  Em- 
peror also  issued  a  ukase,  in  which  the  whole  west  coast  of 


HISTORY.  ^T,:^ 

1821.  North  America,  north  of  the  51st  parallel,  and  the  east 
coast  of  Asia  north  of  45°  50',  was  declared  Russian  territory, 
and  foreigners  were  prohibited  from  approaching  within  one 
hundred  miles  of  the  coast,  except  when  in  distress.  The 
British  government  protested  against  this  decree  as  soon  as 
it  was  issued,  and  the  United  States  did  the  same  as  soon 
as  official  information  of  it  was  received  from  the  Russian 
government.  The  Russian  authorities  sent  cruisers  to  en- 
force the  ukase,  and  the  brig  Pearl,  of  Boston  for  Sitka,  was 
seized.  The  result  was  the  convention  between  the  United 
States  and  Russia  in  1824.  The  vessels  sent  to  the  west 
coast  by  Russia  were  the  sloop  of  war  Apollo,  under  Tulu- 
bieff,  captain  of  the  first  rank  ;  and  the  brig  Ajax,  under  Phi- 
latofF,  captain  of  the  second  rank.  The  Ajax  was  wrecked 
on  her  way  out,  and,  Tuliibieff  dying,  the  command  of  the 
Apollo  fell  upon  Lieutenant  Krushchoff  (or  Kriitzoff). 

The  brigs  Rurik  and  Elisabeth,  under  Klochkoff  and 
Kislakoffsky,  arrived  in  the  colony,  with  merchandise  from 
Russia,  on  the  5th  of  September.  They  brought  three  eccle- 
siastics. 

1822.  The  exploring  expedition  under  Kramchenko,  Etolin,  and 
Wasilieff  sailed  in  the  ships  Golofnin  and  Baranoff.  They 
examined  the  coasts  of  Norton  Sound,  Bristol  Bay,  and  the 
island  of  Nunivak,  describing  Golofni'na  Bay  and  Golovi'n 
Sound.  The  expedition  continued  during  two  years.  Sha- 
belsky  visited  the  colonies.  Captain-Lieutenant  Andreas 
Petrovich  Lazereff  and  M.  P.  Lazereff,  captain  of  the  second 
rank,  sailed  for  the  colonies  and  the  Californian  coast  in 
the  frigate  Cruiser  and  the  sloop  Ladoga.  They  returned  to 
St.  Petersburg  in  1824. 

1823.  Lieutenant  Otto  Von  Kotzebue  sailed  on  his  second 
journey  round  the  world  in  the  sloop  Enterprise. 

The  Nearer  Islands,  which,  under  the  name  of  the  Atka 
District,  had  been  included  in  the  government  of  Ochotsk, 
were  surrendered  to  the  Colonial  Direction. 

Father  Frument  Mordoffski  was  sent  as  missionary  to 
Kadiak.  The  Ladoga  visited  Sitka  in  November.  Hogs 
were  placed  on  a  barren  island  near  the  Chernobour  Reef 
Kramchenko  visited  Yakutat  Bay. 


334 


HISTORY. 


1823.  The  calling  of  a  convention,  to  settle  the  boundary  ques- 
tion between  Russian  and  American  territory  on  the  west 
coast,  was  made  the  occasion,  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  for  a  declaration  of  the  Monroe  doctrine,  which  de- 
layed a  settlement. 

1824.  The  convention  between  the  United  States  and  Russia 
was  signed  at  St.  Petersburg,  April  f,  1824.  It  provided 
that  the  North  Pacific  should  be  open  to  citizens  of  both 
nations  for  fishing,  trading,  and  navigation,  except  that  the 
trading-posts  of  either  of  the  contracting  parties  should  not 
be  visited  by  subjects  of  the  other  party  without  the  consent 
of  the  officer  in  command.  The  Russians  were  not  to  make 
any  settlements  south  of  latitude  54°  40',  nor  the  Americans 
any  north  of  that  parallel.  It  was  provided,  that,  at  the  end 
of  ten  years,  the  liberty  to  navigate  the  Russian  waters  and 
trade  with  the  natives  might  be  abrogated  by  Russia,  and  in 
no  case  were  arms,  ammunition,  or  liquor  to  be  sold  to  the 
natives.  The  brig  Pearl  was  released,  and  the  owners  in- 
demnified. Lieutenants  Chi'stakofif  and  Muraviefif  sailed  in 
the  Company's  ship  Helen  from  Cronstadt  for  the  colonies. 
Kotzebue  reached  Sitka  August  ^,  in  the  Enterprise.  Meek 
and  Blanchard,  American  traders,  arrived  at  Sitka  from 
Boston.  Krushchoff"  explored  in  the  Alexander  Archipelago. 
Father  Innocentius  Veniaminofif,  the  noble  and  devoted  mis- 
sionary, was  sent  to  Unalashka,  and  began  his  labors  among 
the  Aleuts. 

1825.  February^,  a  convention  between  Great  Britain  and  Rus- 
sia was  concluded.  It  recognized  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  Russian  possessions  as  the  parallel  of  54°  40'.  Otherwise 
it  resembled  the  previous  agreement  with  the  United  States. 

Franklin  undertook  his  second  journey  westward  from  the 
Mackenzie  River. 

May  19,  1825,  Captain  F.  W.  Beechey,  in  H.  M.  S.  Blos- 
som, sailed  from  England  to  co-operate  from  Bering  Strait 
with  Parry  and  other  eastern  expeditions.  Lieutenant  Chi's- 
takofif succeeded  Muraviefif  in  the  direction  of  the  colonies. 
He  transferred  the  principal  depot  of  the  Company  from 
Sitka  to  St.  Paul,  Kadiak.  Father  Jacob  Netsvielofif  was 
sent  as  missionary  to  the  Aleuts  of  Atka. 


HISTORY.  335 

1826.  Captain  Fr.  Lutke,  in  the  corvette  Seniavinc,  with  the 
naturalists  KittHtz,  Postels,  and  Mertens,  sailed  on  a  voyage 
of  discovery  from  St.  Petersburg.  On  the  27th  of  June, 
Beechey  reached  Kamchatka,  and,  passing  through  Bering 
Strait,  entered  Kotzebue  Sound  in  July.  He  pushed  as  far 
north  as  the  ice  would  permit,  and  then  sent  out  a  boat  ex- 
pedition under  Mr.  Elson,  which  reached  and  named  Point 
Barrow.  About  the  i8th  of  August,  Frankhn,  coming  from 
the  east,  reached  Return  Reef,  his  most  western  point.  The 
Blossom  then  left  Kotzebue  Sound  for  San  Francisco,  whence 
she  sailed  for  the  Sandwich  Islands  and  Macao,  in  this  man- 
ner consuming  the  winter. 

Failure  of  crops  in  the  Ross  Colony,  during  this  and  sev- 
eral subsequent  years,  reduced  the  annual  contribution  of 
flour  from  that  point  to  about  30,000  pounds. 

Captain  Chistakofif  removed  a  number  of  Aleuts  from 
Amlia  to  Atka  Island,  at  their  own  request. 

1827.  The  Seniavine  reached  Sitka  June  27,  1827.  Here  she 
remained  until  July  31st.  After  visiting  Unalashka,  the 
Pn'byloff  Islands,  and  St.  Matthew,  she  sailed  to  Petro- 
pavlovsk,  and  then  southward  for  the  winter. 

The  Blossom  returned  to  Bering  Strait  from  Macao,  but 
accomplished  little  or  nothing,  sailing  for  England  October 
7,  1827. 

Etolin  brought  a  cargo  of  salt  from  California  to  the 
colony. 

All  the  hogs  on  Chernobour  Island  perished  from  the  tidal 
wave  which  accompanied  an  earthquake  and  eruption  of  the 
volcano  on  Unimak. 

On  the  6th  of  August  a  convention  was  agreed  upon  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  leaving  the  terri- 
tory west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  open  to  all  parties  for  ten 
years. 

1828.  Captain-Lieutenant  Hagenmeister  sailed,  in  the  transport 
Krotky,  on  a  scientific  expedition  to  the  colonies.  Captain 
Staninkovich  explored  and  determined  many  points  on  the 
north  coast  of  Aliaska.  Kramchenko  sailed  from  the  colo- 
nies in  the  Helena.  The  ninth  provision  ship  arrived  from 
St.  Petersburg.     The  Company  sent  fifty-eight  tons  of  salt 


336 


HISTORY. 


1828.  to  Kamchatka  for  the  government.  Liitke  returned  to 
Kamchatka  in  May,  and  examined  that  coast  as  far  north 
as  Bering  Strait,  returning  southward  in  September. 

1829.  The  Company  determined  to  pay  for  foreign  merchandise 
in  future  with  bills  of  exchange  instead  of  furs. 

Vasi'liefif  (not  Wasilieff)  explored  the  coast  to  the  Kusko- 
quim.  Father  Veniaminoff  visited  Nushergak  and  baptized 
thirteen  natives.  Ingenstrom  visited  the  Andreanoffski  Isl- 
ands and  Attu. 

1830.  Chernofif  examined  the  harbor  of  Niichek,  Chtagaluk 
Island,  and  the  mouth  of  the  Kaknu  River.  Kolmakofif 
renewed  his  explorations  toward  the  Kuskoqiiim.  Etolin, 
Wasi'lieft",  and  others  explored  more  thoroughly  the  coasts 
of  Norton  Sound  and  Golovi'n  Sound. 

On  the  I  November  the  Company  took  formal  posses- 
sion of  the  Kurile  Islands. 

183 1.  Baron  F.  P.  Von  Wrangell  was  appointed  Director  of  the 
colonies. 

The  crew  and  cargo  of  a  small  vessel  called  the  Sea- 
Lion,  wrecked  on  Atka  Island,  were  saved  by  the  presence 
of  mind  of  Ingenstrom,  the  pilot.  The  American  ship  Caer- 
narvon arrived  in  Sitka  with  merchandise  from  England 
and  Brazil.  Vasi'lieff  explored  the  south  coast  of  Aliaska. 
Kramchenko  sailed  for  the  colonies  in  the  government  trans- 
port America.    Tebenkofif  visited  Norton  Bay. 

1832.  Chief  Director  Wrangell  made  a  tour  of  the  colonies, 
especially  inspecting  Nushergak.  The  chief  depot  and  capi- 
tal of  the  territory  was  decided  finally  to  be  located  at  Sitka. 
Lukeen  was  sent  across  the  portage  from  Nushergak  to  the 
Kuskoqiiim,  where  he  established  a  trading-post. 

Father  Veniaminoff  baptized  seventy  natives  at  Nush- 
ergak. 

1833.  A  ukase  was  promulgated  April  ^,  by  the  ministers  of  the 
crown,  allowing  all  Russians,  under  certain  restrictions,  to 
become  residents  of  the  colony. 

By  order  of  Baron  Wrangell,  Michael  Tebenkofif  estab- 
lished Fort  St.  Michael's  on  Norton  Sound.  Assistant 
Director  Muraviefif  introduced  important  reforms  into  the 
hitherto  destructive  pursuit  of  the  sea  animals.     (See  Chap- 


HISTORY. 


?>2>7 


1833.  ter  VI.  Part  II.)  An  observatory  was  established  at  Sitka. 
Explorations  in  the  Alexander  Archipelago  were  carried  on 
by  Etolin  and  Zaremba. 

1834.  The  Russian  government,  under  the  fourth  article  of  the 
convention  of  1824,  withdrew  the  privilege  of  free  naviga- 
tion of  their  waters  from  American  traders.  This  course 
was  prompted  by  the  sale  of  fire-arms  and  spirits  to  the 
natives  by  unscrupulous  traders.  The  American  Minister 
protested  against  the  action  of  Russia,  but  without  effect. 
The  convention  with  Great  Britain  would  terminate  the 
following  year.  The  insatiable  Hudson  Bay  Company,  ever 
ready  to  extend  their  traffic  by  force,  or  fraud  if  necessary, 
conceived  the  audacious  idea  of  establishing  a  fort  on  the 
Russian  territory  before  the  term  expired.  They  fitted  out 
the  vessel  Dryad  with  colonists,  cattle,  and  arms,  and  de- 
spatched her  to  the  mouth  of  the  Stiki'ne  River. 

Baron  Wrangell  was  informed  of  the  project,  and  de- 
spatched Lieutenant  Dionysius  Zaremba,  in  the  armed  brig 
Chi'chagoff'  with  the  schooner  Chilkaht,  who  built  Fort  Diony- 
sius on  a  small  harbor  near  the  mouth  of  the  Stiki'ne,  and 
thus  checked  the  encroachments  of  the  English,  who  were 
not  suffered  to  land.  The  latter  were  very  indignant,  and 
declared  that  £  20,000  had  been  spent  in  fitting  out  and 
loading  the  vessel,  which  was,  no  doubt,  a  gross  exaggeration. 
Remonstrances  were  useless,  and  they  were  obliged  to  return 
to  Fort  Vancouver  on  the  Columbia  River,  where  they 
had  been  fitted  out.  This  matter  was  immediately  brought 
before  the  English  government,  who  demanded  satisfaction, 
through  their  agents,  for  an  alleged  infraction  of  the  treaty 
of  1825. 

The  Suchi'tna  River  was  explored  by  Malakoff.  The 
incompetency  of  an  overseer  in  the  Pribyloff"  Islands  par- 
tially frustrated  the  measures  adopted  by  Muraviefif  for 
the  preservation  of  the  seal.  Father  Veniami'noff  was  pro- 
moted to  a  bishopric,  and  transferred  to  Sitka.  John 
McLeod,  a  trader  from  Liards  River,  discovered  the  head- 
waters of  the  Stiki'ne. 
1835.  An  imperial  ukase  removed  the  restrictions,  and  allowed 
all  Russian  subjects  to  settle  in  the  colonies. 


33^  HISTORY. 

1835.  In  this  and  following  years,  Glasunoff  explored  the  deltas 
of  the  Yukon  and  Kuskoqiiim  rivers,  ascending  the  former 
to  Anvi'k.  Captain  Tebenkoff  sailed  for  the  colonies  from 
Russia,  in  the  Company's  vessel  Helena. 

The  crops  failed  in  the  Ross  Colony,  and  this  caused  a 
scarcity  of  provisions  in  the  settlements. 

1836.  Baron  Wrangell  was  succeeded  by  Captain  Kuprianoft* 
in  the  General  Direction  of  the  colonies.  The  tenth  pro- 
vision ship  Helena  arrived,  April  ^,  at  Sitka,  in  charge  of 
Tebenkofif. 

Redoubt  St.  Michael,  attacked  by  the  natives,  was  success- 
fully defended  by  Kurupanoff.  The  crops  failed  again  in 
the  California  settlement.  In  July  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany organized  the  expedition  of  Dease  and  Simpson. 

Small-pox  appeared  at  Sitka.  Kolmakoft^  ascended  the 
Kuskoquim  with  bidarras.  Woronkoftsky  explored  the  south 
coast  of  Aliaska. 

Dupetit  Thenars  sailed  on  his  voyage  round  the  world,  in 
which  he  visited  the  northwest  coast. 

Captain  Sir  Edward  Belcher,  sailed  on  his  voyage  round 
the  world.  "^ 

1837.  The  dispute  between  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  and  the 
Russian  American  Company  was  compromised.  The  strip 
of  mainland  from  the  southern  boundary  to  Cape  Spencer 
was  leased  for  ten  years  to  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  who 
were  to  pay  an  annual  rental  of  furs,  and  furnish  a  certain 
amount  of  provisions  annually  at  fixed  rates.  This  arrange- 
ment was  concluded  in  Hamburg,  and  Fort  St.  Dionysius 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  English. 

July  9th,  Peter  Warren  Dease  and  Thomas  Simpson  left 
the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  River  in  two  open  boats,  to 
explore  the  Arctic  coast  to  the  westward.  On  the  24th  they 
arrived  at  Return  Reef,  Franklin's  farthest  point  in  1826. 
August  1st,  Simpson  left  the  boats  in  the  ice,  and  reached 
Point  Barrow  on  foot  August  4th.  On  the  17th  of  August 
they  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  on  their  return. 

Sir  Edward  Belcher  visited  the  coast  in  the  Sulphur. 
He  touched  at  various  points  on  the  coasts  and  islands  be- 
tween Sitka  and  Kadiak.     Captain  Berens,  with  the  Com- 


HISTORY. 


339 


1837.  pany's  vessel  Nikolai  I.,  arrived,  August  17th,  at  Sitka. 
Schooner  Chilkaht,  with  Woronkoffsky  on  board,  was  wrecked 
near  Aliaska.  Provisions,  whiskey,  rum,  and  a  steam-engine 
arrived  at  Sitka  from  Boston.  During  this  and  several  fol- 
lowing years  the  small-pox  raged  among  the  natives  of  the 
coast,  slaying  thousands.  The  shamans  discouraged  vacci- 
nation, and  it  spread  everywhere. 

The  Company  provided  for  three  native  schools.  The 
Thlinket  chief  Kuat-he  voluntarily  freed  his  slaves.  Rev- 
erend Father  Germain,  the  oldest  missionary  in  the  colonies, 
died  on  Spruce  Island  near  Kadiak,  soon  after  he  had  finished 
a  mausoleum  in  memory  of  Archbishop  Joasaph. 

1838.  Kushevaroff  explored  the  northern  coasts  as  far  as  Point 
Barrow  in  the  brig  Potifar.  Lindenberg  continued  the  re- 
searches among  the  islands  near  Sitka.  He  particularly 
examined  Lynn  Canal  and  the  Chilkaht  River.  A  colony 
of  Aleuts  were  placed  on  Amlia  Island,  in  consequence  of 
the  great  increase  of  the  blue  foxes  which  had  been  intro- 
duced there  by  the  Company. 

Father  Golovin  baptized  one  hundred  and  five  natives  of 
Nushergak. 

Malakotf  ascended  the  Yukon  to  Nulato.  He  left  a  force 
under  Notarmi  to  build  a  trading-post.  These  men  returned 
for  want  of  provisions  to  the  Redoubt  in  the  fall.  During 
the  winter  the  Indians  plundered  and  burned  the  buildings 
which  had  been  erected. 

The  United  States  Exploring  Expedition,  under  Lieu- 
tenant Charles  Wilkes,  was  organized.  The  sloops  of  war 
Vincennes  and  Peacock,  store-ship  Relief,  brig  Porpoise, 
schooners  Sea-Gull  and  Flying-Fish  sailed  from  the  Chesa- 
peake, August  19,  1838,  and  passed  around  Cape  Horn.  The 
unfortunate  Sea-Gull  was  lost  with  all  on  board. 

1839.  The  Hudson  Bay  Company  agreed  to  furnish  the  Russian 
American  Company  annually  with  560,000  lbs.  wheat,  19,920 
lbs.  flour,  16,160  lbs.  pease,  16,160  lbs.  barley,  36,880  lbs. 
bacon,  19,920  lbs.  beef,  and  3,680  lbs.  ham,  at  fixed  prices. 

The  Company's  vessel  Nikolai  I.,  Captain  Kadnikoff,  sailed 
for  the  colonies,  carrying  the  preparator  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  Elia  Wossnessensky,  to  make  collections,  and  obser- 


340  HISTORY. 

1839.  vations  on  natural  history  on  the  northwest  coast  of 
America.  Murasheff  examined  KuprianofF  Straits  and  the 
Kadiak  Archipelago. 

Father  Veniaminoff  presented  a  plan  for  the  more  efficient 
organization  of  the  colonial  missions. 

Mount  St.  Elias  is  recorded  for  the  first  time  as  having 
emitted  smoke.  The  sloop  Aleut,  under  Kashevaroff,  was 
wrecked  near  Kadiak.  Robert  Campbell's  Fort  Drew,  on 
the  Liard's  River,  was  plundered  by  the  natives.  Part  of  the 
inhabitants  escaped  to  Fort  Halkett. 

1840.  Kuprianoff  was  succeeded  by  Etolin  as  Chief  Director  of 
the   colonies. 

A  new  contract  was  entered  into  with  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company,  leasing  the  strip  of  coast  already  referred  to.  A 
Hudson  Bay  post  was  estabhshed  at  the  head  of  Glacier 
Arm  of  Stephen's  Strait.  The  Taku  (not  Tahco)  River  was 
ascended  by  Douglas  for  thirty-five  miles.  Captain  Kadni- 
koff  arrived  with  the  twelfth  provision  ship,  May  ist,  from 
Russia.  The  hierarchy  of  the  colonies  was  reorganized  in 
conformity  with  Veniaminoff's  recommendations  and  detached 
from  the  diocese  of  Irkutsk.  A  trading-post  was  built  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Unalakli'k  River,  Norton  Sound.  The  small- 
pox disappeared  from  the  colonies. 

1 84 1.  The  coast  of  Northwest  America  was  visited  by  Wilkes's 
Exploring  Expedition.  On  the  27th  of  April  the  Vincennes 
visited  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  and  the  Straits  of  Fuca, 
and  sent  several  exploring  parties  into  the  interior.  The 
Peacock  was  lost  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  July  18th. 
In  the  autumn  the  expedition  sailed  southward. 

The  thirteenth  provision  ship,  under  Lieutenant  D.  F.  Za- 
r^mba,  reached  Sitka  April  3d,  with  Lieutenant  Zagoskin, 
I.  R.  N.,  on  board. 

The  government  transport  Abo,  Captain  Junker,  visited 
Ochotsk  and  the  colonies.  Sir  George  Simpson  visited  many 
points  on  the  coast.  De  Mofras  visited  California  and  Green- 
ough  the  Columbia  River.  Captain  Kashevaroff  explored 
the  coast  of  Bering  Sea,  north  of  Bristol  Bay.  Lukeen's 
Fort  on  the  Kuskoquim  was  partly  destroyed  by  the  Indians. 

Etolin  established  a  periodical  fair  for  the  natives  around 


HISTORY. 


.341 


1841.  Sitka.  The  post  at  Nulato  on  the  Yukon  was  rebuilt  by 
Derabin,  who  remained  in  command.  The  Ross  settlement 
in  California  was  sold  to  Captain  John  Sutter  for  $30,000. 
Part  of  this  was  paid  in  cash,  and  815,000  was  afterwards 
paid  to  the  Company's  agent  in  San  Francisco,  a  Mr.  Stew- 
art. Stewart  absconded  with  the  money.  In  consequence  of 
this  and  the  expenses  of  proseciUion  a  deficit  appeared  on 
the  Company's  books  of  37,484  rubles,  50  kopeks. 

1842.  In  December  Mr.  Linn,  M.  C.  from  Missouri,  brought  a 
bill  before  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  for  the  occupa- 
tion of  Oregon.  This  bill  was  passed  by  the  Senate  near  the 
close  of  the  session.  Negotiations  were  entered  into  soon 
after  by  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  to  come  to  a 
conclusion  in  regard  to  the  western  territories  of  America. 
Lieutenant  Zagoskin  visited  the  valley  of  the  Yukon,  and 
reached  Nulato  in  the  autumn. 

Creoles  were  qualified  for  entering  the  church  as  priests. 
Michael  Kutkan,  a  Christian  native,  was  made  a  tyone  or 
chief  of  the  Sitka  Thlinkets. 

1843.  Zagoskin  ascended  the  Yukon  to  Nowikakat.  A  party 
sent  to  explore  Plavezhnoi  Lake  were  unable  to  make  their 
explorations  on  account  of  the  hostility  of  the  natives. 

Fremont  started  on  his  journey  to  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region. 

1844.  The  charter  of  the  Russian  American  Company  was  re- 
newed for  twenty  years  by  the  Emperor  Nicholas  I.  This 
dated  from  the   ist  of  January,  [842. 

Malakoff  examined  the  Suchi'tna,  and  Gregorieff  renewed 
the  attempt  to  explore  the  Copper  River.  Kashevarofif  con- 
tinued his  investigations  on  the  shores  of  Bering  Sea. 

Etolin  consolidated  seventy-five  Aleutian  settlements  on 
Kadiak  into  seven  regular  villages.  The  first  school  was  or- 
ganized for  the  natives  at  Sitka. 

1845.  The  Company  established  a  factory  at  Aian  on  the 
Ochotsk  Sea  J^^".     March  -,  Etolin  issued  strict  instructions 

July  9  21' 

as  to  the  manner  in  which  employes  should  treat  the  natives. 
No  servant  of  the  Company  was  allowed  to  strike  a  native 
except  in  defence  of  his  life. 

May  p,  the  brig  Chichagoff  was  run  on  shore  on  Copper 


342  HISTORY. 

1845.  lo.  -1  to  save  her  from  foundering,  by  Captain  Martin 
Klinkofstrom,  who  wintered  there  with  his  party.  Etolin 
was  succeeded  by  Captain  Michael  D.  Tebenkoff  as  Chief 
Director  of  the  colonies.  Harder  ascertained  the  astro- 
nomical position  of  the  volcano  of  St.  Paul  in  Aliaska. 

1846.  In  April,  war  was  declared  between  the  United  States 
and  Mexico.  Before  this  was  known  in  CaHfornia  some 
trouble  arose  there,  and  the  Mexicans  attempted  to  expel 
the  American  settlers.  Commodore  Stockton  arrived  at 
Monterey  with  the  news  of  the  declaration  of  \^r.  The 
Mexicans,  under  General  Castro,  retreated,  and  Stockton  pro- 
claimed the  sovereignty  of  the  United  States  over  the  terri- 
tory. Several  battles"  followed  in  January  of  the  next  year, 
in  which  the  Mexicans  were  routed,  and,  by  the  treaty  of 
peace  which  soon  vfollowed,  California  was  ceded  to  the 
United  States  for  fifteen  millions  of  dollars. 

The  long-deferred  question  of  the  northwestern  boundary 
of  the  United  States,  which  had  been  omitted  in  the  Ash- 
burton  treaty  of  1842,  now  came  up  for  settlement.  The 
United  States  claimed  all  the  territory  south  of  54°  40'  on 
the  Pacific  Coast,  and  Great  Britain  claimed  all  that  between 
54°  40'  and  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River.  Both  parties 
compromised  on  the  parallel  of  49°  north  latitude  as  the 
dividing  line  between  their  territories. 

The  Company's  commercial  transactions  with  the  Sand- 
wich Islands  for  the  first  time  proved  profitable.  The  ves- 
sel Sitka,  Captain  Conradi,  sailed  from  Russia  for  the  colo- 
nies. The  Thlinkets  attacked,  and  took  possession  of,  the 
fort  at  the  mouth  of  the  Stiki'ne  River.  Benzeman  explored 
the  islands  north  of  Kadiak,  and  determined  their  astronom- 
ical position. 

1847.  McMurray  descended  the  Porcupine  River,  and  built  Fort 
Yukon  near  its  mouth.  A  general  earthquake  was  felt  on 
the  northwest  coast.  It  was  very  severe  at  Sitka.  Mounts 
Baker,  St.  Elias,  and  St.  Paul  in  Afiaska,  showed  signs  of 
eruption. 

1848.  The  Company's  vessel  Atka  sailed  from  St.  Petersburg  for 
the  colonies,  under  Captain  Riedell.  She  brought  the 
mining  engineer,  Doroshin,  who  examined  Baranoff  Lsland 


HISTORY. 


343 


1848.  and  Cook's  Inlet  for  mineral  wealth,  and  also  vi  1  Califor- 
nia. Serebrannikoff  and  two  other  Russians,  with  six  Aleuts, 
ascended  the  Copper  River.  His  profligacy  excited  the  hos- 
tility of  the  natives,  who  killed  him  and  three  of  the  party, 
but  delivered  up  his  papers.  Woiwodsky  succeeded  Teben- 
koA'as  Chief  Director  of  the  colonies. 

Hellt  and  Archimandritofif  determined,  astronomically, 
many  points  about  the  peninsula  of  Kenai.  The  transport 
Baikal,  Captain  Nevelsky,  sailed  from  Russia  for  the  colo- 
nies. 

Captain  Sir  John  Franklin  hafing  sailed  in  1845,  with 
Captain  Crozier,  in  the  Erebus  and  Terror,  in  search  of  a 
Northwest  Passage,  and  no  news  from  them  having  been  re- 
ceived since  the  25th  of  July  of  that  year,  the  government 
of  Great  Britain  determined  to  send  out  three  expeditions  in 
search  of  the  missing  vessels.  This  inaugurated  the  most 
flourishing  era  of  arctic  exploration.  Only  such  as  visited 
the  Pacific  will  be  noticed  here,  but  many  expeditions,  pub- 
lic and  private,  were  fitted  out  by  England,  France,  and  the 
United  States  for  the  same  purpose.  Although  unsuccessful 
in  finding  any  survivors,  these  expeditions  have  added  very 
greatly  to  our  knowledge  of  the  northern  regions  ;  the  cour- 
age, energy,  and  endurance  shown  by  those  engaged  in  them 
can  never  be  too  highly  praised.  The  Plover,  Commander 
Thomas  E.  L.  Moore,  sailed  from  Sheerness  January  i,  1848, 
to  join  the  Herald,  Captain  Henry  Kellett,  C.  B.,  at  Panama, 
whence  they  were  to  proceed  to  Petropavlovsk  and  Bering 
Strait,  and  co-operate  with  expeditions  from  the  Atlantic  and 
the  Mackenzie  River.  The  Plover  was  a  slow  sailer,  and  (her 
plan  being  changed)  she  did  not  reach  the  Sandwich  Islands 
until  August  22d,  too  late  for  investigations  in  the  region  of 
Bering  Strait.  She  proceeded  to  Plover  Bay,  and,  deciding 
to  winter  there,  .jvas  laid  up  in  an  arm  of  the  bay,  called 
Emma  Harbor  by  Captain  Moore. 

In  the  summer  of  "1848  the  first  whaler  ventured  through 
Bering  Strait.  This  was  the  American  ship  Superior,  Cap- 
tain Roys.  He  was  rewarded  for  his  enterprise  with  a  full 
ship  in  a  very  short  time  ;  the  report  of  his  success  spread- 
ing, he  was  imitated,  the  following  season,  by  one  hundred 


344  HISTORY. 

1848.  and  fifty-four  American  whalers,  and  the  whale  fishery 
was  thus  permanently  established  north  of  the  Strait. 

1849.  In  February  of  this  year,  gold  was  discovered  on  Captain 
Sutter's  farm  in  California,  Special  explorations  were  made 
in  the  vicinity  of  Resurrection  Bay,  by  the  orders  of  the 
Company. 

In  June  the  Plover  left  her  winter  quarters  and  sailed  for 
Kotzebue  Sound,  arriving  near  Chamisso  Island  on  the  14th 
of  July.  The  next  day  she  was  joined  by  the  Herald  and 
the  yacht  Nancy  Dawson,  owned  by  Robert  Shedden,  Esq., 
who  had  volunteered  to  assist  in  the  search.  July  i8th,  the 
vessels  left  the  Sound.  Two  whale-boats,  under  Lieutenant 
Pullen,  were  despatched  to  examine  the  coast  to  the  north- 
ward. On  the  17th  of  August,  land  was  seen,  and  the  same 
day  Captain  Kellett  landed  on  an  island,  which  he  named 
Herald  Island,  after  his  ship.  At  the  same  time  high  peaks 
w'ere  seen,  probably  those  of  Wrangell  Land.  The  boat  ex- 
pedition reached  Point  Barrow  in  company  with  the  yacht, 
which  returned  from  that  point.  The  boats  kept  on,  reach- 
ing the  Mackenzie  River  on  the  25th  of  August,  and  Fort 
Macpherson  on  the  5th  of  September  ;  from  which  point 
they  made  their  way  home  by  way  of  Norway  House,  York 
Factory,  and  Hudson  Bay.  The  Plover  wintered  in  Kotze- 
bue Sound,  while  the  Herald  returned  through  Bering  Strait 
and  sailed  for  Mazatlan. 

The  Company's  vessel  Atka  arrived  in  the  colonies,  under 
Riedell,  for  the  second  time.  A  vessel  loaded  with  old  and 
worthless  goods  was  sent  to  California,  and  realized  large 
profits.  Subsequent  attempts  of  the  same  kind  were  not  so 
successful. 

1850.  On  the  9th  of  September,  California  was  admitted  to  the 
Union  as  a  State. 

On  the  20th  of  January,  Captain  Richard  Collinson  and 
Commander  Robert  S.  LeM.  M'Clure,  in  the  Enterprise 
and  Investigator,  sailed  from  Plymouth.  They  were  to  en- 
deavor to  reach  the  Plover  in  Kotzebue  Sound  in  July.  Col- 
linson sailed  eastward  from  Bering  Strait,  after  leaving 
Lieutenant  Barnard  and  Surgeon  Adams  with  one  man  at 
St.  Michael's  Redoubt,  Norton   Sound,  to  prosecute  their  re- 


HISTORY.  345 

1850.  searches  in  the  Yukon  Valley.  He  could  not  pass  Point 
Barrow  on  account  of  ice,  and  returned  to  winter  in  Hong 
Kong. 

M'Clure,  who  arrived  earlier  in  the  season,  passed  Point 
Barrow,  examined  the  coast  of  America  to  Cape  Parry,  dis- 
covered Prince  of  Wales  Strait,  Prince  Albert  and  Baring 
Islands,  and  M'Clure  Strait.  He  wintered  in  Prince  of 
Wales  Strait.  The  Plover  reached  Cape  Lisburne,  meeting 
the  Investigator  there  August  ist,  and  wintered  at  Grantley 
Harbor. 

Captain  Mitkoff  disposed  of  colonial  timber  at  Guaymas 
very  profitably.  From  this  date,  cattle  were  successfully 
bred  at  Kadiak  and  Cook's  Inlet.  A  whaling  company 
was  organized  by  the  Russian  government,  and  the  first 
vessels  employed  in  the  fishery  sailed  December  ;l 

During  the  winter  Captain  Bedford  Pim  made  explora- 
tions between  Norton  and  Kotzebue  Sounds  and  Grantley 
Harbor.  Barnard  went  with  Derabin  to  Nulato  in  the 
winter,  leaving  Mr.  Adams  at  the  Redoubt. 

185 1.  Collinson  returned  to  Bering  Strait  in  the  spring,  passed 
Point  Barrow,  reached  Melville  Sound,  and,  returning,  win- 
tered in  Walker  Bay. 

M'Clure,  finding  the  southern  extremity  of  Prince  of 
Wales  Strait  closed  by  ice,  passed  along  the  west  and 
north  coast  of  Baring  Island,  and  anchored  in  Mercy  Bay  in 
sight  of  Melville  Island.     Here  he  wintered. 

Meanwhile  the  Koyukuns  had  attacked  Nulato  in  Febru- 
ary, 185 1,  as  elsewhere  described.  Barnard  was  killed,  and 
Adams,  after  burying  him  near  the  fort,  returned  to  St. 
Michael's.  Captain  Pim  sailed  for  England  in  the  Plover. 
Fort  Selkirk,  established  by  Robert  Campbell  on  the  Upper 
Yukon,  was  plundered  by  the  Indians  and  burned,  but  the 
inmates  were  not  injured. 

During  this  and  the  two  following  years  the  Company's 
vessels  supplied  the  government  posts  in  Kamchatka  with 
provisions. 

1852.  M'Clure  was  held  by  the  ice  all  summer  in  Mercy  Bay. 
Collinson  surveyed  Minto  Inlet  and  Prince  Albert  Sound ; 

passed  through  Dolphin,  Union,  and  Dease  Straits ;  and  win- 
tered in  Cambridge  Bay,  Victoria  Land. 


346  HISTORY. 

1852.  Captain  Tebenkoff  prepared  a  hydrographic  atlas  of  the 
colonies. 

The  scarcity  of  ice,  which  had  previously  been  sent  at 
great  expense  from  Boston  around  the  Horn  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, induced  some  San  Francisco  merchants  to  send  to 
Sitka  to  obtain  a  supply.  The  vessel  arrived  in  February, 
1852,  and  took  on  board  250  tons,  for  which  the  Company 
received  about  $  18,000,  at  $  75  per  ton.  In  October  an 
agent  was  sent  from  Sitka  to  California,  where  a  temporary 
arrangement  was  made  by  the  Company  to  furnish  1,000  tons 
annually  at  $  35  a  ton.  The  Company  which  agreed  to  take 
the  ice  was  called  the  American  Russian  Trade  Company, 
and  the  contract  was  binding  for  three  years  only. 

The  Sitka-kwan  (or  Sitka  Thlinkets)  murdered  forty 
Stiki'ne-kwan  (Stiki'ne  Thlinkets)  who  came  to  hold  a  coun- 
cil with  the  Russians  at  Sitka.  The  hospital  at  the  Sulphur 
Springs  near  Sitka  was  destroyed  by  the  natives.  The 
Amphitrite,  Captain  Charles  Frederick,  and  the  Plover, 
Commander  Rochefort  Maguire,  sailed  from  England  for 
Bering  Strait,  wintering  at  Point  Barrow.  The  Resolute, 
Captain  Henry  Kellett,  sailed  from  England  from  the  Atlan- 
tic to  Melville  Island,  and  wintered  near  Dealy  Island. 

1853.  M'Clure,  being  fast  in  the  ice,  made  arrangements  for 
sending  the  weaker  part  of  his  crew  to  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company's  posts  on  the  Mackenzie,  and  for  proceeding  over 
the  ice  with  the  more  able  men  to  Lancaster  Sound.  To 
their  great  joy  and  surprise,  Captain  Bedford  Pim,  whom 
they  had  left  near  Bering  Strait,  appeared  with  a  sledge  party 
from  the  Resolute.  Pim  had  found  a  note  left  by  M'Clure  at 
Winter  Harbor,  Melville  Island,  and  reached  the  Investiga- 
tor in  the  spring.  The  crew  of  the  latter  were  transferred  to 
the  Resolute,  on  board  of  which  they  wintered.  By  walking 
over  the  solid  ice  from  Mercy  Bay  to  Dealy  Island,  they 
made  the  northwest  passage. 

Captain  Collinson  returned  through  the  straits  by  which 
he  had  come,  and,  doubling  Cape  Bathurst,  wintered  in  Cam- 
den Bay.     Maguire,  in  the  Plover,  wintered  at  Point  Barrow. 

Commander  Trollope,  in  the  Rattlesnake,  wintered  in  Port 
Clarence,  Bering  Strait.     Commodore  Perry,  who  had  started 


HISTORY. 


347 


1853.  in  November  of  the  preceding  year  on  the  United  States 
Japan  Expedition,  reached  Yeddo  Bay  in  June,  1853,  where 
he  wintered.  The  North  Pacific  Exploring  Expedition,  in 
charge  of  Cadwalader  Ringgold  and  Captain  John  Rodgers, 
reached  China.  Captain  Ringgold,  being  out  of  health,  was 
obliged  to  return,  and  Captain  Rodgers  took  charge  of  the 
expedition. 

The  Russian  American  Company  took  possession  of  Saka- 
lin  Island,  north  of  Yesso,  in  the  Japanese  Archipelago. 

1854.  The  crews  of  the  Investigator  and  the  Resolute  were 
transferred  from  the  latter  vessel  to  the  North  Star,  Captain 
Pullen,  at  Beechey  Island,  and  returned  on  board  of  her  to 
England  in  the  month  of  October.  CoUinson  left  Camden 
Bay  July  20th,  passing  Point  Barrow  and  Bering  Strait,  and 
reaching  England  with  the  Plover  in  the  spring  of  1855. 

Commodore  Perry  concluded  the  treaty  with  Japan  in 
March,  1854. 

Commodore  Rodgers,  having  divided  his  forces,  carried  on 
explorations  among  the  Aleutian  Islands,  on  the  coast  of  Kam- 
chatka, in  Bering  Strait,  and  in  the  Arctic  Ocean  north  of  the 
Strait. 

The  French  and  English  forces  attacked  the  town  of 
Petropavlovsk,  but  were  routed  by  the  Russians  and  Kam- 
shadales  with  a  loss  of  one  hundred  and  seven  men.  The 
English  Admiral  Price  committed  suicide  in  the  shame  which 
he  felt  at  the  result ;  he  was  buried  on  the  shore,  and  the  next 
day,  August  29th,  the  fleet  left  the  Bay  of  Avatcha. 

The  Company's  vessels  were  gratuitously  placed  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  Imperial  government  during  this  and  the  next 
year.  The  settlements  were  supplied  with  provisions  chiefly 
by  American  vessels.  The  President  of  the  American  Rus- 
sian Trade  Company,  armed  with  letters  from  United  States 
officials  and  the  Russian  Minister  at  Washington,  went  to  St. 
Petersburg  and  obtained  an  audience  from  the  Emperor, 
opening  negotiations  in  relation  to  the  ice  contract. 

1855.  He  succeeded  in  obtaining  an  Imperial  order  dated  Octo- 
ber, 1855,  o'^  the  Russian  American  Company,  requiring 
them  to  sell  ice  at  the  original  cost  in  the  colony,  and  to  fur- 
nish it  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply  California,  Mexico, 


34^  HISTORY. 

1855.  and  the  Sandwich  Islands.  They  were  also  to  supply  coal, 
timber,  and  fish  for  twenty  years,  and  in  return  to  receive 
half  of  the  net  profits. 

The  exploring  expedition  under  Commodore  Rodgers 
reached  San  Francisco  on  its  return. 

In  May  the  allied  forces  returned  to  Petropavlovsk,  which 
had  been  evacuated  by  the  Russians.  They  captured  an  old 
Russian  whaler,  burned  the  government  buildings,  broke  all 
the  windows  in  the  town,  robbed  and  injured  the  Greek 
Catholic  Church,  and  razed  the  old  abandoned  earthworks. 
After  this  child's  play  they  left  Avatcha.  The  Company's 
brig  Ochotsk,  chased  by  the  allied  cruisers,  was  wrecked 
near  the  Amoor  River.  The  Thlinkets  again  revolted  at 
Sitka.  They  took  possession  of  the  Indian  chapel,  killing 
two  Russians  and  wounding  nineteen.  Woiwodsky  subdued 
them,  killing  sixty  of  the  ringleaders. 

The  Kwikhpagmiits  attacked  Fort  Andreafsky,  killing  two 
Russians,  the  only  occupants. 

1857.  The  fall  of  Sebastopol  and  the  ensuing  peace  relieved  the 
Company  from  the  alarms  and  contingencies  of  war. 

1858.  The  Thlinkets  voluntarily  proposed  to  open  trade  with 
the  Russians,  and  tendered,  as  a  neutral  ground  for  trading, 
a  point  near  the  Stikine  River. 

1859.  The  President  of  the  Ice  Company  in  San  Francisco 
proved  to  be  a  man  of  no  capital.  He  could  not  build  the 
necessary  houses  to  receive  the  ice  in  San  Francisco,  and 
the  fish  and  ice  arriving  from  Sitka  were  spoiled  for  want  of 
storage.  Misunderstandings  arose.  The  bank  failed  in  which 
the  Ice  Company  kept  their  funds,  and  the  President  ab- 
sconded with  the  money.  At  last  Captain  Furuhelm  was 
sent  from  Russia  to  California  to  annul  the  contract  and 
make  a  new  one.  He  succeeded  in  doing  this  without  resort 
to  legal  process,  but  the  proceedings  were  not  consummated 
for  several  years. 

The  Hudson  Bay  Company's  lease  was  renewed  for  the 
second  time,  for  four  years.  The  annual  rental  was  two 
thousand  sea-otter  skins.  The  contract  was  originally  made 
June  I,  1840,  renewed  in  1849,  again  in  this  year,  and  was 
to  expire  June   i,  1862. 


HISTORY.  349 

1859.  A  new  fort  was  built  at  Nulato  on  the  old  site.  Volcanic 
action  was  felt  in  the  colonies. 

i860.  Woiwodsky  was  succeeded  by  Fiiruhelm  as  Chief  Director 
of  the  colonies.  The  Kadiak  was  wrecked  near  Spruce  Isl- 
and. Robert  Kennicott  passed  the  winter  at  Fort  Yukon, 
where  Mr.  Lockhart  was  in  command. 

The  Imperial  Chamberlain,  Paulus  Nikolai-evich  Golovi'n, 
was  ordered  to  the  colonies  to  investigate  and  report  on 
their  condition,  pending  the  petition  for  an  extension  of  the 
charter  of  the  Russian  American  Company. 

1 86 1.    Kennicott  descended  the  Yukon  to  the  Small  Houses. 

The  pilot,  Michael  Kadin,  lost  the  steamer  Nikolai  I.  in 
Kake  Strait.  The  natives  saved  the  crew  and  entertained 
them  hospitably  until  a  vessel  arrived  in  search  of  them. 
Golovi'n  arrived  in  Sitka.  His  report,  which  was  received 
in  St.  Petersburg  in  the  same  year,  and  published  the  follow- 
ing year  (in  Russian),  contains  many  important  statistics, 
the  most  interesting  of  which  are  given  below,  with  a  few 
from  Grewingk. 

The  original  capital  of  the  Company  was  98,000  R.  s.* 
After  18 18  the  stock  was  watered  by  making  the  shares  500 
R.  instead  of  150  R.  s.  In  1844  the  reserve  capital,  exclu- 
sive of  property  and  the  original  capital,  was  about  450,000 
R.  s.  In  1862  it  stood  as  follows:  Original  capital,  660,511 
R.  s.  Reserves,  737,745  R.  s.  Insurance,  174,372  R.  s.  Total, 
1,572,628  R.  s.  The  original  investment  paid  from  six  to  ten 
per  cent,  clear  of  all  expenses,  annually,  beside  the  pickings 
and  stealings  of  the  employes  and  officers,  which  were  a  by 
no  means  insignificant  item.  Dividends,  on  each  share  of 
about  $21,  were  from  1841  to  185  i  about  $3.00;  from  185  i 
to  1858,  $3.60;  from  1858  to  i860,  $4.00.  From  1841  to  185  i 
the  Company  paid  two  million  rubles  taxes  to  the  Imperial 
government.  The  gross  income  of  the  Company  from  1841 
to  1862  was  20,305,681  R.  s.  January,  i860,  the  balance  of 
capital  on  hand,  including  property,  was  5,907,859  R.  s.  The 
total  amount  of  dividends  from  1842  to  1859  was  2,103,004 
R.  s.    The  average  annual  dividends  amounted  to  142,000  R.  s. 

»  R.  s.  =  silver  rubles,  each  worth  about  seventy-live  cents.     R.  =  paper  rubles, 
now  worth  about  twentv  cents. 


350  HISTORY. 

1861.  About  40,000  R.  s.  were  issued  in  the  form  of  marki,  or 
parchment  bills,  stamped  with  the  Company's  seal,  for  cir- 
culation in  the  colonies. 

The  government  was  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  Chief 
Director,  who  was  bound  by  oath  to  support  the  interests  of 
the  Company.  He  was  elected  by  the  Directory  at  St.  Pe- 
tersburg. This  system  was  prolific  in  abuses.  There  was 
no  law  in  the  colonies,  except  the  by-laws  and  regulations  of 
the  Company.  On  this  ground  the  colonial  officials  were 
obliged  to  discharge  from  custody  a  foreigner  who  was 
caught  smuggling,  as  there  was  no  law  by  which  he  could  be 
punished,  as  he  was  not  a  servant  of  the  Company. 

The  territory  was  divided  into  six  districts.  Kadiak  had  a 
special  bureau  to  itself,  but  the  others  were  governed  by 
officers  called  Uprovali'sha.  The  districts  were :  I.  Sitka, 
from  Mount  St.  Elias  south  ;.  II.  Kadiak,  from  St.  Elias  to 
Bristol  Bay,  and  west  to  the  Shumagin  Islands  ;  III.  St.  Mi- 
chael's, including  Norton  Sound,  the  Yukon,  and  the  Kus- 
koquim  ;  IV.  Unalashka,  from  the  Shumagins  to  the  Pri'by- 
loff,  and  including  the  Fox  Islands  ;  V.  Atka,  comprising 
the  remainder  of  the  Aleutian  chain  and  the  Commander's 
Islands  ;  VI.  Kurile,  including  the  Kurile  Islands. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  Company  the  Aleuts  were  sub- 
jected to  the  most  horrible  outrages.  The  names  of  Glot- 
toff  and  Soloviefif  make  them  shudder  to  this  day.  Thou- 
sands perished  under  sword  and  fire.  Long  after  these 
enormities  were  checked,  the  Russians  considered  the 
Aleuts  as  beasts  rather  than  men.  No  one  thought  of 
ameliorating  their  condition  ;  on  the  contrary,  dissension 
and  quarrels  were  intentionally  stirred  up  in  their  principal 
villages  for  their  destruction.  It  is  well  known  that  Bara- 
nofif  regarded  the  life  of  an  Aleutian  as  of  no  value  ;  hun- 
dreds of  these  poor  creatures  perished  in  forced  voyages 
between  Sitka  and  Kadiak  in  their  frail  kyaks.  Their 
numbers  were  diminished  from  10,000  in  1799  to  5,238  in 
1808  (Resanofif's  census),  and  to  about  1,500  at  the  present 
day. 

The  Aleuts  were  the  slaves  of  the  Company.  They  were 
obliged  to  attend  all  hunting  expeditions,  and  sell  all  iurs  to 


HISTORY.  351 

1861.  the  Company  for  whatever  the  Company  chose  to  give,  in 
goods.  On  the  latter  the  Company  charged  42  per  cent 
freight  in  trading  and  33  per  cent  on  all  sold  to  em- 
ployes. The  price  for  groats  was  $  i.oo  per  pood  of  ^6  lbs.  ; 
for  white  flour,  $  2.00  per  pood.  The  yearly  imports  were 
400  tons.  At  Sitka,  all  servants  of  the  Company  whose  pay 
was  less  than  $  200  a  year  drew  from  the  public  kettle  and 
bake-house  at  $  i.oo  a  pood  for  bread.  The  fare  consisted 
principally  of  fish  ;  bacon  and  wild  goats'  flesh  were  rarely 
obtained.  They  were  also  allowed  eight  cups  of  rum  per 
annum.  Married  men  who  did  not  wish  to  eat  at  the  public 
table  could  draw  the  value  of  the  food  in  cash,  and  purchase 
their  own  provisions. 

The  hierarchy  of  the  colonies  had  its  head-quarters  at 
Sitka.  There  were  seven  missionary  districts  ;  namely, 
Sitka,  Kadiak,  Unalashka,  Atka,  Kenai,  Nushergak,  and 
Kwikhpak.  The  churches  were  supported  by  voluntary 
offerings.  Their  accumulated  capital  amounted  in  i860  to 
50,000  R.  s.,  bringing  five  per  cent  interest.  The  Com- 
pany contributed,  toward  the  support  of  four  churches, 
the  sum  of  $6,600  per  annum.  The  Holy  Synod  paid 
3,085  R.  s.  toward  the  Kenai  mission.  The  income  from  can- 
dles in  the  churches  amounted  to  $1,100.  There  were  11 
priests  and  16  deacons  in  the  colonies.  A  church  was 
established  for  the  natives  at  Sitka,  but  they  were  seldom 
seen  there.  When  they  did  enter  they  looked  bewildered, 
squatted  down  and  smoked,  and  went  out  apparently  much 
relieved.  In  1846  there  were  531  Christian  Thlinkets.  In 
1854  the  number  was  diminished  to  38,  and  in  1859  there 
were  only  42.  The  Aleuts  appear  zealous  Christians,  but  if 
the  Government  ordered  them  to  become  Mohammedans 
they  would  as  readily  comply.  They  were  utterly  crushed 
by  the  early  traders. 

The  first  school  was  established  by  Shelikoff  in  Kadiak 
to  teach  the  natives  to  read  ;  the  traders  were  the  teachers. 
The  second  school  was  also  in  Kadiak,  and  the  pupils  re- 
ceived instruction  in  the  Russian  language,  arithmetic,  and 
religion.  A  few  years  after,  a  similar  one  was  opened  at 
Sitka,  but  until  1820  it  was  very  poor.      In  that  year  a  naval 


352  HISTORY. 

1 86 1,  officer  took  charge  of  it  until  1833,  when  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Etolin,  who  made  it  quite  efficient.  In  1841  an 
ecclesiastical  school  was  opened  in  Sitka,  and  in  1845  it  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  seminary.  This,  as  well  as  the  other 
schools,  was  in  a  very  bad  condition.  In  the  latter,  pupils 
received  instruction  in  the  Russian  language,  religion,  arith- 
metic, geometry,  navigation,  trigonometry,  geography,  his- 
tory, bookkeeping,  and  the  English  language. 

In  the  ukase  of  November  ^,  1859,  ^  P^^i^  for  ^  general 
colonial  school  was  approved.  It  was  opened  in  i860  with 
twelve  pupils  ;  eight  of  these  were  educated  for  the  Com- 
pany's service,  and  four  were  the  sons  of  priests.  A  few  day- 
scholars  were  admitted  free.  After  five  years'  study  the  Com- 
pany's students  were  obliged  to  serve  the  Company  for  fifteen 
years,  at  a  salary  of  $  20  to  $  70  per  annum.  (It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  the  announcement  of  these  facts  will  enlighten  those 
philanthropists  who  have  declared,  since  the  purchase,  that 
the  United  States  were  depriving  the  natives  of  the  advan- 
tages which  the  Company  had  afforded  them  of  a  free 
education.  The  only  free  schools  in  the  territory  were  those 
of  the  missionaries,  and  in  them  were  taught  little  beside  the 
religious  observances  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  the  art  of 
reading  the  Sclavonic  or  ecclesiastical  characters.)  The  an- 
nual cost  of  this  school  was  $  5,800  ;  in  1862  it  contained  2y 
pupils,  of  whom  only  one  was  a  native.  Only  nine  studied 
navigation.  In  1839  ^  gills'  school  was  established  for  chil- 
dren of  servants  of  the  Company,  and  orphans.  In  1842  it 
had  42  pupils  ;  in  1862,  22  pupils.  The  instruction  was  prin- 
cipally in  sewing,  washing,  and  other  housework.  In  1825 
Father  Veniaminofif  established  a  school  in  Unalashka  for 
natives  and  Creoles.  In  i860  it  contained  50  boys  and  43 
girls.  A  school  on  Amlia  Island  in  i860  had  30  pupils. 
The  priest  at  Nushergak  in  1843  had  12  pupils.  A  school- 
house  was  built  on  the  Lower  Yukon,  but  there  were  no 
pupils. 

The  expenses  for  medical  treatment  were  $9,000.  There 
was  a  hospital  at  Sitka  of  40  beds,  and  one  at  Kadiak  of  10 
beds.  In  i860  there  were  entered  at  Sitka  14,000  patients, 
of  whom  22  died.     At  Kadiak  there  were  550  entries  and  12 


HISTORY.  353 

1 86 1,  deaths.  A  hospital  for  skin  diseases  was  opened  at  Sitka, 
near  the  sulphur  springs.  The  water  contained  sulphur,  iron, 
chlorine,  and  manganese,  and  had  a  temperature  of  122°  Fah- 
renheit. There  was  an  asylum  for  the  infirm  and  poor,  and 
three  or  four  old  servants  of  the  Company  received  pensions. 
In  1838  the  treaty  with  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  proved 
beneficial.  Previously  the  Russian  American  Company  had 
lost  by  it.  This  treaty  excluded  arms,  ammunition,  and  spir- 
its from  the  trade  with  the  natives.  But  in  March,  185 1, 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company's  steamer  visited  the  islands,  and 
told  the  natives  that  they  would  sell  any  amount  of  the  pro- 
hibited articles  at  their  trading-posts.  This  killed  the  Rus- 
sian trade  with  those  tribes  which  inhabit  the  Alexander 
Archipelago.  Hostilities  were  frequent,  and  the  Russian 
Company's  steamer  was  obliged  to  remain  at  Sitka  to  guard 
against  an  outbreak  of  the  natives.  In  i860,  Furuhelm  or- 
dered her  to  resume  her  trips  among  the  islands,  but  no  trade 
was  effected.  Since  1850,  traders  from  the  Sandwich  Islands 
visited  the  Chiikchees  and  tribes  on  the  northern  coast,  and 
provided  them  with  liquor,  arms,  and  ammunition.  The  na- 
tives of  the  interior  of  Siberia  now  received  supplies  through 
the  Chukchees,  who  would  not  trade  for  other  articles. 
Traders  even  landed  on  the  Aleutian  Islands,  in  defiance  of 
the  rights  of  the  Company.  The  trade  with  the  towns  in 
Kamchatka  was  worth  little  since  the  government  had  with- 
drawn the  garrisons.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Amoor,  Amer- 
ican and  German  traders  competed  with  the  Company  suc- 
cessfully. Golovin  was  justly  indignant  at  the  sale  of  liquor 
by  the  traders,  and  proposed  that  the  Imperial  government 
should  send  a  cruiser  to  stop  their  traffic,  or  that  the  Com- 
pany should  be  allowed  to  trade  liquor  in  opposition  to  them. 
From  1852  to  i860  there  had  been  20,554  tons  of  ice,  valued 
at  $122,000,  exported  from  the  colonies.  The  fish  and  tim- 
ber trade  had  not  been  successful,  on  account  of  there  being 
no  Company's  storehouses  in  San  Francisco.  Golovin  con- 
cluded with  a  sharp  rebuke  of  the  lazy  and  inefficient  mis- 
sionaries who  had  succeeded  Veniaminoff,  and  finished  by 
numerous  recommendations  of  much  needed  reforms. 

His   Report  was  published  in  the  Official  Naval  Journal 
23 


354 


HISTORY. 


1 86 1.  (Morskoi  Sbornik)  in  1862,  and  the  general  tone  of  it  was 
favorable  to  the  Company.  Kashevaroff,  a  Creole,  resident 
in  St.  Petersburg,  prepared  a  reply  ;  but  as  Golovi'n  died 
in  March,  he  modified  it,  that  he  might  not  be  accused  of 
attacking  a  dead  man.  A  flippant  reply,  reflecting  on  his 
parentage,  appeared  in  the  Naval  Journal.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  letter  from  Baron  Wrangell,  who  said,  that 
though  he  was  prejudiced  in  favor  of  the  Company,  and 
Mr.  Kashevaroff  appeared  to  incline  the  other  way,  still  he 
must  indorse  Kashevaroff's  statements  as  being,  from  his 
own  observation,  more  literally  true  and  patriotic  than  any- 
thing before  published  in  regard  to  the  country. 

1862.  The  result  of  this  ventilation  of  the  abuses  prevalent  in 
the  colonies,  was,  that  the  new  charter  was  not  granted  and 
the  old  charter  of  the  Russian  American  Company  was  not 
renewed.  From  this  time  forward  the  Company  had  no 
rights  or  privileges  in  the  colonies  except  on  sufferance. 
The  property  of  the  Company  still  belonged  to  it,  but  it  had 
no  rights  or  privileges  that  were  not  common  to  all  Rus- 
sian subjects,  and  none,  except  the  interest  in  their  movable 
property  and  real  estate  actually  in  use,  which  they  had  any 
power  to  convey  to  any  other  company  or  persons  from 
that  time  forward.  Their  operations,  it  is  true,  as  far  as 
trading  was  concerned,  went  on  without  cessation,  but  this 
was  only  pending  the  general  winding  up  of  the  concern. 
The  schools  were  all  stopped,  expenses  curtailed,  many 
posts  abandoned,  and  the  General  Direction  of  the  colonies 
was  put  in  charge  of  an  officer  appointed  by  the  Imperial 
government.  This  officer  did  not  arrive  immediately,  and 
the  post  was  filled  during  the  interregnum  by  subordinate 
officers  of  the   Company. 

Golovi'n,  having  returned  to  Russia,  died  m  St.  Petersburg 
on  the  17th  of  March,  aged  thirty-nine  years.  Michael  Kiit- 
kan,  again  elected  tyone  by  the  Sitka  Thlinkets,  was  au- 
thorized by  an  Imperial  ukase  to  settle  the  difficulties  be- 
tween the  natives  and  the  Russians,  December  2d.  A 
serious  disagreement  with  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  arose, 
caused  by  the  continued  sale  of  liquor  by  that  Company  to 
the  natives. 


HISTORY. 


i55 


1863.  Strachan  Jones,  Esq.,  descended  the  Yukon  to  Nowikakat. 
Ivan    Simonsen    Lukeen    ascended    the    Yukon    to    Fort 

Yukon,  and  returned  to  St.  Michael's,  Norton   Sound. 

The  new  ice  contract  was  finally  arranged  by  Captain 
Fiiruhelm.  The  Russian  authorities  were  to  furnish  3,000 
tons  of  ice  annually  at  $  7  per  ton,  dehvered  at  Sitka  or 
Kadiak  ;  but  not  to  any  other  than  the  San  Francisco  Com- 
pany, on  the  coast  of  Oregon,  California,  or  Mexico,  at  less 
than  $  25  per  ton.  Sitka  having  too  mild  a  climate  to  form 
good  ice,  or  in  sufficient  quantities,  the  depot  of  the  Ice  Com- 
pany was  fixed  on  Woody  Island  near  Kadiak. 

An  expedition  under  Commander  Bassarguine  ascended 
the  Stiki'ne  River  in  boats.  They  were  accompanied  by 
Professor  William  P.  Blake. 

1864.  Furuhelm  was  succeeded  by  Maksutoff,  the  first  Imperial 
Governor  of  the  colonies.  The  plan  for  building  a  line  of 
telegraph  from  San  Francisco  to  Bering  Strait,  and  crossing 
by  a  cable,  to  meet  the  Russian  government  telegraph  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Amoor  River  by  a  line  built  from  Bering 

.  Strait  overland,  was  organized  by  the  enterprising  Directors 
of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company.  The  original 
idea  was  mainly  due  to  Perry  M'D.  Collins,  Esq.,  formerly 
United  States  Consular  Agent  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amoor. 
The  co-operation  of  the  Russian  government  was  insured, 
and  the  command  of  the  expedition  to  make  the  necessary 
explorations  was  intrusted  to  Captain  Charles  S.  Bulkley, 
late  of  the  United  States  Army  Telegraph  Corps,  an  accom- 
plished electrician. 

1865.  The  principal  event  of  the  year  was  the  inauguration  of 
the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Expedition.  Captain  Bulk- 
ley,  in  the  United  States  revenue  cutter  Shubrick,  visited 
Sitka  early  in  the  spring.  On  his  return  to  San  Francisco 
the  expedition  was  organized  on  a  military  basis.  The  chief 
officers  were  Captain  Charles  S.  Bulkley,  Engineer-in-Chief ; 
Captain  Charles  M.  Scammon,  U.  S.  R.  S.,  Chief  of  Marine ; 
Robert  Kennicott,  Chief  of  Scientific  Corps;  Scott  R.  Chap- 
pel,  Quartermaster;  George  M.  Wright,  Adjutant;  and 
Frank  L.  Pope,  Assistant  Engineer.  Commissions  were 
given  to  the  various  officers  ;  flags  and  badges  served  to  dis- 


356  HISTORY. 

1865.  tinguish  the  different  branches  of  the  service.  A  steamer, 
three  barks,  and  a  schooner  were  purchased  for  the  use  of 
the  expedition,  and,  by  permission  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
United  States  Treasury,  two  revenue  officers.  Lieutenant 
John  Davison  and  Lieutenant  Russell  Glover,  accompanied 
Captain  Scammon  on  the  flag-ship,  which  was  permitted 
to  fly  the  revenue  flag. 

On  the  17th  of  May,  Major  Frank  Pope,  Dr.  J.  T.  Roth- 
rock  and  party,  with  Edward  Scoville,  Esq.,  as  astronomer, 
left  San  Francisco  for  British  Columbia  with  the  intention  of 
penetrating  from  the  head-waters  of  the  Frazer  to  those  of 
the  Yukon, 

On  the  3d  of  July,  Major  S.  Abasa  (Gentleman  of  the  Bed- 
chamber to  the  Emperor  of  Russia),  with  George  Kennan, 
James  A.  Mahood,  and  Richard  J.  Bush,  sailed  for  the  mouth 
of  the  Amoor  in  the  brig  Olga,  Captain  Sandtmann.  Their 
efforts  were  to  be  directed  to  exploration  of  a  line  on  which 
the  telegraph  might  be  built,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Amoor 
to  the  Anadyr  River,  around  the  Ochotsk  Sea. 

On  the  1 2th  of  July  the  steamer  George  S.  Wright  and 
the  bark  Golden  Gate,  flag-ship  of  the  expedition,  sailed 
from  San  Francisco,  with  most  of  the  officers  and  men. 

The  Wright,  Captain  Marston,  touched  at  Victoria  and 
New  Westminster.  Here  Frederick  Whymper,  Esq.,  was 
added  to  the  expedition  as  artist.  The  steamer  then  pro- 
ceeded to  Sitka,  where  she  met  the  Golden  Gate.  From  this 
point  the  schooner  Milton  Badger,  Captain  Harding,  sailed 
for  the  Anadyr  River,  with  a  party  under  Lieutenant  McRae, 
who  were  to  co-operate  with  Major  Abasa's  party.  The 
bark  Clara  Bell,  Captain  Sands,  was  at  Sitka  with  telegraphic 
material,  having  made  a  remarkably  quick  passage  from 
New  York.  From  this  point  she  repaired  to  New  Westmin- 
ster. The  Wright,  Captain  Marston,  and  the  Golden  Gate, 
Captain  Scammon,  after  a  short  stay  in  Sitka,  sailed  in  com- 
pany for  Unga  Island.  There  they  spent  a  day  in  the  north 
harbor,  and  then  sailed  for  St.  Michael's  Redoubt,  Norton 
Sound.  Here  Major  Robert  Kennicott  and  party  were  left 
to  conduct  the  Yukon  explorations.  A  toy  steamer,  which 
afterward  proved  worthless,  was  left  to  assist  in  ascending  the 


HISTORY.  357 

1865.  Yukon.  The  Golden  Gate  and  the  steamer  next  touched 
at  Plover  Bay,  where  the  bark  Palmetto,  Captain  Ander- 
son, had  arrived  with  coal.  The  latter  sailed  for  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  the  steamer  went  to  the  mouth  of  the  Anadyr, 
and  then  to  Petropavlovsk,  where  the  Golden  Gate  rejoined 
her.  After  a  long  stay  in  this  the  principal  port  of  Kam- 
chatka, both  vessels  sailed  for  San  Francisco,  arriving  there 
November  30th.  Pope's  party  wintered  at  Tatla  Lake,  British 
Columbia. 

Abasa's  party  explored  a  route  for  the  line  from  the 
Anadyr  to  the  Amoor. 

Kennicott's  party  crossed  the  portage  to  Nulato.  Baron 
Otto  de  Bendeleben  and  W.  H.  Ennis  explored  the  line  be- 
tween Norton  Bay  and  Port  Clarence.  J.  T.  Dyer  and 
Richard  D.  Cotter  made  a  very  hazardous  and  successful  ex- 
ploration of  the  country  between  Norton  Bay  and  the  mouth 
of  the  Koyiikuk  River  on  the  Yukon. 

In  this  season,  M.  Gustavo  Lambert,  a  French  hydrogra- 
pher,  passed  through  Bering  Strait  on  a  whaler. 

1866.  On  the  13th  of  May,  Major  Robert  Kennicott,  a  well- 
known  and  indefatigable  Arctic  explorer  and  naturalist,  died 
at  Nulato  of  heart  disease  brought  on  by  excessive  privation, 
hardship,  and  anxiety.  His  body  was  taken  to  the  Redoubt 
by  a  party  under  Charles  Pease.  Frank  E.  Ketchum,  Mi- 
chael Lebarge,  and  Ivan  Simonsen  Lukeen  carried  out  Ma- 
jor Kennicott's  plans,  explored  the  Yukon  from  Nulato  to 
Fort  Yukon,  and  returned,  crossing  the  portage  from  Yakutz- 
kalatenik  to  Unalaklik  and  thence  by  sea  to  the  Redoubt. 

Explorations  by  Major  Pope  and  party  were  extended  to 
the  Stikine  River.* 

The  bark  Rutgers  sailed  from  Puget  Sound  to  Plover 
Bay.  The  bark  Onward  sailed  to  Petropavlovsk  and  the 
Ochotsk  Sea.  The  bark  Clara  Bell  sailed  for  Penjinsk 
Gulf  The  bark  Golden  Gate  sailed  for  Plover  Bay.  The 
Wright  went  to  Petropavlovsk,  where  the  Russian  corvette 
Variag  was  awaiting  orders.  The  flag-ship  Nightingale  left 
San  Francisco  July  nth,  for  Plover  Bay.  The  United  States 
steamer  Saginaw  sailed  for  Petropavlovsk.    The  bark  Evelyn 

*  Unfortunately  I  am  without  data  to  specify  the  e.xact  e.xtent  of  these  explorations. 


358  HISTORY. 

1866.  Wood  sailed  with  material  from  Victoria  to  Plover  Bay.  The 
Nightingale,  Captain  Scammon,  with  two  small  stern-wheel 
steamers  on  deck,  arrived  at  Plover  Bay  August  14th,  finding 
the  Rutgers  there.  The  Wright  left  Petropavlovsk,  touched 
at  the  Anadyr,  and  reached  Plover  Bay  August  i8th.  The 
Golden  Gate  arrived  on  the  27th.  A  party  under  Mr.  Bush, 
who  had  come  on  the  steamer  to  Plover  Bay,  left  for  Anadyr 
on  the  Golden  Gate.  A  party  under  Mr.  Kelsey  was  left  at 
Plover  Bay.  Another,  under  Mr.  Libby,  sailed  for  Grantley 
Harbor  on  the  Rutgers.  The  Wright  and  Nightingale  left 
for  St.  Michael's,  where  the  latter  arrived  on  the  24th  of 
September.  The  subsequent  explorations  in  that  vicinity 
are  narrated  at  length  elsewhere.  The  vessels  returned  to 
San  Francisco,  with  the  exception  of  the  Golden  Gate,  which 
was  nipped  by  the  pack  in  Anadyr  Bay  and  lost.  The  nego- 
tiations for  the  sale  of  Russian  America  began  in  this  year.* 

1867.  The  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company,  finding  that  the 
Atlantic  Cable  had  proved  a  success,  at  an  expenditure 
which  made  competition  impossible,  decided  to  abandon  an 
enterprise  which  had  already  cost  in  the  neighborhood  of 
three  millions  of  dollars.  Michael  Byrnes  (who  was  explor- 
ing the  Tahco)'and  other  explorers  were  recalled,  the  Night- 
ingale and  the  Clara  Bell  were  sent  to  bring  back  the  more 
remote  parties  at  the  Anadyr,  Grantley  Harbor,  and  St. 
Michael's. 

The  route  was  ill  chosen  for  the  proposed  line.  Had  it 
been  over  the  well-trodden  paths  from  St.  Paul,  Minnesota, 
through  the  Hudson  Bay  Territory  to  Fort  Yukon,  and  then 
down  the  Yukon,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  line  might 
have  been  built  at  a  less  cost  than  the  amount  wasted  on  the 
west  coast,  in  the  mountainous  region  and  dense  forests  of 
British  Columbia.  The  Hudson  Bay  route  was  recommended 
by  Mr.  Kennicott,  but  other  counsels  prevailed.  Of  other 
causes  which  tended  to  obstruct  and  defeat  the  intentions  of 
the  Company  it  is  not  in  my  province  to  speak.  The  line 
which  was  put  up   in  British  Columbia,  with   the   exception 

*  There  is  a  story,  with  I  know  not  how  much  foundation,  that  a  company  of  citi- 
zens applied  to  Mr.  Seward  to  assist  them  in  purchasing  the  country  to  carry  on  a 
fish,  fur,  and  timber  trade,  and  that  he,  finding  Russia  willing  to  sell,  secured  the  ter- 
ritory, not  for  the  private  company,  but  for  the  nation. 


HISTORY. 


;59 


1867.  of  the  very  small  portion  in  use,  is  said  on  good  authority 
to  be  already  out  of  repair  and  quite  useless.  That  which 
was  erected  on  Norton  Sound  was  so  poorly  built  that  in  the 
fall  of  1867  not  a  single  pole  stood  erect  and  perpendicular. 

In  the  failure  of  the  commercial  part  of  the  enterprise  it 
must  still  be  a  matter  for  congratulation  that  the  liberal  policy 
of  the  Directors  of  the  Company  enabled  much  geographical 
and  scientific  information  to  be  obtained  without  any  large 
additional  expense.  For  this  liberality  the  thanks  of  all 
scientific  men  are  due  to  these  gentlemen. 

On  the  30th  of  March  the  treaty  of  sale  was  agreed  upon. 
It  was  ratified  by  the  United  States  May  28th  ;  exchanged 
and  proclaimed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  June 
20,  1867.  On  the  6th  of  September,  1867,  General  Jeiler- 
son  C.  Davis,  U.  S.  A.,  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
military  district  of  Alaska.  On  the  i8th  of  October  the 
territory  was  formally  surrendered  by  the  colonial  authori- 
ties to  General  Lovell  H.  Rousseau,  U.  S.  A.,  who  had  been 
appointed,  August  8th,  United  States  Commissioner  to  re- 
ceive the  territory. 


NOTES  AND  DOCUMENTS  ACCOMPANYING  THE  TRANSFER. 

[A.] 

By  the  President  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

A     PROCLAMATION. 

Whereas,  a  treaty  between  the  United  States  of  America  and  his 
Majesty  the  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias,  was  concluded  and  signed  by 
their  respective  plenipotentiaries  at  the  city  of  Washington,  on  the  thir- 
tieth day  of  March  last,  which  treaty  (being  in  the  English  and  French 
languages)  is,  word  for  word,  as  follows:  — 

The  United  States  of  America  and  his  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  all 
the  Russias,  being  desirous  of  strengthening,  if  possible,  the  good  under- 
standing which  exists  between  them,  have,  for  that  purpose,  appointed 
as  their  plenipotentiaries  :  the  President  of  the  United  States,  William 
H.  Seward,  Secretary  of  State  ;  and  his  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  all  the 
Russias,  the  Privy  Counsellor  Edward  de  Stoeckl,  his  envoy  extraor- 
dinary and  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  United  States. 


360  HISTORY. 

And  the  said  plenipotentiaries,  having  exchanged  their  full  powers, 
which  were  found  to  be  in  due  form,  have  agreed  upon  and  signed  the 
following  articles :  — 

Article  I. 

His  Majesty  the  Ennperor  of  all  the  Russias  agrees  to  cede  to  the 
United  States,  by  this  convention,  immediately  upon  the  exchange  of 
the  ratifications  thereof,  all  the  territory  and  dominion  now  possessed  by 
his  said  Majesty  on  the  continent  of  America  and  in  the  adjacent  isl- 
ands, the  same  being  contained  within  the  geographical  limits  herein  set 
forth,  to  wit :  The  eastern  limit  is  the  line  of  demarcation  between  the 
Russian  and  the  British  possessions  in  North  America,  as  established 
by  the  convention  between  Russia  and  Great  Britain,  of  Februar)^  28-16, 
1825,  and  described  in  Articles  III  and  IV  of  said  convention,  in  the 
following  terms  :  — 

"  Commencing  from  the  southernmost  point  of  the  island  called  Prince 
of  Wales  Island,  which  point  lies  in  the  parallel  of  54  degrees  40  minutes 
north  latitude,  and  between  the  131st  and  the  133d  degree  of  west  lon- 
gitude (meridian  of  Greenwich),  the  said  line  shall  ascend  to  the  north 
along  the  channel  called  Portland  Channel,  as  far  as  the  point  of  the 
continent  where  it  strikes  the  56th  degree  of  north  latitude;  from  this 
last-mentioned  point,  the  line  of  demarcation  shall  follow  the  summit  of 
the  mountains  situated  parallel  to  the  coast  as  far  as  the  point  of  inter- 
section of  the  141st  degree  of  west  longitude  (of  the  same  meridian); 
and  finally,  from  the  said  point  of  intersection,  the  said  meridian  line  of 
the  141st  degree,  in  its  prolongation  as  far  as  the  Frozen  Ocean. 

"  IV.  With  reference  to  the  line  of  demarcation  laid  down  in  the 
preceding  article,  it  is  understood  — 

"  I  St.  That  the  island  called  Prince  of  Wales  Island  shall  belong 
wholly  to  Russia  (now,  by  this  cession,  to  the  United  States). 

"  2d.  That  whenever  the  summit  of  the  mountains  which  extend  in 
a  direction  parallel  to  the  coast  from  the  56th  degree  of  north  latitude  to 
the  point  of  intersection  of  the  141st  degree  of  west  longitude  shall  prove 
to  be  at  the  distance  of  more  than  ten  marine  leagues  from  the  ocean, 
the  limit  between  the  British  possessions  and  the  line  of  coast  which  is 
to  belong  to  Russia  as  above  mentioned  (that  is  to  say,  the  limit  to  the 
possessions  ceded  by  this  convention)  shall  be  formed  by  a  line  parallel 
to  the  winding  of  the  coast,  and  which  shall  never  exceed  the  distance 
often  marine  leagues  therefrom." 

The  western  limit,  within  which  the  territories  and  dominion  con- 
veyed are  contained,  passes  through  a  point  in  Bering's  Straits  on  the 
parallel  of  sixty-five  degrees  thirty  minutes  north  latitude,  at  its  inter- 


HISTORY.  361 

section  by  the  meridian  which  passes  midway  between  the  island  of 
Krusenstern  for  Ignalook,  and  the  island  of  Ratmanoff  or  Noonarbook, 
and  proceeds  due  north,  without  limitation,  into  the  same  Frozen  Ocean. 
The  same  western  limit,  beginning  at  the  same  initial  point,  proceeds 
thence  in  a  course  nearly  southwest,  through  Bering's  Straits  and  Bering's 
Sea,  so  as  to  pass  midway  between  the  northwest  point  of  the  island  of 
St.  Lawrence  and  the  southeast  point  of  Cape  Chukotski,  to  the  merid- 
ian of  one  hundred  and  seventy-two  west  longitude  ;  thence,  from  the 
intersection  of  that  meridian,  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  so  as  to  pass 
midway  between  the  island  of  Attu  and  the  Copper  island  of  the  Koman- 
dorski  couplet  or  group  in  the  North  Pacific  ocean,  to  the  meridian  of  one 
hundred  and  ninety-three  degrees  west  longitude,  so  as  to  include  in  the 
territory  conveyed  the  whole  of  the  Aleutian  islands  east  of  that  meridian. 

Article  II. 

In  the  cession  of  territory  and  dominion  made  by  the  preceding 
article  is  included  the  right  of  property  in  all  public  lots  and  squares, 
vacant  lands,  and  all  public  buildings,  fortifications,  barracks,  and  other 
edifices  which  are  not  private  individual  property.  It  is,  however, 
understood  and  agreed,  that  the  churches  which  have  been  built  in  the 
ceded  territory  by  the  Russian  government  shall  remain  the  property  of 
such  members  of  the  Greek  Oriental  Church  resident  in  the  territory  as 
may  choose  to  worship  therein.  Any  government  archives,  papers,  and 
documents  relative  to  the  territory  and  dominion  aforesaid,  which  may 
be  now  existing  there,  will  be  left  in  the  possession  of  the  agent  of  the 
United  States  ;  but  an  authenticated  copy  of  such  of  them  as  may  be 
required  will  be,  at  all  times,  given  by  the  United  States  to  the  Russian 
government,  or  to  such  Russian  officers  or  subjects  as  they  may  apply  for. 

Article  III. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  ceded  territor}-,  according  to  their  choice, 
reserving  their  natural  allegiance,  may  return  to  Russia  within  three 
years ;  but  if  they  should  prefer  to  remain  in  the  ceded  territory,  they, 
with  the  exception  of  uncivilized  native  tribes,  shall  be  admitted  to  the 
enjoyment  of  all  the  rights,  advantages,  and  immunities  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  and  shall  be  maintained  and  protected  in  the  free  enjoy- 
ment of  their  liberty,  property,  and  religion.  The  uncivilized  tribes  will 
be  subject  to  such  laws  and  regulations  as  the  United  States  may,  from 
time  to  time,  adopt  in  regard  to  aboriginal  tribes  of  that  country. 

Article  IV.  * 

His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias  shall  appoint,  with  con- 


362  HISTORY. 

venient  desioatch,  an  agent  or  agents  for  the  purpose  of  formally  deliv- 
ering to  a  similar  agent  or  agents  appointed  on  behalf  of  the  United 
States,  the  territory,  dominion,  property,  dependencies,  and  appurte- 
nances which  are  ceded  as  above,  and  for  doing  any  other  act  which  may 
be  necessar}^  in  regard  thereto.  But  the  cession,  with  the  right  of  imme- 
diate possession,  is  nevertheless  to  be  deemed  complete  and  absolute  on 
the  exchange  of  ratifications,  without  waiting  for  such  formal  delivery. 

Article  V. 

Immediately  after  the  exchange  of  the  ratifications  of  this  conven- 
tion, any  fortifications  or  military  posts  which  may  be  in  the  ceded 
territory  shall  be  delivered  to  the  agent  of  the  United  States,  and  any 
Russian  troops  ,who  may  be  in  the  territory  shall  be  withdrawn  as  soon 
as  may  be  reasonably  and  conveniently  practicable. 

Article  VI. 

In  consideration  of  the  cession  aforesaid,' the  United  States  agree  to 
pay  at  the  treasury  in  Washington,  within  ten  months  after  the  exchange 
of  the  ratifications  of  this  convention,  to  the  diplomatic  representative 
or  other  agent  of  his  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias,  duly 
authorized  to  receive  the  same,  seven  million  two  hundred  thousand 
dollars  in  gold.  The  cession  of  territory  and  dominion  herein  made  is 
hereby  declared  to  be  free  and  unincumbered  by  any  reser\'ations, 
privileges,  franchises,  grants,  or  possessions,  by  any  associated  com- 
panies, whether  corporate  or  incorporate,  Russian,  or  any  other,  or  by 
any  parties,  except  merely  private  individual  property  holders  ;  and  the 
cession  hereby  made  conveys  all  the  rights,  franchises,  and  privileges, 
now  belonging  to  Russia  in  the  said  territory  or  dominion,  and  ap- 
purtenances thereto. 

Article  VII. 

When  this  convention  shall  have  been  duly  ratified  by  the  President  of 
the  United  States,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate  on 
the  one  part,  and  on  the  other  by  his  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  all  the  Rus- 
sias, the  ratifications  shall  be  exchanged  at  Washington  within  three 
months  from  the  date  hereof,  or  sooner,  if  possible. 

In  faith  whereof,  the  respective  plenipotentiaries  have  signed  this 
convention,  and  thereto  affixed  the  seals  of  their  arms. 

Done  at  Washington,  the  thirtieth  day  of  March,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-seven. 

[l.  s.]  WILLIAM    H.    SEWARD. 

[l.  s.]  EDOUARD    DE   STOECKL. 


HISTORY.  363 

And  whereas  the  said  treaty  has  been  duly  ratified  on  both  parts, 
and  the  respective  ratifications  of  the  same  were  exchanged  at  Washing- 
ton on  this  twentieth  day  of  June,  by  Wilham  H.  Seward,  Secretary  of 
State  of  the  United  States,  and  the  Privy  Counsellor  Edward  de  Stoeckl, 
the  envoy  extraordinary  of  his  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias, 
on  the  part  of  their  respective  governments, 

Now,  therefore,  be  it  known  that  I,  Andrew  Johnson,  President  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  have  caused  the  said  treaty  to  be  made 
public,  to  the  end  that  the  same  and  every  clause  and  article  thereof 
may  be  observed  and  fulfilled  with  good  faith  by  the  United  States  and 
the  citizens  thereof 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand,  and  caused  the 
seal  of  the  United  States  to  be  affixed. 

Done  at  the  city  of  Washington  this  twentieth  day  of  June,  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-seven,  and  of 
the  independence  of  the  United  States  the  ninety-first. 

[l.  s.]  ANDREW    JOHNSON. 

By  the  President : 

William  H.  Seward, 

Secretary  of  State. 


[B.] 

Mr.  Sezvard  to  Mr.  de  Stoeckl. 

Department  of  State, 
Washington,  March  23,  1867. 

Sir  :  —  With  reference  to  the  proposed  convention  between  our  re- 
spective governments  for  a  cession  by  Russia  of  her  American  territory 
to  the  United  States,  I  have  the  honor  to  acquaint  you  that  I  must  insist 
upon  that  clause  in  the  sixth  article  of  the  draught  which  declares  the 
cession  to  be  free  and  unincumbered  by  any  reservations,  privileges, 
franchises,  grants,  or  possessions  by  any  associated  companies,  whether 
corporate  or  incorporate,  Russian  or  any  other,  &c.,  and  must  regard  it 
as  an  ultimatum  ;  with  the  President's  approval,  however,  I  will  add  two 
hundred  thousand  dollars  to  the  consideration  money  on  that  account. 

I  avail  myself  of  this  occasion  to  offer  to  you  a  renewed  assurance 
of  my  most  distinguished  consideration. 

WILLIAM    H.    SEWARD, 

Secretary  of  State. 

Mr.  Edward  de  Stoeckl,  &c.,  &c.,  &c. 


364  HISTORY. 

[C] 

Mr.  de  Stoeckl  to  Mr.  Seward. 

[Translation.] 

Imperial  Legation  of  Russia  to  the  United  States, 
Washington,  March  25,  1867. 

Mr.  Secretary  of  State  :  —  I  have  had  the  honor  to  receive  the 
note  which  you  were  pleased  to  address  to  me  on  the  3d  March,  1867, 
to  inform  me  that  the  Federal  government  insists  that  the  clause  inserted 
in  article  sixth  of  the  project  of  convention  must  be  strictly  maintained, 
and  that  the  territory  to  be  ceded  to  the  United  States  must  be  free 
from  any  arrangement  and  privileges  conceded  either  by  government  or 
by  companies. 

In  answer,  I  believe  myself  authorized,  Mr.  Secretary  of  State,  to 
accede  literally  to  this  request  on  the  conditions  indicated  in  your 
note. 

Please  accept,  Mr.  Secretary  of  State,  the  assurances  of  my  verv' 
high  consideration. 

STOECKL. 

Hon.  William  H.  Seward, 

Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States. 


[D.] 

Mr.  de  Stoeck/  to  Mr.  Seward. 
[Translation.] 

Washington,  March  17-29,  1867. 
Mr.  Secretary  of  State:  —  I  have  the  honor  to  inform  you  that  by 
a  telegram  dated  16-28  of  this  month  from  St.  Petersburg,  Prince 
Gortchakoff  informs  me  that  his  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias 
gives  his  consent  to  the  cession  of  the  Russian  possessions  on  the 
American  continent  to  the  United  States  for  the  stipulated  sum  of  seven 
million  two  hundred  thousand  dollars  in  gold,  and  that  his  Majesty  the 
Emperor  invests  me  with  full  powers  to  negotiate  and  sign  the  treaty. 

Please  accept,  Mr.  Secretary  of  State,  the  assurance  of  my  very  high 
consideration. 

STOECKL. 
Hon.  William  H.  Seward, 

Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States. 


HISTORY.  365 

[E.] 
Mr.  Seward  to  Mr.  de  Stoeckl. 

Department  of  State, 
Washington,  May  13,  1867. 

Sir  : — I  have  the  honor  to  inform  you  that  Brigadier  General  Lovell 
H.  Rousseau  has  been  appointed  by  the  President  the  commissioner 
on  the  part  of  the  United  States  to  receive,  from  the  commissioner  ap- 
pointed on  behalf  of  his  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias,  the 
territory  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  the  treaty  of  the  30th  of  March 
last.  A  copy  of  the  instructions  which  have  been  given  to  General 
Rousseau  for  his  guidance  in  executing  that  trust  is  herewith  communi- 
cated for  your  information  and  that  of  your  government. 

I  avail  myself  of  this  occasion,  sir,  to  offer  to  you  a  renewed  assur- 
ance of  my  most  distinguished  consideration. 

WILLIAM  H.  SEWARD, 

Secretary  of  State. 

Mr.  Edward  de  Stoeckl,  &c.,  &:c.,  &c. 

[F.] 

Mr.  de  Stoeckl  to  Mr.  Setvard. 

[Translation.] 

Washington,  August  13,  1867. 

Mr.  Secretary  of  State: — I  have  the  honor  to  remit  to  you 
herewith  copy  of  the  instructions  given  to  Captain  Pestchouroff,  com- 
missioner of  the  Imperial  government  for  the  transfer  of  the  territory 
which  formed  the  Russian  colonies  of  the  northwest  of  the  American 
continent. 

Please  accept,  Mr.  Secretary  of  State,  the  assurance  of  my  very  high 
consideration. 

STOECKL. 
Hon.  William  H.  Seward, 

Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States. 

Translation  of  Instructions  given  to  Captain  Pestchouroff,  Commissioner  on 

the  part  of  the  Imperial  Russian   Governme?it,  for  the  delivery  of  the 

Russian  American  Colonies  to  the  Govemiment  of  the  United  States. 

I.  Captain  Pestchouroff  has  been  directed  to  proceed  to  Washington 

and  enter,  through  the  medium  of  the  Secretary  of  State  and  the  Russian 

minister,  into  communication  with  the  commissioner  appointed  by  the 


366  HISTORY. 

United  States  government  to  receive  the  said  colonies,  for  the  purpose 
of  estabhshing  an  understanding  as  to  the  said  transaction. 

2.  On  the  arrival  of  the  two  commissioners  at  New  Archangel, 
Sitka,  Captain  Pestchouroff  is  directed  to  proceed,  in  the  first  place,  to 
the  formal  transfer  of  the  territory  under  mutual  national  salutes. 

3.  All  the  forts  and  military  posts  will  be  delivered  at  once  to  the 
American  military  forces  that  may  follow  the  United  States  commis- 
sioner. Captain  Pestchouroff  will  take  the  necessary  steps  to  send 
home  the  Russian  troops  as  early  as  convenient  and  deliver  the  bar- 
racks to  the  use  of  the  American  soldiers. 

4.  The  public  buildings,  such  as  the  governor's  house,  the  buildings 
used  for  government  purposes,  dock  yard,  barracks,  hospitals,  schools, 
public  grounds,  and  all  free  lots  at  Sitka  and  Kadiak,  will  be  delivered 
by  Captain  Pestchouroff  to  the  American  commissioner  as  soon  as  prac- 
ticable. 

5.  All  the  houses  and  stores  forming  private  property  will  remain 
to  be  disposed  of  by  their  proprietors.  To  this  same  category  belong 
smiths',  joiners',  coopers',  tanners',  and  other  similar  shops,  as  well  as  ice- 
houses, saw  and  flour  mills,  and  any  small  barracks  that  may  exist  on 
the  islands. 

6.  The  two  commissioners,  after  making  the  division  between  the 
property  to  be  transferred  to  the  American  government  and  that  left  to 
private  proprietors,  will  draw  up  a  protocol,  and  the  American  com- 
missioner, on  the  documents  furnished  by  the  local  Russian  authorities, 
will  deliver  legalized  certificates  to  the  owners  of  said  property  in  order 
to  enable  them  to  possess  that  property  or  otherwise  to  dispose  of  it. 

7.  The  churches  and  chapels  remain,  according  to  the  stipulations 
of  the  treaty,  the  property  of  the  members  of  the  Greco-Russian  com- 
munity. The  houses  and  lots  of  ground  which  were  granted  to  these 
churches  remain  their  property. 

8.  As  the  Russian  American  Company  possess  in  the  colonies  large 
stores  of  furs,  provisions,  and  other  goods,  at  present  distributed  in 
Sitka,  Kadiak,  and  other  stations  on  the  continent  and  islands,  they  will 
require  a  certain  lapse  of  time  to  collect,  sell,  or  export  their  property. 
For  that  purpose  the  company  will  leave  an  agent  or  agents  charged 
with  the  duty  of  settling  finally  their  affairs. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  Federal  government  will  allow  the  Russian 
American  Company  to  settle  finally  their  business,  without  subjecting 
their  property  or  their  agents  to  any  taxes  for  a  period  of  eighteen 
months,  or  at  least  one  year,  considering  that  the  same  property  has 
never  been  taxed  heretofore,  and  that  the  company,  under  the  present 
circumstances,  will  have  to  dispose  of  their  property  at  a  loss. 


HISTORY.  367 

9.  In  the  settlement  of  all  the  affairs  in  connection  with  the  trans- 
fer of  the  territory,  Captain  Pestchouroff  is  directed  to  proceed  in  the 
most  amicable  way,  and  the  Imperial  Russian  government  hopes  that 
the  authorities  of  the  United  States  will  be  guided  by  the  same  liberal 
views,  in  order  to  avoid  any  difficulties  and  to  complete  this  transaction 
in  the  spirit  of  the  friendly  relations  existing  between  the  two  govern- 
ments. 

[G.] 

Department  of  the  Interior, 
Washington,  D.  C,  October  26,   1867. 

Sir  : —  In  reply  to  your  communication  of  the  24th  instant  in  relation 
to  attempts  of  American  citizens  to  acquire  pre-emption  rights  to  lands 
at  Sitka,  in  the  newly  acquired  Territory  of  Alaska,  I  have  the  honor  to 
enclose  for  your  information  a  copy  of  a  report  this  day  made  to  me  by 
the  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office  upon  the  subject  of  your 
inquiries.  Such  claims  and  settlements  are  not  only  without  the  sanc- 
tion of  law,  but  are  in  direct  violation  of  the  provisions  of  the  laws  of 
Congress  applicable  to  public  domain  secured  to  the  United  States  by 
any  treaty  made  with  a  foreign  nation  ;  and,  if  deemed  necessary  and 
advisable,  military  force  may  be  used  to  remove  the  intruders. 

This  department  has  no  officers  at  Sitka,  nor  in  any  other  part  of 
the  "  Russian  purchase,"  and  must  rely  upon  the  State  Department  to 
cause  the  necessary  orders  in  the  premises  to  be  communicated  to  our 
authorities  there. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

O.  H.  BROWNING,  Secretary. 

Hon.  William  H.  Seward,  Secretary  of  State. 


[H.] 

Department  of  the  Interior, 
General  Land  Office,  October  26,  1867. 

Sir: — I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  the  depart- 
ment letter  of  yesterday,  enclosing  a  communication  of  the  24th  from 
the  honorable  Secretary  of  State,  by  which  the  department  is  advised 
that  citizens  of  the  United  States  are  attempting  to  make  claims  and 
settlements  at  Sitka  within  the  "  Russian  purchase  "  under  the  town 
site  and  pre-emption  laws,  and  I  have  the  honor  to  state  that  such  set- 
tlements are  illegal  and  contrary  to  law.  See  act  of  March  3,  1807, 
Vol.  II.,  p.  445,  United  States  Statutes. 

In  the  absence  of  specific  legislation  by  Congress  providing  for  the 


368 


HISTORY. 


organization  of  land  districts  within  the  "  Russian  purchase,"  and  the 
extension  of  our  system  of  surveys  over  the  same,  settlements  and 
claims  under  the  town  site  and  pre-emption  laws  are  unlawful,  and 
cannot  be  recognized  under  existing  laws. 

I  am,  sir,  very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

JOSEPH   S.    WILSON, 

Commissioner. 
Hon.  O.  H.  Browning, 

Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

[I.] 

Mr.  Seward  to  General  Grant. 

Department  of  State, 
Washington,  October  28,  1867. 
General  :  —  In  the  absence  of  specific  legislation  by  Congress  for  the 
organization  of  land  districts  in  Alaska,  claims  of  pre-emption  and  set- 
tlements are  not  only  without  the  sanction  of  law,  but  are  in  direct  vio- 
lation of  laws  applicable  to  the  public  domain.  Military  force  may  be 
used  to  remove  intruders  if  necessary.  Will  you  have  the  goodness  to 
instruct  Major  General  Halleck  to  this  effect  by  telegraph,  and  request 
him  to  communicate  the  instruction  to  Major  General  Rousseau  at 
Sitka  ? 

I  have  the  honor  to  be.  General,  your  obedient  servant, 

WILLIAM    H.    SEWARD. 
General  U.   S.  Grant, 

Secretary  of  War  ad  interijn. 

[J-] 

Mr.  Seward  to  Mr.  de  Stoeckl. 

Department  of  State, 
Washington,  October  29,  1867. 

Sir  :  —  I  have  the  honor  to  enclose  for  your  information  a  copy  of  a 
letter  of  yesterday  to  General  Grant,  the  Secretary  of  War  ad  interim, 
embodying  an  instruction  which  the  President  has  directed  to  be  sent 
by  telegraph  to  Major  General  Halleck,  by  him  to  be  promptly  com- 
municated to  Major  General  Rousseau,  at  Sitka,  with  a  view  to  prevent- 
ing premature  and  illegal  attempts  to  occupy  land  in  Alaska. 

Accept,  sir,  a  renewed  assurance  of  my  very  high  consideration, 

WILLIAM    H.    SEWARD. 

Mr.  Edward  de  Stoeckl,  &c.,  &c.,  &c. 


HISTORY.  369 

[K.] 

Department  of  State, 
Washington,  September  6,  1867. 

General  :  —  In  relation  to  the  despatch  of  Major  General  Halleck, 
of  the  2d  of  September,  instant,  in  which  he  requests  that  the  President 
will  by  proclamation  declare  the  newly  acquired  Russian  territory  an 
Indian  territory  in  order  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  ardent  spirits 
among  the  Indians  there,  I  am  instructed  to  say  that  the  President  will 
retain  the  same  for  further  consideration.  At  the  same  time  he  desires 
that  Major  General  Halleck  will  confer  with  General  Rousseau  upon  that 
subject,  to  the  end  that  the  matured  views  of  those  officers  may  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  President  as  early  as  practicable. 

For  the  information   of  the  War  Department,  I  communicate  a  copy 
of  an   opinion  of  E.  Peshine   Smith,  Esq.,  Examiner  of  Claims  in  this 
department,  which  sets  forth  a  view  of  the  laws  of  the  United  States 
bearing  upon  that  question,  which  view  is  adopted  by  this  department. 
I  have  the  honor  to  be,  General,  your  obedient  servant, 

WILLIAM    H.    SEWARD. 
General  V.   S.  Grant, 

Secretaiy  of  War  ad  interim. 
Official : 

R.    WILLIAMS, 
Assistant  Adjutant- General. 

[L.] 

Bureau  of  Claims,  September  5,  1867. 

Proclamation  that  the  territory  ceded  by  Russia  is  Indian  territory  : 

Such  a  proclamation  is  recommended  by  General  Halleck  in  order 
to  prevent  the  introduction  of  whiskey  among  the  Indians. 

The  act  of  1834(4  Stat.  729),  "to  regulate  trade  and  intercourse 
with  the  Indian  tribes,"  provides  that  "all  that  part  of  the  United 
States  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  not  within  the  States  of  Missouri 
and  Louisiana  or  the  Territory  of  Arkansas,  *  *  *  *  for  the  purposes  of 
this  act  be  deemed  and  taken  to  be  the  Indian  country." 

The  question  is,  whether  the  provisions  of  that  act  in  respect  to 
trade  and  intercourse  with  Indians  are  to  be  restricted  to  their  operation 
in  the  Indian  country  which  was  within  the  United  States  at  the  time  of 
t/ie  passage  of  the  act,  or  \vht\her  they  take  effect  and  apply  to  new  ter- 
ritory acquired  by  conquest  or  treaty,  without  any  further  legislation 
giving  them  such  extension. 

I  think  this  question  has  been  settled  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
24 


370 


HISTORY, 


United  States  in  the  case  of  Cross  vs.  Harrison  (i6  Howard's  R.,  164, 
199).  The  question  there  was,  whether  upon  the  ratification  of  the 
treaty  for  the  cession  of  CaUfornia  the  existing  several  laws  came  into 
operation  so  as  to  regulate  the  rate  of  duties  on  imported  goods  without 
any  act  of  Congress  declaring  their  will  in  that  respect,  and  creating  col- 
lection districts.  The  court  held  that  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  made 
California  a  part  of  the  United  States,  and  that  so  soon  as  it  became  so 
the  territory  instantly  became  subject  to  the  acts  wliich  were  in  force  to 
regulate  foreign  commerce  with  the  United  States. 

The  argument  was  urged  in  that  case  that  the  revenue  laws  applied 
only  to  the  territory  under  our  jurisdiction  when  they  were  passed,  until 
Congress,  by  creating  collection  districts  in  the  new  Territory,  or  some 
other  act  of  the  same  nature,  had  manifested  its  will  that  the  laws  should 
be  thus  applied.  That  argument  was  overruled  by  the  court,  and  it 
would,  therefore,  be  overruled  in  respect  to  Alaska  and  commerce  with 
the  Indian  tribes. 

I  think,  therefore,  that  the  new  territory  became  a  part  of  the  In- 
dian country  on  the  20th  June  last.  A  proclamation  by  the  President 
is  only  necessary  for  the  information  of  persons  going  into  the  territory 
of  the  restrictions  to  which  they  are  subject  in  their  intercourse  with 
Indians.  I  think,  however,  the  treaty  itself  may  work  some  change  in 
the  existing  law.  For  instance,  one  of  the  provisions  is  that  no  license 
to  trade  with  the  Indians  shall  be  granted  to  any  persons  except  citizens 
of  the  United  States.  The  third  article  of  the  treaty  provides  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  ceded  territory,  reserving  their  natural  allegiance,  may 
return  to  Russia  within  three  years,  but  if  they  prefer  to  remain  in  the 
territory  they  (with  the  exception  of  native  uncivilized  tribes)  shall  be 
admitted  to  the  enjoyment  of  all  the  rights,  advantages,  and  immunities 
of  citizens  of  the  United  States.  While  it  may  be  that  they  cannot 
acquire  the  full  rights  of  American  citizenship  until  their  election  has 
been  evidenced  by  remaining  three  years,  it  seems  to  me  it  would  be 
a  harsh  construction,  and  one  to  be  avoided,  if  possible,  which  should 
postpone  for  that  period  their  right  to  receive  a  license  to  trade  with 
the  Indians.  It  can  hardly  be  the  intention  of  the  treaty  that  they 
should  lose  any  privileges  by  the  incorporation  of  their  territory  with 
the  United  States.  The  provision  should  be  deemed  an  enabling  and 
not  a  restrictive  one.  If  doubt  remains  on  this  point,  as  it  may,  it 
should,  I  think,  be  removed  by  Congress. 

E.    PESHINE   SMITH, 

Examiner. 
Ofilicial  : 

R.   WILTJAMS, 
Assistant  Ailjiitant-  General. 


HISTORY.  371 

[M.] 

Department  of  State, 
Washington,  January  30,  1869. 

Sir  :  —  I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  letter 
of  the  27th  instant,  enclosing  extracts  from  a  communication  from  Mr. 
M.  F.  Smith,  Jr.,  concerning  the  alleged  habitual  encroachment  of  the 
agents  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  upon  the  trade  and  territory  of 
Alaska,  with  a  request  for  my  views  upon  the  subject. 

By  the  sixth  article  of  our  treaty  with  Russia  of  March  30,  1867,  the 
cession  of  territory  and  dominion  therein  made  is  "  declared  to  be  free 
and  unincumbered  by  any  reservations,  privileges,  franchises,  grants,  or 
possessions  by  any  associated  companies,  whether  corporate  or  incorpor- 
ate, Russian  or  any  other,  or  by  any  parties  except  merely  private 
individual  property  holders. 

Article  5  of  the  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia  of  February 
28,  1825  (3  Hertslet's  Treaties,  364),  which  was  revived  and  continued 
by  the  19th  article  of  the  treaty  between  the  same  powers  of  January  12, 
1859(10  Hertslet,  1063),  provides  that  "no  establishment  shall  be 
formed  by  either  of  the  two  parties  within  the  limits  assigned  by  the 
two  preceding  articles  to  the  possession  of  the  other  ;  consequently 
British  subjects  shall  not  form  any  establishment,  either  upon  the  coast 
or  upon  the  border  of  the  continent  comprised  within  the  limits  of  the 
Russian  possessions."  The  articles  referred  to  established  the  boundary 
lines  between  the  British  and  Russian  possessions  on  the  northwest 
coast  of  America,  the  same  adopted  in  our  treaty  of  cession  with  Russia. 

The  provisions  above  cited  are  conclusive  against  the  right  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  to  establish  or  maintain  such  an  establishment 
as  Fort  Yukon  is  described  to  be  in  the  communication  from  Mr.  M.  F. 
Smith,  Jr.  I  understand  the  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  in  the  case  of  Harrison  vs.  Cross  (16  Howard,  164-202), 
to  declare  its  opinion  that  upon  the  addition  to  the  United  States  of  xxem 
territory,  by  conquest  and  cession,  the  acts  regulating  foreign  commerce 
attach  to  and  take  effect  within  such  territory  ipso  facto  and  without  any 
fresh  act  of  legislation  expressly  giving  such  extension  to  the  pre-exist- 
ing laws.  I  can  see  no  reason  for  a  discrimination  in  this  respect 
between  acts  regulating  foreign  commerce  and  the  laws  regulating  in- 
tercourse with  the  Indian  tribes  ;  there  is,  indeed,  a  strong  analogy 
between  the  two  subjects.  The  Indians,  if  not  foreigners,  are  not 
citizens,  and  their  tribes  have  the  character  of  dependent  nations  under 
the  protection  of  their  government,  as  Chief  Justice  Marshall  remarks, 
delivering  the  opinion  of  the  Supreme  Court  in  Worcester  vs.  The  State 


372 


HISTORY. 


of  Georgia  (6  Peters,  557),  "  The  treaties  and  laws  of  the  United  States 
contemplate  the  Indian  territory  as  completely  separated  from  that  of 
the  States,  and  provide  that  all  intercourse  with  them  shall  be  carried 
on  exclusively  by  the  government  of  the  Union."  The  same  clause  of 
the  Constitution  invests  Congress  with  power  "to  regulate  commerce 
with  foreign  nations,  *  *  *  *  and  with  the  Indian  tribes." 

The  act  of  June  30,  1834  (4  Stat,  729),  defines  the  Indian  country 
as,  in  part,  "  all  that  part  of  the  United  States  west  of  the  Mississippi 
and  not  within  the  States  of  Missouri  and  Louisiana,  or  the  Territory  of 
Arkansas."  This,  by  a  happy  elasticity  of  expression,  widening  as  our 
dominion  widens,  includes  the  territory  ceded  by  Russia. 

That  act  provides  that  no  person  shall  trade  with  any  of  the  Indians 
(in  the  Indian  country)  without  a  license  ;  that  any  person,  other  than 
an  Indian,  who  shall  attempt  to  reside  in  the  Indian  country  as  a  trader, 
or  to  introduce  goods,  or  to  trade  therein,  without  such  license,  shall 
forfeit  all  merchandise  offered  for  sale  to  the  Indians  or  found  in  his 
possession ;  and  shall,  moreover,  forfeit  the  sum  of  five  hundred  dollars  ; 
that  no  license  to  trade  with  the  Indians  shall  be  granted  to  any  per- 
sons except  citizens  of  the  United  States  ;  that  a  foreigner  going  into 
the  Indian  country,  without  a  passport  from  the  War  Department,  the 
Superintendent  or  agent  of  Indian  affairs,  or  the  oflicer  commanding  the 
nearest  military  post  on  the  frontiers,  shall  be  liable  to  a  fine  of  one 
thousand  dollars  ;  finally,  that  the  Superintendent  of  Indian  affairs,  and 
Indian  agents,  and  sub-agents,  shall  have  the  authority  to  remove  from 
the  Indian  country  all  persons  found  therein  contrary  to  law,  and  the 
President  is  authorized  to  direct  the  military  force  to  be  employed  in 
such  removal. 

These  provisions  seem  to  be  all  that  can  be  necessary  to  prevent  the 
encroachments  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  alleged  by  Mr.  M.  F. 
Smith,  Jr. 

Of  the  practical  difficulties  in  the  execution  of  these  provisions  you 
have  better  means  of  judging  than  has  this  department. 
I  have  the  honor  to  be,  sir. 

Your  obedient  servant, 

WILLIAM    H.    SEWARD. 

Hon.  John  M.  Schofield, 

Secretary  of  War,  WasJiington,  D.  C. 


CHAPTER     III. 

Aboriginal  Inliabitauts  of  Alaska. 

THE  aborigines  of  North  America  are  naturally  divided  into 
two  great  groups.  One  of  these  comprises  the  natives 
universally  known  under  the  name  of  Indians.  For  the  other 
(to  supply  a  term  long  needed  in  generalization,  to  distinguish 
the  tribes  of  Innuit,  Aleutians,  and  Asiatic  Eskimo  from  the 
natives  comprised  under  the  first  head),  in  a  paper  read  before  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1 869,  I  proposed  the  term  Ordrian  *  in  allusion  to  their 
universal  coastwise  distribution.  The  pertinence  of  this  appella- 
tion will  be  better  appreciated  if  the  reader  will  take  the  trouble 
to  lay  down  on  the  map  the  boundaries  of  the  territory  actually 
occupied  by  the  members  of  this  group.  He  will  see  that  it  forms  a 
belt  or  girdle  along  the  north  and  west  coasts  of  America,  and  the 
extreme  east  coast  of  Asia,  rarely  interrupted,  as  on  the  northwest 
shore  of  Kenai  ;  sometimes  produced  inland  near  a  great  water- 
course, such  as  the  mouth  of  the  Yukon  or  Mackenzie  ;  but  no- 
where attaining  any  great  breadth,  and  everywhere  interposed  be- 
tween the  Indians,  who  occupy  the  interior,  and  the  sea. 

Our  knowledge  is  yet  insufficient,  and  the  scope  of  this  chapter 
is  too  limited,  to  admit  of  the  discussion  of  the  question  of  the 
original  identity  of  the  Indian  and  Orarian  stocks.  It  is  an  easy 
matter,  however,  to  show  the  most  salient  points  of  present  differ- 
ence. Another  and  more  interesting  question,  that  of  the  origi- 
nal derivation  of  the  natives  of  America,  is  also  too  wide  for  dis- 
cussion here,  while  the  facts  on  which  to  ground  any  hypothesis 
are  very  limited  in  number. 

To    the   overshadowing   influence   of   Indo-European   study  in 

*  From  ora,  a  coast.  I  should  have  preferred  a  term  of  native  derivation  (e.  g. 
Iiniiiit)  had  there  been  any  of  sufficient  scope ;  failing  in  that,  a  classical  term  was 
adopted. 


374  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

philological  science,  and  partly  to  the  Semitic  traditions  which 
hav^e  become  so  thoroughly  ingrained  in  Christian  theology,  may 
be  principally  attributed  the  unphilosophical  manner  in  which 
many  ethnologists  have  taken  the  theory  of  the  population  of 
America  from  Asia  or  Polynesia  for  granted.  While  I  do  not 
intend  to  discuss  the  question,  or  express  a  decided  opinion  on  it, 
here,  yet  it  is  certain  that  the  most  eminent  students  of  Ameri- 
can ethnology  are  becoming  more  and  more  unwilling  to  accept 
this  theory  until  more  facts,  upon  which  to  base  it,  are  brought 
forward.  I  propose  to  attempt  to  show  that  some  of  the  facts 
which  have  been  used  in  support  of  this  hypothesis  are  suscepti- 
ble of  quite  another  interpretation.  I  refer  to  the  existence  of 
tribes  of  Orarian  stock  on  the  coast  of  the  Chukchee  Peninsula. 
There  are  abundant  data  on  record  in  regard  to  our  North  Ameri- 
can Indians,  which  show  how  little  physiological  characteristics 
can  be  relied  upon,  as  proofs  of  affinity  or  identity  of  origin, 
among  the  aborigines. 

The  accompanying  vocabularies  (see  Appendix  F)  will  assist 
the  student  in  determining  the  affinities  of  some  tribes  previously 
but  little  known. 

Orarian  Group.  —  This  great  stock  is  confined  to  the  northern 
and  western  shores  of  America,  the  islands  of  the  vicinity,  and 
the  adjacent  shores  of  that  part  of  Eastern  Siberia  known  as 
the  Chukchee  Peninsula.  They  may  be  divided  into  three  lesser 
groups,  of  which  the  most  important  is  that  of  the  Inmiit.  The 
others  are  the  Aletitian  branch,  and  that  which,  for  want  of  a 
better  name,  I  shall  designate  as  the  Tuski  branch. 

Tlie  Iimuit.  —  These  comprise  the  Greenlanders,  the  northern 
Eskimo  of  the  arctic  voyagers,  the  Western  Eskimo  of  Seemann 
and  others,  the  Innuit  of  the  islands  in  the  vicinity  of  Bering  Strait, 
and  those  of  the  west  coast  of  America,  south  to  Mount  St.  Elias. 

The  Aleutians.  — These  comprise  the  inhabitants  of  Aliaska,  west 
of  the  i6oth  degree  of  longitude,  and  the  Aleutian  Islands. 

The  Tuski.  —  This  branch  is  composed  of  the  Orarian  tribe  or 
tribes  which  occupy  the  coast  of  the  Chukchee  Peninsula  from  Ko- 
liuchin  Bay  on  the  north  to  Anadyr  Gulf  on  the  south.  We  do  not 
know  satisfactorily  the  name  by  which  they  call  themselves,  but 
as  Hooper  says  positively  that  they  call  themselves  Tuski,  I  have 
provisionally  adopted   his   name.     Some   fragments  of  historical 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  375 

records,  ana  the  traditions  of  which  I  received  some  account, 
while  pursuing  my  inquiries  among  them  in  1865  and  1866, 
throw  new  light  on  their  origin.  While  we  leave  untouched  the 
question  of  original  Orarian  emigration  from  Asia,  we  are  able 
to  determine  pretty  certainly  that  the  Orarians  now  on  the  Asi- 
atic coast  were  originally  from  America,  and  that  their  emigra- 
tion has  taken  place  within  three  hundred  years. 

At  Plover  Bay  I  was  informed  by  Nokjun,  a  very  intelligent 
Tuski,  who  spoke  English,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  country 
were  of  two  kinds,  —  "deer  men"  (i.e.  true  Chukchees)  and  "bow- 
head  men "  (Tiiski  or  Orarians).  The  "  deer  men  "  were  the 
original  inhabitants,  and  the  "  bowhead  men,"  to  which  class  he 
belonged,  had  come,  long  ago,  from  the  islands  (the  Diomedes)  to 
the  northeast.  He  said  that  the  reason  they  came  was  because 
there  was  war  between  them  and  the  people  who  wore  labrets. 
The  latter  proved  the  stronger,  and  the  former  were  obliged  to 
come  to  the  country  of  the  "  deer  men."  *  The  latter  allowed  the 
"  bowhead  men  "  to  settle  on  the  barren  rocky  coast,  and  formed 
an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  them  against  the  invaders 
from  the  eastward.  On  interrogating  one  of  the  "deer  men" 
who  frequently  visit  the  village,  he  confirmed  the  above,  as  iden- 
tical with  the  Chiikchee  traditions.  Noticing  in  many  places  the 
remains  of  stone  houses,  similar  to  the  Innuit  topeks  of  Norton 
Sound,  I  asked  Nokum  who  made  them.  He  replied  that  that 
was  the  kind  of  house  which  his  people  lived  in  very  long  ago, 
so  long  that  his  grandfather  only  knew  of  it  by  tradition  ;  but 
that,  wood  being  scarce,  they  had  adopted  a  mode  of  building  their 
habitations  which  was  like  that  practised  by  the  "deer  men,"  and 
which  was  much  better  adapted  to  the  country.  So  much  for 
tradition. 

In  1648,  when  Simeon  Deshnefif  sailed  through  Bering  Strait, 
he  found  natives  upon  the  Diomedes,  wearing  labrets,  who  were 
at  war  with  the  Tuski.  This  report  was  confirmed  by  Shestakoff 
in  1730,  and  more  fully  by  Peter  Popofif,  who  had  been  sent  to  col- 
lect tribute  from  the  Chukchees.  At  the  time  of  the  visit  of  the 
latter,  in  171 1,  the  Tuski  were  living  in  "immovable  huts  which 

*  So  called  because  they  subsist  principally  on  the  flesh  of  their  tame  reindeer, 
while  the  Tiiski,  or  "bowhead  men,"  gain  their  living  by  pursuing  the  seal,  walrus, 
and  bowhead  whale.  There  are  also  some  impoverished  true  Chukchees  who  have 
been  reduced  to  the  Tiiski  mode  of  life  in  order  to  obtain  a  subsistence. 


-l^-jb  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

they  dig  in  the  ground."  He  also  found  among  the  Tiiski  ten 
of  the  islanders  wearing  labrets,  who  had  been  taken  prisoners 
of  war. 

Saur,  in  his  journey  from  St.  Lawrence  Bay  to  the  Kolvma 
River,  saw  Tiiski  still  living  in  the  ancient  underground  houses, 
which  were  built  of  driftwood.  According  to  later  travellers, 
these  huts  on  the  northern  coasts  are  now  entirely  abandoned, 
and  have  formed  subjects  for  speculation  in  more  than  one  work 
on  the  Polar  regions.  It  may  be  mentioned  in  this  connection 
that  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  Aleutians  originally  emigrated  to 
the  islands  from  the  American  continent,  driven  by  hostile  tribes. 
Their  original  name  signified  "  men  of  the  east,"  and  every  known 
fact  in  regard  to  them  adds  confirmation. 

It  has  been  frequently  remarked  that  the  Tiiski  and  Innuit 
tribes  have  a  Mongolian  cast  of  countenance.  This,  upon  an 
actual  comparison,  will  be  found  to  be  much  less  than  is  usually 
supposed.  The  real  points  of  resemblance  are  principally  in  the 
complexion,  which  is  somewhat  similar,  and  in  the  eyes.  But  the 
eyes  of  the  Innuit  are  not  oblique,  as  in  the  Chinese.  They  have 
an  apparent  obliquity,  which  is  due  to  the  peculiar  form  of  the 
zygomatic  arch,  but  the  eyes  themselves  are  perfectly  horizontal. 
The  prominent  characteristics  of  the  Orarian  skull  are  the  strong- 
ly developed  coronary  ridge,  the  obliquity  of  the  zygoma,  and  its 
greater  capacity  compared  with  the  Indian  cranium.  The  former 
is  essentially  pyramidal,  while  the  latter  more  nearly  approaches 
a  cubic  shape. 

The  mean  capacity  (in  cubic  centimetres)  of  three  Tiiski  skulls 
from  Plover  Bay,  according  to  Dr.  Wyman,  was  1,505  ;  that  of 
twenty  crania  of  northern  Eskimo,  according  to  Dr.  Davis,  was 
1,475,  and  that  of  four  Innuit  crania  of  Norton  Sound  was  1,320; 
thus  showing  a  wide  variation.  The  mean  capacity  of  twenty 
West-American  Indian  crania  was  only  1,284.06.  The  mean 
height  of  all  the  Orarian  skulls  above  referred  to  was  136.55 
mill.,  against  a  breadth  of  134.47  mill.,  while  the  height  of  the 
Indian  skulls  was  120.14  mill-,  against  a  breadth  of  100.025  mill. 
The  zygomatic  diameter  of  the  Orarian  crania  was  134.92  mill., 
while  that  of  twelve  Indian  skulls  was  134.65  mill.  The  Orarian 
skulls  were  most  dolichocephalic,  and  the  Indian  most  brachy- 
cephalic.      The  latter  averaged  378.71   cubic  cent,  less  capacity 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  377 

than  the  former.  The  average  height  of  the  Orarians,  except 
among  the  stunted  tribes  of  the  extreme  north,  will  average 
as  great  as  that  of  their  Indian  neighbors.  The  strength  and 
activity  of  the  former  far  exceed  that  of  any  northern  Indians 
with  whom  I  am  acquainted.  They  are  much  more  intelligent, 
and  superior  in  every  essential  respect  to  the  Indians.  The  lan- 
guage of  the  western  Innuit  differs  totally  in  the  vocabulary  from 
that  of  any  Indian  tribes,  while  there  are  many  words  common  to 
the  Greenlanders  and  the  Bering  Strait  Eskimo.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  words  of  the  language  of  the  Aleutians  are  in  very  large 
part  quite  dissimilar  to  those  of  the  most  adjacent  Innuit.  There 
is  more  difference  in  this  respect  between  them  and  the  Innuit  of 
Kadiak  than  exists  between  the  Greenlandic  and  Bering  Strait 
dialect.  Nevertheless,  the  Aleutian  language  is  clearly  of  the  In- 
nuit type,  and  is  only  entitled  to  rank  as  a  branch  of  the  Orarian 
stock. 

The  Orarian  dialects  differ  from  the  Indian  languages  of 
Alaska  in  the  following  particulars,  according  to  Veniaminoff :  — 

The  Orarians  have  three  kinds  of  numbers :  nouns  or  abstract 
numbers,  adjective  or  qualifying  numbers,  and  a  plural  form  of 
each  number.  In  some  dialects,  as  in  the  Aleutian,  there  is  a  dual 
number.  These  dialects  have  indefinite  and  possessive  cases,  all 
formed  by  changes  in  the  termination  of  the  words,  so  that  there 
are  some  fifty  cases  for  the  same  word;  the  conjugation  of  verbs 
in  number  and  person  is  effected  in  the  same  way  ;  the  adverbs 
have  numbers,  and  the  idea  of  negation  is  expressed  by  a  change 
in  the  termination  of  the  noun,  and  not  by  the  use  of  the  word 
"no,"  except  when  the  latter  is  used  in  answer  to  a  question 
without  other  words.  The  Orarian  dialects  are  deficient  in  some 
sounds  which  are  common  in  the  Indian  languages,  and  the 
former,  as  a  rule,  are  much  more  harmonious  and  less  guttural 
than  the  latter.  Phrases  are  expressed  by  a  grammatical  ar- 
rangement of  words,  while  generally  the  Indians  use  a  single 
word  to  express  the  same  ideas. 

The  Indian  languages  of  Alaska  have  only  two  kinds  of  num- 
bers, singular  and  plural.  There  are  only  three  cases  to  the 
nouns;  the  conjugation  of  verbs  is  expressed  by  changes  in  the 
beginning  or  middle  of  the  word,  and  not  in  the  termination  ;  the 
adverbs  are  invariable  ;  the  words  are,  as  a  rule,  harsh  and  gut- 


2yS  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

tural  ;  the  number  of  words  is  less  than  in  the  Orarian  dialects, 
and  their  general  structure  is  more  arbitrary  and  less  gram- 
matical. Both  stocks  have  only  one  gender,  or  rather  no  change 
to  express  gender  in  the  words.  The  Indians  can  rarely  count 
more  than  two  hundred,  while  some  Orarian  dialects  have  a 
regular  succession  of  numbers  up  to  ten  thousand.* 

T/ie  Tuski  Tribes.  —  These  tribes  are  estimated  by  different 
authors  at  from  one  to  five  thousand  souls.  Their  origin  has 
been  described.  They  have  occupied  the  coast  from  Koliuchin 
Bay  in  the  north  to  the  Gulf  of  Anadyr  on  the  south,  but  during 
the  winter,  at  least,  are  at  present  confined  to  a  narrower  extent 
of  country.  Like  all  Orarians,  they  do  not  penetrate  the  interior 
to  any  great  distance.  They  are  on  good  terms  with  the  Chiik- 
chees,  and  there  are  several  villages  of  the  latter  composed  of 
individuals  who  have  lost  their  deer,  become  impoverished,  or 
from  some  other  reason  have  adopted  a  sedentary  life.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  there  was  originally  a  jargon,  containing 
words  of  both  languages,  in  use  in  communication  between  the 
men  of  the  two  races,  as  is  at  present  the  case  near  Norton  Sound, 
between  the  Innuit  and  Indians.  Communication  is  constantly 
kept  up  between  the  Chiikchees  and  Tuski,  and  our  knowledge 
of  the  language  of  the  latter  is  still  too  meagre  to  enable  us  to 
say  whether  among  themselves  they  yet  speak  a  pure  Orarian 
dialect,  but  it  is  probable  that  it  has  become,  from  constant  inter- 
course, permanently  mixed  with  Chukchee  words. 

Coming,  from  a  country  where  driftwood  was  abundant,  to  a 
district  where  it  is  very  scarce,  modifications  have  been  necessary 
in  the  mode  of  life  of  the  Tuski,  of  which  we  have,  as  already 
shown,  some  historical  record.  At  present  the  method  of  con- 
structing their  houses,  sledges,  and  many  other  articles,  is  very 
similar  to,  though  not  quite  identical  with,  the  mode  of  the  Chiik- 
chees.  They  have  no  reindeer,  however,  and  use  dogs  to  draw 
their  sledges.  The  summer  houses  of  the  Tuski  are  made  of  wal- 
rus-skins, spread  over  a  light  frame.  These  are  divided  by  hang- 
ing hides  into  various  compartments  where  the  inmates  sleep  and 
work  during  the  day.     They  fill  sealskin  bags  with  moss  and  lay 

*  This  subject  will  be  more  fully  treated  in  a  work  in  preparation  for  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  by  Ur.  George  Gibbs  and  the  writer.  This  work  will  also  contain 
a  large  number  of  hitherto  unpublished  vocabularies. 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  379 

soft  skins  over  them  for  beds.  Their  tents  at  Plover  Bay  were 
placed  on  the  pebbles  near  the  beach.  They  burn  moss  soaked 
in  oil,  which  is  placed  in  an  earthen  dish  with  a  ledge  on  each 
side,  where  a  roll  of  moss  serves  for  a  wick.  This,  with  a  larger 
one  for  cooking  over,  is  used  to  light  and  warm  the  tents  in 
winter.  To  warm  themselves  they  squat  directly  over  the  lamp, 
and  cover  themselves  and  it  with  a  mantle  of  skin.  Their  food  is 
principally  the  flesh  and  blubber  of  the  walrus,  seal,  and  whale. 
They  eat  much  of  it  raw,  but  usually  stew  the  leaner  parts. 
They  chop  up  the  round-leafed  sorrel  and  scurvy  grass  or  water- 
cresses,  and  make  a  kind  of  salad,  which  is  allowed  to  ferment 
before  it  is  eaten.  They  also  eat  the  berries  of  the  heath  {Em- 
pctriim  nigrum),  and  obtain  salmon  trout  from  a  lake  near  the 
village.  The  latter,  as  well  as  the  leopard  seal,  is  caught  in  a 
rawhide  net.  They  use  slings  with  great  dexterity,  and  also 
three-sided  arrows  and  darts  of  walrus  ivory.  A  harpoon  of 
slate  with  an  ivory  haft  is  used  in  the  whale  fishery.  They 
have  numerous  but  very  diminutive  dogs,  which  resemble  those  of 
the  American  Eskimo,  but  differ  from  the  Kamshadale  dogs. 
These  animals  are  freely  eaten,  as  I  saw  myself,  on  several  oc- 
casions. Foxes  and  bears  are  rarely  obtained  and  used  as  food. 
Their  dress  is  composed  of  seal  and  deer  skins,  the  latter  ob- 
tained in  trade  from  the  Chiikchees.  They  wear  an  inner  shirt  of 
reindeer  skin,  with  breeches  and  socks  of  the  same  ;  outside  of  these, 
a  parka,  made  very  loose,  with  wide  sleeves,  a  flap  under  the  chin 
and  a  square  hood,  without  trimming,  but  capable  of  being  drawn 
up,  like  the  mouth  of  a  bag,  around  the  face  by  a  string  inserted 
in  the  edge.  There  is  no  wolf-skin  trimming,  as  in  the  pirkies 
of  the  Innuit  of  Norton  Sound.  The  skirt  is  sometimes  trimmed 
with  beaver.  These  parkies,  being  made  of  the  tame  reindeer 
skins,  are  often  mottled  with  white  and  various  delicate  shades  of 
brown.  Their  outer  breeches  are  made  of  sealskin  with  the  hair 
turned  out.  Their  boots,  if  long,  are  made  of  the  same  material 
and  tied  at  the  knee,  or,  if  short,  at  the  ankle.  They  are  quite 
water-proof.  The  short  ones  are  sometimes  prettily  trimmed 
with  white  deerskin,  or  embroidered  with  sinew  colored  red  with 
willow  bark.  The  parka,  or  outer  dress,  including  the  boots,  of 
the  women  is  made  in  one  piece.  They  get  into  it  at  the  back 
by  a  hole,  which  is  laced  or  tied  up  afterwards.     The  very  loose, 


380  ABORIGINAL   INHABITANTS. 

baggy  manner  in  which  these  parkies  are  made  gives  them  a 
very  ludicrous  appearance,  especially  when  made  with  the  hair 
turned  in.  They  also  make  fine  strong  kamlaykas  of  walrus 
guts.     These  are  worn  in  their  kyaks  or  during  bad  weather. 

The  deerskins  are  obtained  by  barter  from  the  Chukchees. 
They  are  paid  for  with  oil,  walrus-skins,  ivory,  whalebone,  and 
ready-made  boats.  They  are  tanned  with  the  inner  bark  of  the 
willow  and  alder,  are  as  soft  as  a  glove,  and  of  a  beautiful  red- 
brown.  They  bear  wetting  much  better  than  the  skins  which  are 
prepared  by  the  Innuit  to  the  eastward. 

Their  winter  houses  are  built  on  the  most  exposed  spots,  so  that 
the  wind  may  drive  away  the  snow. 

Whale  ribs  are  erected  in  a  circle,  while  turf  is  piled  up  around 
them  for  two  or  three  feet,  and  the  whole  is  covered  with  walrus- 
hide.  The  latter  is  oiled  until  translucent,  and  no  windows  are 
required.  These  huts  are  divided  by  hanging  skins,  as  before 
described.  Their  kyaks  are  very  small  and  light,  and  quite  de- 
void of  ornament.  Their  oomiaks  are  of  the  ordinary  descri{> 
tion,  but  are  provided  with  flaps,  which  are  usually  rolled  up  out- 
side of  the  gunwale.  In  stormy  weather  these  are  crossed  over 
the  boat  and  strongly  laced,  so  that  the  cargo  is  kept  dry.  Two 
or  three  sealskins  are  inflated,  and  attached  to  the  gunwale  as 
floats,  so  that  it  is  almost  impossible  lor  the  boat  to  be  swamped. 
With  these  boats  they  make  long  voyages,  frequently  visiting  St. 
Lawrence  Island.  Here  the  frames  of  the  boats  are  made  from 
wood  which  grows  much  larger  on  the  island  than  any  on  the 
Tuski  coast.  They  told  me  that  the  frames  were  made  according 
to  an  invariable  rule,  and  that  the  price  of  a  frame  was  seven 
deerskins.  They  are  tied  up  with  whalebone,  are  sometimes  cov- 
ered with  skiji  at  the  island  and  sometimes  at  Plover  Bay.  They 
are  very  well  proportioned,  strong,  and  light.  Their  sewing  is 
done  with  whale  and  walrus  sinew.  Their  whale  line  is  made  of 
double-twisted  walrus-hide.  There  does  not  appear  to  be  any 
notion  that  the  oomiak  is  a  "  woman's  boat "  any  more  than  a 
man's  boat,  as  both  sexes  use  oomiaks  and  kyaks  without  distinc- 
tion. Their  paddles  are  roughly  made,  a^  often  very  poor,  as 
wood  is  so  scarce. 

The  Tuski  do  not  wear  labrets.  This  distinguishing  character- 
istic was  noticed  by  Deshneff  and  all  subsequent  voyagers.     Both 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  38  I 


sexes  tattoo  very  extensively,  not  only  on  the  face,  but  all  over 
the  body.  The  blue  color  is  derived  from  berries.  The  women 
always  have  perpendicular  lines  on  the  chin,  but  this  is  omitted 
by  the  men.  The  former  braid  their  hair  on  each  side,  while  the 
men  practise  the  tonsure,  though  not  universally. 

They  are  hospitable,  good-humored,  but  not  always  trustworthy. 
They  will  steal,  and  have  sometimes  attacked  small  vessels  in  the 
Strait.  On  one  occasion  they  attempted  to  take  a  small  schooner, 
commanded  by  a  captain  of  my  acquaintance.  A  bloody  fight 
ensued,  in  which  the  sailors  were  finally  successful.  An  extreme 
degree  of  endurance,  ferocity,  and  contempt  of  pain  was  shown 
by  the  Tiiski.  One  of  them  was  pinned  to  the  mast  with  a  har- 
poon during  the  fight,  but  uttered  no  cry,  and  employed  his  last 
breath  in  spitting  in  the  face  of  his  assailant.  After  this  conflict 
the  Tuski  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  whites  were  hard  to 
kill,  and  no  further  attempts  of  the  kind  have  been  made  of  late 
years. 

Their  complexion  is  light,  like  that  of  all  Orarians.  The 
Chiikchee  are  rather  darker.  They  are  of  moderate  height,  but 
look  short,  from  their  baggy  parkies.  They  have  no  chiefs,  but 
their  most  wealthy  men  have  the  greatest  influence.  They  some- 
times have  as  many  as  five  wives,  but  one  or  two  is  the  usual 
number.  They  are  not  prolific.  If  a  man's  wife  bears  only 
girls,  he  takes  another  until  he  obtains  a  boy,  but  no  more. 
Boys  stay  at  home  and  work,  while  the  girls  are  married  very 
early  and  go  away.  There  is  no  marriage  ceremony,  but  the 
parents  exchange  presents,  and  a  feast  is  usually  given  by  the 
bride's  father.  During  childbirth,  delivery  is  expedited  by  press- 
ure on  the  fundus.  The  woman  is  delivered  on  her  hands  and 
knees.  The  custom  of  assisting  in  the  delivery  may  be  the  cause 
of  the  curiously  misshapen  heads  which  are  common  among 
them.  They  are  almost  universally  diseased  from  constant  inter- 
course with  the  whalers.  I  noticed  several  Kanaka  words  which 
they  used  while  talking  with  the  whites,  which  were  probably 
from  the  same  source. 

They  have  no  laws,  but  the  sentiment  of  the  community  is 
opposed  to  serious  crimes.  Nokum,  from  whom  I  derived  most 
of  my  information  in  regard  to  their  customs,  told  me  that  a  man, 
who  committed  murder   while   drunk,  was  hunted  by  the  whole 


382  ABORIGINAL    INHABITAxNTS. 

tribe ;  when  found,  he  was  taken  to  the  house  of  the  murdered 
man,  and  the  flesh  was  cut  off  from  his  cheeks,  breast,  arms,  and 
thighs,  and  he  was  left  to  die  in  misery.  No  murder  had  since 
occurred.  Drunkards  have  been  taken  in  canoes,  while  drunk, 
and  set  ashore  a  long  way  from  home,  to  find  their  way  back  as 
best  they  might.  Incorrigible  thieves  were  sometimes  banished 
from  the  village. 

Drunkenness  is  a  common  vice  among  them.  They  have  an 
uncontrollable  passion  for  alcohol,  which  is  plentifully  supplied 
to  them  by  whalers  and  traders,  in  exchange  for  oil,  bone,  ivory, 
and  such  furs  as  they  may  have  obtained.  There  is  also  a  large 
trade  in  guns,  ammunition,  hardware,  &c.  They  hate  the  Rus- 
sians, and  will  not  trade  with  them. 

Their  customs  in  regard  to  the  treatment  of  the  old  and  infirm 
are,  from  a  civilized  point  of  view,  exceedingly  cruel  and  inhuman. 
I  should  not  venture  to  record  the  facts,  had  I  not  obtained 
them  directly  from  the  natives,  with  partial  confirmation  from 
my  own  observations  and  those  of  the  traders. 

Those  who  die  a  natural  death  are  carried  out  through  a  hole 
cut  in  the  back  of  the  hut  ov  yardng.  This  is  immediately  closed 
up,  that  the  spirit  of  the  dead  man  may  not  find  his  way  back. 
The  bodies  of  good  men  are  burned,  or  rather  broiled,  with  oil, 
moss,  and  driftwood.  Women  are  not  usually  burned,  on  account 
of  the  scarcity  of  wood.  Bad  men  are  simply  exposed  to  rot. 
An  oval,  about  four  feet  long  and  two  in  diameter,  is  made  of 
large  stones.  The  interior  is  filled  with  moss.  Here  the  body  is 
laid  and  tied  to  poles  which  are  passed  under  the  stones.  The 
innumerable  dogs  of  the  village  often  consume  the  greater  part  of 
the  remains.  They  are  aided  by  the  crows,  foxes,  and  bears. 
The  place  where  the  bodies  were  exposed  at  the  Plover  Bay 
village  was  a  level  spot  on  the  side  of  the  rocky  hill,  above  the 
sandspit.  This  was  abundantly  strewn  with  bones.  I  counted 
several  dozen  of  the  stone  ovals  referred  to.  On  the  top  of  the 
hill,  large  fragments  of  rock  were  erected  on  end  in  circles.  I 
asked  Nokum  about  them,  and  he  said  each  stone  represented  a 
dead  man.  He  said  they  did  not  bury  the  dead,  because  the 
bears  would  certainly  dig  them  up  again. 

When  troubled  with  rheumatism,  they  sacrifice  a  dog  to  ap- 
pease  the  evil   spirits.     Their  religion,  if  it  can  be  so  called,  re- 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  383 

scmbles  that  of  the  other  Orarian  tribes  elsewhere  referred  to. 
They  beheve  in  a  future  state,  but  not  in  a  system  of  reward  and 
punishment.  They  also  believe  in  many  evil  and  some  good  but 
feeble  spirits.  Good  men  are  supposed  to  go  up  into  the  air, 
and  bad  ones  down  into  the  earth.  The  custom  of  exposing  the 
dead  is  common  to  many  Orarian  tribes. 

They  have  shamans  who  celebrate  rites  in  honor  of  the  dead. 
One  of  these  was  there  during  our  visit.  The  natives  took  a  deer 
and  went  up  to  the  place  of  the  dead.  The  shaman  had  longhair, 
but  dressed  like  the  other  natives.  He  kindled  a  fire,  and  took  the 
fat  from  near  the  deer's  heart,  and  put  a  small  piece  on  each  of 
the  upright  stones  before  referred  to.  This  ceremony  was  accom- 
panied by  a  great  deal  of  gesticulation,  flourishing  of  knives, 
groaning,  and  mumbling  by  the  shaman.  He  danced  until  he  fell 
from  exhaustion,  and  then  remained  perfectly  quiet  for  some  time. 
Meanwhile  the  others  scorched  the  flesh  of  the  deer  and  ate  it. 
He  then  rose  and  made  a  harangue  to  the  spectators,  and  the 
ceremony  was  over.  According  to  Nokum's  account,  old,  sick,  and 
useless  persons  are  put  to  death.  He  said  that  when  an  old  per- 
son was  sick  for  more  than  seven  days,  the  others  put  a  rope 
around  his  neck,  and  dragged  him  by  it,  around  the  house  over 
the  stones,  for  half  an  hour  or  so.  If  this  did  not  kill  or  cure,  the 
sick  person  was  taken  to  the  place  of  the  dead  before  described. 
Here  the  individual  was  stoned  or  speared,  and  the  body  left  for 
the  dogs  to  devour,  the  latter  being  themselves  eaten  by  the  natives. 

Sometimes  a  sledge,  household  utensil,  or  weapon  is  broken  and 
left  by  the  side  of  the  body.  Occasionally  a  more  decorous 
method  is  adopted.  Old  and  useless  people  frequently  ask  to  be 
put  to  death,  and  the  ceremony  is  as  follows. 

The  victim  is  taken  to  the  place  of  the  dead,  and  the  oval  of 
stones  is  built  as  described.  The  cavity,  which  is  only  a  few 
inches  deep,  is  filled  with  moss.  A  large  headstone  is  placed  at 
one  end,  and  another  large  stone  at  the  foot ;  under  these  two 
poles  are  laid,  with  thongs  attached.  A  deer  is  killed,  and  the 
blood  allowed  to  flow  on  the  headstone.  The  victim  is  then 
placed  on  his  back.  The  legs  and  arms,  of  course,  extend  over 
the  stone  oval  and  are  tied  to  the  poles,  so  that  motion  is  impos- 
sible. He  is  then  asked  if  he  is  ready  for  death.  If  the  answer 
is  affirmative,  his  nostrils  are  stopped  up  with  a  substance  (of 


384  ABORIGINAL   INHABITANTS. 

which  more  hereafter)  which  stupefies  him.  The  carotid  is  then 
cut,  the  heart  is  pierced,  or  the  large  vein  of  the  arm  is  opened, 
and  the  victim  allowed  to  bleed  to  death.  Good  men  are  killed 
by  their  friends,  and  bad  ones  by  women.  If  a  good  man,  small 
sticks,  moss,  and  grease  are  placed  over,  around,  and  under  him, 
and  the  body  is  thus  burned,  but  is  very  rarely  consumed.  It  is 
to  be  feared  that  a  negative  answer  to  the  question  is  not  always 
heeded,  but  if  it  should  be,  the  deer  meat,  which  is  otherwise 
eaten,  is  burned  as  a  kind  of  atoning  sacrifice.  All  the  bones  of 
the  deer  are  carefully  crushed. 

On  the  3d  of  September,  1866,  we  were  informed  by  Nokum 
that  a  ceremony  of  this  kind  was  in  progress,  and  we  made  all 
possible  speed  to  the  spot  to  witness  it,  as  previously  we  had 
hardly  believed  in  the  truth  of  the  story.  When  we  arrived 
everything  was  ready.  The  women  and  children  were  cutting  up 
the  deer  meat,  and  the  blood  was  on  the  headstone.  The  victim, 
a  blind  but  not  decrepit  old  man,  was  sitting  in  apparent  uncon- 
cern by  the  headstone,  and  the  others  were  squatting  in  a  circle 
around  him.  He  was  the  father  of  a  wealthy  native,  but  had  been 
blind  for  five  years.  This,  with  the  death  of  his  wife  and  younger 
son,  had  made  him  rather  childish.  Nokum  said  that  he  was  con- 
stantly weeping  for  his  child,  and  finally  requested  to  be  killed. 
The  natives  were  much  disturbed  at  our  approach,  and,  fearing 
interference,  refused  to  go  on  until  our  vessels  had  left.  So  we 
were  not  able  to  witness  the  ceremony,  which,  indeed,  we  did  not 
regret.  The  truth  of  the  statements  made  by  Nokum  hardly 
need  further  confirmation.  I  saw  on  the  hill  the  festering  re- 
mains of  a  lame  native,  for  whom  our  carpenter  had  made  a  crutch 
on  our  visit  in  1865.  It  was  said  that  he  had  been  disposed  of  in 
the  same  way.  I  saw  the  fragment  of  a  lance  still  remaining  in 
the  thorax.  Yet  some  of  the  natives,  who  might  have  been  afraid 
of  retribution  from  us,  declared  that  he  had  been  frozen  to  death 
during  the  winter.     The  lance-head  told  another  story. 

The  stupefying  agent  may  perhaps  be  prepared  from  the  wild 
mix  vomica  which  grows  to  the  westward.  Nokum  said  that  it 
was  obtained  from  the  "deer  men";  that  it  was  soft  and  black. 
If  applied  to  a  weak  man's  nostrils  it  would  throw  him  into  a 
swoon  instantly.  Strong  men  were  obliged  to  swallow  a  little, 
which  was  followed  by  the  same  efi'ects.     A  small  portion  was 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  385 

often  placed  in  a  fresh  deer  liver,  which  was  then  left  exposed  to 
the  air  for  two  months.  It  then  became  a  very  strong  poison  to 
any  animal  or  man  when  eaten.  Bears  were  sometimes  killed 
with  it,  but  their  flesh   was  uneatable. 

The  Tiiski  look  upon  this  custom  of  killing  infirm  people, 
rather  as  a  species  of  philanthropy.  "  It  saves  them  from  pain 
and  us  from  the  trouble  of  taking  care  of  them,"  was  the  reason 
assigned  by  Nokum,  in  rather  more  broken  English. 

These  natives  have  also  been  called  Sedentary  Chnkehees,  Na- 
mollos,  &c.  Their  tribal  names  are  unknown,  but  a  body  of  them 
living  on  Chukluk  Island,  Seniavine  Strait,  called  themselves 
CJiukluknmt^  according  to  one  of  the  traders. 

The  Aleutian  Tribes.  —  The  etymology  of  the  word  Alent  will  be 
found  in  the  Glossary.  The  original  name  of  these  people,  ac- 
cording to  Humboldt,  was  Kagatdya  Koiingns  or  "  People  of  the 
East."  They  are  evidently  of  American  continental  origin,  and 
at  the  time  of  their  earliest  discovery  were  engaged  in  active 
hostilities  with  the  Kaniagmuts  of  the  continent. 

Since  the  time  of  their  first  intercourse  with  the  Russians, 
their  character,  habits,  mode  of  life,  and  even  their  very  name, 
has  been  totally  changed.  Originally  they  were  active,  sprightly, 
and  fond  of  dances  and  festivals.  They  were  of  a  less  determined 
character  than  their  neighbors,  the  Kaniagmuts,  but  were  by  no 
means  devoid  of  courage.  Their  mode  of  worship  partook  more 
of  the  character  of  a  religion  than  that  of  any  of  the  tribes 
which  have  still  remained  unchanged.  Ground  into  the  very 
dust  by  the  oppression  of  ruthless  invaders,  their  religious  rites, 
gay  festivals,  and  determined  character  have  all  passed  away. 
A  shade  of  melancholy  is  now  one  of  their  national  character- 
istics. Whatever  of  good  is  ingrained  in  their  characters  mav  be 
in  great  part  traced  to  the  persevering  efforts  of  one  man.  This 
person  was  the  Rev.  Father  Innocentius  Veniaminoff  of  the 
Irkutsk  Seminary,  since  Bishop  of  Kamchatka.  He  alone  of 
the  Greek  missionaries  to  Alaska  has  left  behind  him  an  un- 
dying record  of  devotion,  self-sacrifice,  and  love,  both  to  God  and 
man,  combined  with  the  true  missionary  fire.  To  him  also  we 
owe  the  first  detailed  account  of  the  modern  Aleutian  character 
and  mode  of  life.  The  number  of  Aleutians  was  originally 
estimated  at  ten  thousand,  but  at  present  there  are  not  more 
25 


386  ABORIGINAL   INHABITANTS. 

than  fifteen  hundred.  Many  writers  have  confounded  the  Ka- 
niagmuts  with  them,  but  they  are  quite  distinct. 

The  Aleutians,  properly  so  called,  are  divided  into  two  tribes, 
the  Atkans  and  Unalashkans.  The  former  belong  in  the  western 
part  of  the  archipelago,  and  the  latter  were  originally  confined  to 
the  eastern  portion.  Arbitrary  transportation  of  whole  villages 
from  one  point  to  another,  of  late  has  greatly  tended,  with  the 
constant  admixture  of  Russian  blood,  to  destroy  or  obliterate 
these  distinctions.  The  chief  difference  between  the  two  dialects 
consists  in  the  method  of  forming  the  plural  of  nouns.  The 
Atkans  form  it  by  adding  s  or  s/i,  and  the  Unalashkans  by  adding 
n^;:  The  diminutive  words  of  the  former  end  in  kutsJiak,  those  of 
the  latter  in  dak.  Many  of  the  words  are  more  or  less  different 
in  the  two  dialects. 

The  construction  of  the  Aleutian  dialects  is  nearly  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Kaniagmuts,  but  the  Aleutians  count  by  the  decimal 
system  up  to  ten  thousand,  while  the  latter  can  only  compute  two 
hundred,  using  the  number  five  as  a  basis.  The  words,  almost 
without  exception,  are  quite  different  in  the  two  groups. 

The  Aleuts  are  light  and  nearly  the  same  color  as  the  Innuit 
of  the  northwest.  Their  features,  perhaps  from  the  great  admix- 
ture of  Russian  blood,  are  more  intelligent  and  pleasing.  The 
hair  is  usually  coarse  and  black.  The  mustache  and  beard  are 
always  very  sparse  and  of  the  same  color  as  the  hair.  Their 
stature  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  most  civilized  races ;  if  any- 
thing, above  the  middle  height.  The  habit  of  constantly  sitting 
in  their  bidarkas,  which  are  very  contracted,  has  given  most  of 
them  a  stoop,  and  their  legs  are  usually  ill  formed.  The  women 
are  shorter  but  better  proportioned,  and  many  of  them  are  pleas- 
ing in  appearance. 

The  national  dress  of  the  Aleutians,  when  first  observed,  was  a 
long  shirt  or  parka  without  a  hood,  but  having  a  straight  collar. 
This  dress  had  tight  sleeves,  but  the  body  was  long  and  loose. 
They  wore  no  breeches,  and  their  boots  came  up  to  the  knee. 
The  parka  was  made  of  the  skins  of  fur  animals,  or  of  birds,  such 
as  the  puffin  and  the  diver.  Over  this,  when  in  his  boat  or  in 
bad  weather,  the  Aleut  wore  a  kamlayka  with  a  hood  which 
covered  the  head.  These  kamlaykas,  or  water-proof  shirts,  are 
most  beautifully  embroidered,  fringed  with  feathers,  among  which 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  387 

may  be  noted  especially  those  white  feathers  which  appear  on 
the  cormorant  during  the  breeding  season.  The  shirt  is  made  of 
the  entrails  of  the  sea-lion,  as  elsewhere  mentioned.  On  his  head 
the  Aleut  wore  a  peculiar  hat  made  of  a  very  thin  piece  of  wood, 
bent  and  painted  as  in  the  following  sketch.  This  hat  was  either 
painted,  or  ornamented  with  thin  sheets  or  strips  of  bone  curiously- 
carved.  A  small  bird,  or  other  carving,  usually  adorned  the  apex. 
At  the  back  a  fringe  stood  out,  composed  of  the  stiff  bristles  or 
whiskers  of  the  sea-lion  {Euinetopias).  In  front  the  brim  was  pro- 
longed, so  as  to  shield  the  eyes  from  the  glare  of  the  water  and 
the  sun. 

The  clothing  of  birdskins  was  peculiar  to  the  men,  that  of  furs,^ 
to  the  women.  Their  houses  were  dug  in  the  earth,  lined  with 
upright  poles  of  driftwood,  and  roofed  with  planks  covered  with 
turf.  They  entered  through  holes  in  the  top  by  means  of  ladders. 
The  smaller  dwellings  had  two  or  three,  and  the  larger  from  five 
to  six,  entrances  of  the  kind.  Several  hundred  persons  would 
occupy  one  of  these  houses.  They  were  divided  by  partitions  of 
stakes,   each   space  being    appropriated    by  a  family.      No  fires 


Aleutian  hat. 


were  made  in  these  yourts,  and  they  were  lighted  by  oil  lamps 
made  of  hollowed  stones.  They  were  generally  so  warm  that  the 
inhabitants  sat  nearly  naked  in  them.  They  slept  under  grass 
mats,  and  their  parkas.  "  When  they  wished  to  warm  themselves 
in  cold  weather,"  say  the  old  voyagers,  "  they  made  a  fire  of  dry 
grass  and  stood  over  it "  !  The  men  practised  the  tonsure,  while 
the  women  cut  their  front  hair  off"  in  a  line  parallel  with  the  eye- 
brows, and  tied  the  rest  in  a  knot  on  the  top  of  the  head.  Tat- 
tooing was  practised  ;  the  men  made  three  holes  in  the  under  lip 
and  one  in  the  cartilage  of  the  nose.  Both  sexes  wore  a  short 
bone  cylinder  in  the  nose,  placed  so  as  to  distend  the  nostrils.  In 
the  middle  incision  below  the  mouth  they  wore  a  rounded  or  flat 


388  ABORIGINAL    IXHABITAxXTS. 

piece  of  bone  or  stone.  In  those  at  the  corners  of  the  mouth 
they  wore  a  pecuhar  labret.  These  labrets  were  exactly  the  shape 
of  the  article  which  a  sailor  calls  a  "cleat,"  somewhat  like  a  letter 
T  very  much  depressed  and  elongated  at  the  sides. 

Some  of  the  men  wore  their  beards,  others  pulled  them  out  by 
the  roots.  They  also  pierced  the  ears  and  wore  bone  ornaments 
in  them. 

The  most  respected  and  influential  were  those  who  were  most 
successful  in  the  chase.  The  great  ambition  of  the  Aleut  was  to 
be  a  great  hunter.  Those  who  were  unsuccessful  were  looked 
upon  with  more  or  less  contempt.  The  number  of  wives  was  not 
limited,  except  that  the  best  hunters  had  the  greatest  number. 
This  seldom  exceeded  four.  These  women  were  at  the  dis- 
posal of  visitors  or  travellers,  guests  of  the  husband,  and  were 
sometimes  bartered  away  for  anything  which  was  greatly  desired. 
There  was  no  marriage  ceremony.  The  women  made  their 
needles  of  the  bones  of  birds'  wings.  The  weapons  of  the  men 
were  bows  and  arrows,  lances  and  darts,  which  they  threw  skil- 
fully to  a  great  distance,  by  means  of  a  hand-board.  Both  darts 
and  arrows  were  feathered  ;  the  shafts  were  often  of  several  pieces 
of  wood,  neatly  joined.  They  were  tipped  with  slate  or  flint,  some- 
times with  bone,  and  afterward  with  iron,  which  they  obtained 
from  the  Russians.  No  metal  except  native  copper  was  found 
among  them.  They  also  used  stone  hatchets  and  chisels,  and 
made  a  kind  of  shield  of  wood  and  sea-weed,  which  they  used  in 
war.  They  caught  cod  and  halibut  with  bone  hooks  and  sealskin 
or  sea-weed  lines.  They  were  improvident,  and  often  suffered 
severely  from  hunger.  Their  food  consisted  of  the  flesh  of  the 
sea-otter  and  fur  seal,  the  blubber  of  the  whale  and  sea-lion, 
fish,  wild  parsnips,  frittilaria,  berries,  snake-root,  shellfish,  and 
some  kinds  of  fucus  or  sea-weed.  These  were  generally  eaten 
raw,  or  sometimes  were  cooked  over  a  fire,  between  two  hollowed 
stones  cemented  with  clay. 

They  were  not  uncleanly  in  their  habits,  though  their  ideas 
of  modesty  were  very  different  from  ours.  Both  sexes  bathed 
together  frequently  in  the  sea.  Young  children  were  usually  fed 
with  raw  meat.  If  an  infant  cried,  even  in  winter,  it  was  carried 
to  the  seashore  and  held  naked  in  the  water  until  it  became 
quiet.     This  made  them  hardy  and  insensible  to  cold,  and  they 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  389 

went  barefoot  throughout  the  winter  without  inconvenience. 
They  were  fond  of  dances  and  festivals,  which  were  kept  up 
through  the  month  of  December.  Whole  villages  were  enter- 
tained by  other  villages.  Successive  dances  of  children,  naked 
men  beating  drums,  and  women  who  were  curiously  attired,  were 
usually  followed  by  the  incantations  of  the  shamans.  This  was 
followed  by  feasting,  and  then  the  ceremony  was  over. 

If  a  whale  was  cast  on  shore,  the  natives  assembled  with  joyous 
and  remarkable  ceremonies.  They  advanced  and  beat  drums  of 
different  sizes.  The  carcass  was  then  cut  up,  and  a  feast  was  held 
on  the  spot.  The  dances  had  a  mystic  significance.  Some  of 
the  men  were  dressed  in  their  most  showy  attire,  and  others 
danced  naked  in  large  wooden  masks  which  came  down  to  their 
shoulders,  and  represented  various  sea  animals. 

They  had  religious  dances  and  festivals  in  December.  During 
these,  images  or  idols  were  carried  from  island  to  island,  and 
strange  ceremonies,  of  which  we  have  only  dim  traditions,  were 
performed  in  the  night.  Some  of  these  apparently  resembled  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries.  Hundreds  of  women,  wearing  masks,  are 
said  to  have  danced  naked  in  the  moonlight,  men  being  rigidly 
excluded  and  punished,  even  with  death,  on  intrusion.  The 
men  had  similar  dances.  An  idea  prevailed,  that,  while  these 
mystic  rites  were  going  on,  a  Spirit  or  Power  descended  into  the 
wooden  idol.  To  look  at  him  was  death  or  misfortune ;  hence 
they  wore  large  masks  carved  from  drift- 
wood, with  holes  so  cut  that  they  could  not 
see  anything  before  or  above  them,  but  only 
on  the  ground  near  their  feet.  After  the 
dances  were  over,  idols  and  masks  alike  were 
broken  up  and  cast  away.  A  further  illus- 
tration of  the  same  idea  was  shown  in  the  cus- 
tom of  placing  a  similar  mask  over  the  face  of 
a  dead  man.  These  masks  were  held  by  a 
crossbar  between  the  teeth  and  a  loop  passing 
round  the  head.     The  above  sketch  is  taken 

Aleutian  mask. 

from  one  which  was  found  in  a  cave  on  Una- 

lashka.  It  is,  without  doubt,  eighty  years  old,  for  since  the  ad- 
vent of  the  Russian  priests  these  relics  have  been  destroyed  by 
them  wherever  found.  They  also  destroyed  all  records  of  the 
ancient  rites  as  far  as  possible. 


390  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

The  method  of  burial  among  the  Aleuts  was  as  follows. 
Poor  persons  were  wrapped  in  their  clothes  or  in  mats,  and  laid 
in  clefts  of  the  rock,  with  a  mask  over  the  face.  The  bodies 
of  the  wealthy  were  placed,  with  their  clothing  and  arms,  in  a  sort 
of  boat  or  cradle  made  of  driftwood.  The  cradle,  or  coffin,  was 
slung  to  a  horizontal  pole,  which  was  supported  by  two  uprights, 
and  it  was  left  hanging  in  the  open  air.  Much  grief  and  long- 
continued  lamentations  occurred  after  a  death.  It  is  even  re- 
lated that  mothers  sometimes  placed  the  bodies  of  their  dead 
infants  in  a  carefully  carved  box.  This  was  sometimes  kept  near 
them  in  the  yourt,  and  the  mother  would  watch  it  with  the 
greatest  tenderness,  wiping  away  the  mould  and  adorning  it  with 
such  ornaments  as  she  could  procure. 

Fire  was  obtained  by  striking  together  two  flints,  which  had 
been  rubbed  with  sulphur,  over  lint  strewn  with  the  same  sub- 
stance in  powder.  It  was  obtained  from  the  various  volcanic 
peaks.  They  were  very  fond  of  amber,  which  is  found  in  the 
lignite  beds,  and  used  colored  earth  for  pigments. 

These  customs  are  now  almost  entirely  passed  away.  The 
Aleut  usually  dresses  in  clothing  obtained  from  the  Russians, 
and  they  no  longer  use  their  underground  houses.  In  some 
places  they  have  cultivated  potatoes  since  the  beginning  of  the 
century,  but  their  food  continues  to  be  in  great  part  composed  of 
the  flesh  of  sea  animals.  All  speak  some  Russian,  and  many  of 
them  can  converse  fluently  in  that  language.  They  are  all 
nominally  Greek  Catholics,  but  there  is  very  little  knowledge  of 
the  true  principles  of  Christianity  among  them.  Veniami'noff" 
established  schools  among  them,  but  his  successors  have  not  been 
so  faithful,  and  of  late  years  the  schools  have  been  much  if  not 
entirely  neglected.  Hence,  while  most  of  the  adults  can  read  the 
ecclesiastical  characters  used  in  the  books  of  the  church,  the 
children  are  ignorant  of  them.  While  farther  advanced  than  any 
other  native  American  tribes,  they  are  far  from  civilized,  except  in 
dress,  and  require  careful  guardianship  and  improved  methods  of 
education  to  preserve  them  from  the  rapacity  of  the  traders.  They 
are  greatly  addicted  to  the  use  of  snuff"  and  of  liquor,  when  they 
can  obtain  it.  For  the  latter,  they  would  sell  themselves  as 
slaves,  or  dispose  of  all  their  property.  While  somewhat  dull  or 
stupid,  they  are  excessively  obstinate,  and  exhibit  little  emotion 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  39I 

of  any  kind.  They  are  very  obedient  and  sensitive,  and  would 
rather  commit  suicide  than  receive  a  blow.  Crime  is  almost  un- 
known among  them,  but  there  is  a  strong  sensual  element  in 
their  characters.  Their  principal  occupation,  beside  obtaining 
food,  is  hunting  the  sea-otter  and  killing  the  fur-seal.  The 
former  is  found  at  some  distance  from  land,  and  is  hunted  by 
large  parties  in  their  bidarkas.  They  follow  the  animal  with 
these  boats,  striking  it  with  lances  until,  wearied  out,  it  becomes 
an  easy  prey.  The  following  account  of  the  character  of  the 
modern  Aleutians  is  condensed  from  Veniaminofifs  description. 
It  is  marked  by  a  partiality  which  he  openly  confesses,  and  which 
is  mainly  due  to  his  own  goodness  of  heart  and  love  for  the  peo- 
ple whom  he  had  labored  so  long  to  instruct  and  elevate  above 
their  previous  melancholy  state  of  degradation  and  ignorance. 

The  reality  of  their  devotion  to  a  religion  which  they  do  not 
comprehend  may,  however,  well  be  doubted,  and  is  distinctly  de- 
nied by  Golovi'n  and  other  Russian  authorities.  Much  must  be 
allowed  for  the  religious  enthusiasm  of  the  writer. 

"The  Aleutians  are  remarkably  uniform  in  character;  those  who  ex- 
hibit any  striking  differences,  on  inspection,  invariably  prove  to  be  of 
mixed  blood.  If  we  consider  that  all  the  Aleutians  together  do  not 
number  over  fifteen  hundred  souls,  and  that  they  are  widely  scattered 
on  distant  islands,  often  not  seeing  their  neighbors  in  a  lifetime,  this 
uniformity  is  the  more  remarkable. 

"  It  is  to  be  noticed  among  even  these  half-breeds,  that  the  character 
of  the  mother  is  ever  the  stronger,  almost  always  effacing  the  traces  of 
the  foreign  father's  blood  among  the  Creoles.  Their  most  conspicuous 
point  is  their  piety  and  their  attachment  to  their  religion.  Their  original 
Pantheism  has  entirely  disappeared  even  ;  their  songs  and  dances  are  now 
quite  different  from  those  described  by  the  early  voyagers.  The  idolatrous 
custom  of  dancing  with  masks  on,  in  their  secret  rites,  has  passed  away. 

"The  Aleutians  fulfil  all  (church)  duties  imposed  on  them  with  pleas- 
ure, punctuality,  devout  humility,  and  the  fear  of  God.  During  my  ten 
years'  stay  among  them  I  never  met  one  who  was  an  exception.  I  do  not 
mention  fasting,  for  they  are  accustomed  to  fasting  from  childhood,  and 
their  attention  during  service  is  unflinching,  though  they  do  not  under- 
stand a  word  of  the  whole  rite.  But  nothing  has  touched  me  more  than 
their  zeal,  I  might  say  their  hunger,  to  hear  the  word  of  God. 

"  It  may  be  said  that  the  Aleutians  became  Christians  through  timid- 
ity and  credulity,  and  because  converts  were  exempted  from  three  years' 


392 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 


tribute;  though  this  might  have  prevailed  on  them  to  become  converts, 
it  would  not  have  made  them  such  faithful  and  zealous  followers  of  all 
the  precepts  of  the  church.  It  must  also  be  said  that  the  new  religion 
must  have  seemed  rigid  and  harsh,  limiting  them  in  their  dissipations, 
and  prohibiting  polygamy.  Besides,  their  neighbors,  the  Kaniagmuts,  had 
also  a  religious  belief,  and  still  retain  it,  giving  it  up  only  with  reluctance. 

"  It  is  the  custom  of  the  Aleutians  for  the  successful  hunter  or  fisher, 
particularly  in  times  of  scarcity,  to  share  his  prize  with  all,  not  only 
taking  no  larger  share,  but  often  less  than  the  others  ;  and  if  he  has  for- 
gotten any  one  at  the  distribution,  or  any  one  arrives  too  late,  he  shares 
the  remainder  with  him.  All  those  in  need  of  assistance  hasten  to  meet 
the  returning  hunter  at  the  landing,  and  sit  down  silently  by  the  shore. 
This  is  a  sign  that  they  ask  for  aid  ;  only  the  infirm  or  orphans  send 
persons  to  represent  them,  and  the  hunter  divides  his  prize  without  ex- 
pecting thanks  or  restitution.  He  rarely  receives  other  thanks  than  the 
expressive  'ach'  of  the  recipient.  If  any  of  those  on  shore  obtain  berries 
or  roots  (which  are  never  divided),  such  persons  do  not  go  to  the  land- 
ing, that  they  may  not  be  counted  among  the  needy.  This  generosity 
evidently  comes  from  the  heart. 

"During  my  ten  years'  stay  in  Unalashka  not  a  single  case  of  murder 
has  happened  among  the  Aleutians.  Not  an  attempt  to  kill,  no  fight, 
nor  even  a  considerable  dispute,  although  I  often  saw  them  drunk. 

"  It  is  a  remarkable  thing,  almost  unparalleled,  that  among  fifteen  hun- 
dred people  (the  minimum)  in  forty  years  (equal  to  sixty  thousand  in 
one  year)  there  has  not  occurred  a  single  capital  crime  !  This  is  the 
case  with  the  Aleutians  since  the  introduction  of  Christianity. 

"  If  any  one  is  injured  or  offended  he  never  uses  force  to  defend  him- 
self, and  rarely  complains,  but  leaves  the  offender  in  silence.  His  only 
revenge  is  to  fix  on  his  persecutor  some  apt  nickname,  but  he  never  will 
reproach  him.  Even  when  the  children  get  into  dispute  among  them- 
selves (a  rare  occurrence)  they  do  not  fight  or  scold  each  other,  but  re- 
proach each  other  with  the  shortcomings  of  their  parents. 

"  One  reason  may  be,  that  they  have  no  oaths  or  seriously  opprobrious 
epithets  in  the  language.  Nothing  offends  an  Aleut  so  much  as  an  un- 
deserved epithet,  especially  when  in  Russian.  It  is  regarded  as  an 
extreme  disgrace.  The  Aleuts  show  no  tendency  to  theft.  This  is 
proved  by  the  total  absence  of  locks  of  all  kinds  ;  everything  with  them 
stands  open.  It  must  not  be  said  that  they  never  steal,  almost  ever)'  one 
confesses  to  it,  but  their  stealing  is  so  trivial  that  it  hardly  deserves  the 
name.  An  Aleut  might  take  a  few  leaves  of  tobacco,  he  would  prob- 
ably also  take  brandy  if  he  could  get  it,  rarest  of  all  he  takes  food,  but 
never  any  other  object,  be  it  ever  so  temi:)ting. 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  393 

"  I  believe  the  honesty  of  the  Aleut  is  owing  to  the  f^ict  that  he  is 
always  contented,  no  matter  what  his  position  may  be. 

"  The  most  obvious  trait  in  the  Aleut  is  his  patience,  —  a  patience  bor- 
dering on  insensibility.  Hardly  any  oppression  or  hardship  will  move 
him  to  complain.  In  famine  it  is  nothing  to  him  to  be  without  food  for 
three  or  four  days.  Even  then  he  manifests  neither  by  word  nor  sign 
that  he  suffers.  When  interrogated,  no  word  crosses  his  lips,  at  the 
utmost  he  smiles  !  If  the  famine  continue,  he  thinks  more  of  his  small 
children  than  himself;  everything  he  can  find  is  for  them.  Even  the 
children  show  at  such  times  a  most  modest  patience.  One  would 
think  that  an  Aleut,  after  several  days'  fasting,  would  fall  upon  food  with 
the  greatest  greediness.  On  the  contrary,  after  having  finished  what  he 
has  to  do,  he  puts  the  first  morsel  into  his  mouth,  as  one  who,  after  a 
comfortable  breakfast,  sits  down  quietly  to  his  dinner. 

"  When  sick,  even  the  most  vehement  pain  does  not  produce  a  com- 
plaint. Sometimes  when  hunting  he  will  himself  be  caught  in  some 
hidden  trap.  In  such  a  case  the  barbs  can  never  be  withdrawn.  The 
stick  to  which  they  are  attached  must  be  removed,  and  the  barb  pushed 
through  the  flesh.  To  this  he  submits  without  a  murmur,  or  even,  if 
alone,  performs  the  operation  himself  without  flinching.  Such  wounds 
generally  heal  readily  under  a  treatment  of  perfect  quietness  and  absti- 
nence from  food  for  several  days,  which  is  their  invariable  remedy. 

"  On  long  journeys  afoot,  or  on  the  sea,  the  Aleut  is  slow  and  de- 
liberate, but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  keeps  in  motion  all  day,  or  even 
till  he  sinks  from  fatigue.  In  some  cases  they  will  travel  from  seven- 
teen to  nineteen  hours,  or  even  over  twenty-four  hours  by  sea,  without 
rest.  Before  they  start  on  such  a  journey  they  eat  nothing  in  the  morn- 
ing ;  as  they  say,  that  they  may  not  be  thirsty  or  short-winded.  For- 
merly the  Aleutians,  like  the  Koloshes,  were  in  the  habit  of  bathing 
their  children  in  the  sea,  to  inure  them  to  exposure,  even  in  winter ;  but 
since  1795  this  custom  has  gradually  disappeared. 

"  The  Aleut  is  very  susceptible  to  joy  and  sorrow,  though  he  accepts 
the  former  with  great  equanimity,  while  he  bears  the  latter  with  patience. 
He  is  never  known  to  sigh  or  groan  or  shed  tears.  The  latter,  even 
among  the  women,   is  almost   unheard  of 

"  He  never  wifl  show  immoderate  joy  ;  no  surprise  or  sudden  fortune 
can  move  him  to  it.  A  certain  feeling  of  comfort,  it  is  true,  appears  on 
his  face,  but  he  remains  quiet,  moderate,  and  grave. 

"  But  are  they  then  quite  insensible  and  incapable  of  emotion  ?  Cer- 
tainly not,  the  opposite  is  shown,  by  their  tender  love  for  their  children, 
and  the  fact  that  a  look  of  contempt  can  offend  in  the  highest  degree. 


394 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 


"  They  are  quite  as  indifferent  in  regard  to  gain  as  in  other  desires. 
Contented  with  very  little,  they  desire  only  such  things  as  are  useful, 
and  beyond  that  they  care  not  to  accumulate. 

"Their  manner  of  conducting  a  commercial  transaction  deserves 
notice.  The  Aleuts  never  transact  business  with  each  other  person- 
ally, but  always  through  a  third  person,  who  is  called  Taydnak,  and  is 
generally  a  young  person.  Whoever  wishes  to  sell  anything  sends  it 
by  this  agent  into  another  house  (yourt),  particularly  if  strangers  are 
present. 

"  The  agent,  in  coming  into  the  house,  says,  *  Here  is  the  tayak  ' 
(salable  object),  without  mentioning  the  owner.  The  buyer  looks  at 
the  object,  asks  what  is  wanted  in  return,  keeps  the  article,  and  sends  as 
much  as  he  likes  of  the  article  required  in  return.  The  agent  takes  this 
to  the  seller,  and  if  he  is  satisfied  the  bargain  is  concluded  ;  if  not,  he 
proposes  a  new  exchange,  or  an  additional  quantity  of  tobacco  or  other 
ware,  to  boot.  If  the  buyer  does  not  agree  he  returns  the  article,  and 
some  one  else  makes  an  offer.  They  never  bid  over  one  another,  and, 
however  long  the  barter  may  last,  the  buyer  and  seller  never  know  each 
other's  names. 

"  This  custom  of  buying  and  selling  among  the  Aleuts  is  of  great  age, 
and  has  been  preserved  without  change.  The  women  never  trade, 
either  among  themselves  or  with  the  men. 

"The  unselfishness  of  the  Aleut  is  proved  by  his  conduct  in  the 
chase  ;  for  instance,  otter-hunting.  It  is  almost  an  impossibility  for  one 
hunter,  or  even  one  boat-load,  to  kill  an  otter,  unless  by  a  lucky  chance 
the  animal  is  hit  exactly  in  the  eye  ;  for  which  reason  the  association  of 
several  boats  {bidarri)  is  absolutely  necessary.  The  animal,  according 
to  an  old  custom,  belongs  to  the  hunter  who  first  hit  it  ;  or,  if  several  at 
the  first  shot  may  have  wounded  it,  it  belongs  to  the  one  whose  missile 
struck  nearest  the  head. 

"  The  otter  is  found  at  sea,  at  some  distance  from  land.  A  num- 
ber of  bidarras  —  six  at  least,  and  generally  more,  sometimes  fifty  — 
form  a  large  circle,  remaining  perfectly  quiet,  often  out  of  sight  of  land 
or  enveloped  in  fog.  The  otter  rises,  perhaps  is  struck,  dives,  and 
all  are  expectation  to  discern  him  on  his  reappearance.  One  otter  oiten 
rises  many  times  before  he  is  killed.  After  he  is  once  struck,  however, 
the  others  gain  nothing  by  his  death  ;  only  the  hunter  who  first  wounded 
him  can  claim  the  skin.  The  others  get  nothing  unless  they  need  and 
ask  for  a  little  of  the  flesh,  which  is  exceedingly  tough,  strong-flavored, 
and  almost  uneatable.  The  Aleut  takes  great  pleasure  in  hunting,  and 
is  perfectly  satisfied  if  he  can  kill  a  wounded  animal,  though  he  can 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 


395 


claim  no  share  in  it.  It  often  happens  that  an  Aleut  who  has  killed 
several  otters  gives  one  or  two  to  some  sick  or  poor  person,  or  to  some 
one  who  has  killed  nothing,  asking  no  return  for  it. 

"  No  one  is  esteemed  among  them  because  of  his  wealth,  only  as  a 
more  daring,  skilful,  and  courageous  hunter.  Any  one  who  does  not 
possess  these  qualifications,  be  he  ever  so  wealthy,  is  mocked  by  his 
companions. 

"  The  Aleut  is  extremely  tenacious  of  purpose,  even  to  obstinacy. 
If  he  decides  to  do  anything,  physical  impossibility  only  can  deter  him; 
he  reckons  not  loss  of  health,  nor  the  fact  that  he  will  gain  nothing  by 
it ;  neither  flatteries,  promises,  nor  expectation  of  reward  will  move  him. 
Absolute  orders  from  a  superior,  it  is  true,  will  be  heeded,  but  slowly 
and  with  the  greatest  reluctance  imaginable.  The  Aleut  is  very  cau- 
tious in  binding  himself  in  any  way.  He  does  not  flatter  nor  make 
empty  promises,  even  in  order  to  escape  reproof.  But  if  he  has  once 
promised  a  thing,  one  can  count  with  certainty  upon  it.  He  promises 
and  gives  away  without  expectation  of  reward.  If  he  makes  a  wealthy 
person  a  present,  he  never  expects  a  return.  If  he  receives  a  gift,  he 
accepts  it,  saying,  '■  Akh!'  which  means  thanks.  He  is  satisfied  if  he 
receive  nothing,  especially  if  he  is  thanked  ;  but  he  never  asks  for  any- 
thing in  return.  If  he  promises  anything,  he  regards  it  as  no  longer 
his  property,  and  he  does  not  make  use  of  it,  even  in  cases  of  great 
necessity. 

"Visiting  the  island  of  Umnak,  an  Aleut,  by  the  name  of  Taraxanoff, 
gave  me  a  pair  of  dried  flounders.  Although  there  was  no  want  of 
provisions,  I  accepted  them  ;  for  to  refuse  a  gift,  above  all,  a  small  one, 
is  an  offence  ;  he  would  consider  himself  despised,  or,  as  he  says,  '  not 
loved.'  As  there  was  abundance  of  provision,  my  oarsmen  forgot  the 
fish  ;  but,  after  we  had  gone,  Taraxanoff  found  and  kept  them,  in  order 
to  return  them  when  we  met  again.  Up  to  January  there  was  no  oppor- 
tunity. In  the  mean  time  he  and  the  whole  settlement  were  starving  in 
November  and  December,  so  that  the  whole  village  was  supported  by  a 
single  bidarra  leader.  Notwithstanding  my  Aleut  had  to  support  a 
numerous  family,  he  did  not  touch  the  fish,  and  in  January  conscien- 
tiously sent  them  to  me.  Such  cases  are  not  rare  among  the  Aleuts, 
they  do  not  consider  them  anything  remarkable. 

"  Although  they  express  no  great  gratitude  for  favors,  and  are  chary 
of  expressions  of  thanks,  they  do  not  forget  kindness,  and  endeavor -to 
express  their  thankfulness  by  deeds.  If  any  one  assists  an  Aleut,  and 
afterwards  offends  him,  he  does  not  forget  the  former  favor,  and  in  his 
mind  it  often  cancels  the  offence. 


396  ABORIGINAL   INHABITANTS. 

"  With  all  their  caprice  the  Aleuts  are  ver}'  tractable,  obeying  their 
superiors  blindly,  though  certain  death  awaits  them. 

"  The  following  instance  affords  proof  of  the  above  statement  :  — 

"  In  1795  the  captain  of  a  bidarra,  named  Vasaroff,  a  Russian,  had 
been  on  Amak  Island,  near  False  Pass,  hunting  sea-lions  with  some 
Aleuts.  After  finishing  his  business  he  wished  to  cross  to  the  main- 
land, when  the  old  Aleuts  told  him  that  he  might  put  to  sea,  but  that  the 
surf  would  not  allow  him  to  land  in  Aliaska.  He  did  not  mind  their 
warning,  either  because  he  was  in  haste  or  because  he  did  not  believe 
them,  but  resolved  to  put  to  sea,  and  allowed  only  the  free  Aleuts  to 
remain  behind  with  their  boats. 

"  Those  who  were  in  the  Company's  service  took  leave  of  their  coun- 
trymen like  men  who  never  expect  to  see  one  another  again  ;  and  they 
made  some  disposition  regarding  their  property,  until  Vasaroff,  annoyed 
by  the  crying  of  the  women  in  the  other  boats,  called  out  that  they  were 
cowardly,  superstitious,  and  stupid.  What  followed  bore  out  the  fears  of 
the  Aleuts.  The  bidarra,  at  the  distance  of  three  quarters  of  a  mile 
from  the  very  flat  coast,  was  swamped  by  the  surf,  and  all  on  board 
drowned. 

"  These  people  detest  lying,  and  never  spread  false  rumors,  although 
they  are  credulous  and  fond  of  repeating  stories  which  have  been  told 
them,  but  without  adding  to  them.  They  are  ver\'  much  offended  if  any 
one  doubts  their  word. 

"  They  are  also  very  averse  to  speaking  of  things  which  should  be 
kept  secret,  or  which  they  consider  should  not  be  told.  For  this  reason 
it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  anything  at  present  about  their  former  re- 
ligious customs. 

"On  the  other  hand,  they  are  very  fond  of  relating  events  to  each 
other  which  strike  them  as  ludicrous. 

"  They  never  boast  of  their  exploits,  and  despise  hypocrisy  in  every 
respect. 

"  The  Aleut  knows  nothing  of  what  civilized  nations  call  modesty. 
He  has  his  own  ideas  of  what  is  modest  and  proper,  and  adheres  to 
them  ;  while  we  should  consider  them  foolish.  He  is  bashful  if  caught 
doing  anything  unusual  among  his  people,  or  when  he  fails  to  kill  an 
animal  under  favorable  circumstances.  He  is  ashamed  to  step  into  the 
centre  of  a  large  circle  and  dance,  even  if  he  is  an  adept  at  it.  He 
does  not  like  to  address  his  wife  in  the  presence  of  strangers,  nor  to  ask 
her  for  anything,  even  if  he  needs  it  badly.  He  is  bashful  if  he  must 
buy  or  sell  anything  for  himself,  or  when  praised  in  the  presence  of  a 
person  whose  opinion  has  any  value  for  him.     But  he  does  not  blush 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  397 

when  bathing  among  strangers,  as  is  the  universal  custom,  even  among 
women,  nor  at  appearing  without  clothing  among  people.  The  women 
are  ashamed  if  they  cannot  sew  or  dance ;  they  blush  to  caress  their 
husbands,  or  even  to  address  them  before  strangers  ;  but  they  bare  the 
breast  for  their  children  without  hesitation,  and  bathe  with  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  village. 

"  The  Aleuts  are  not  inhospitable,  but  they  practise  hospitality  in  their 
own  way.  They  meet  every  stranger  at  the  landing-place,  though  rarely 
saluting  them  by  word  or  sign,  except  where  they  have  learned  the  cus- 
tom, daily  becoming  more  univ'ersal,  from  the  Russians.  If  the  stranger 
has  a  relative  or  intimate  friend  he  goes  to  him ;  if  not,  no  one  will 
invite  him,  but  all  are  ready  to  receive  him  ;  he  can  choose  his  quar- 
ters himself  Then  he  is  entertained  in  the  best  manner  ;  the  woman 
of  the  house  takes  care  of  his  clothing,  mends  his  kamlayka  or  whatever 
stands  in  need  of  repair  ;  but  she  is  not  obliged  to  receive  him,  as  was 
formerly  customary.  They  never  think  of  asking  their  guest  for  any- 
thing, let  him  stay  as  long  as  he  may  ;  they  even  provide  him  with  food  of 
every  kind  when  he  departs.  Those  who  have  come  in  contact  with  the 
Russians  have  become  used  to  invite  each  other  on  festive  occasions,  — 
birthdays  and  the  like.  At  such  times  everything  is  put  upon  the  table 
that  can  be  had.  Stores  collected  with  the  greatest  trouble  and  fatigue 
disappear  in  an  evening,  and  even  if  the  host  has  not  a  mouthful  for  the 
morrow  he  esteems  himself  fortunate  to  have  had  so  many  visitors. 
Parental  and  filial  affection  are  strong  traits  of  this  people. 

"The  children  are  often  well  fed  and  satisfied,  while  the  parents  almost 
perish  with  hunger.  The  daintiest  morsel,  the  best  dress,  is  always  kept 
for  them.  A  child  has  never  been  known  to  injure  its  parent.  On  the 
contrary  they  often  give  up  the  most  advantageous  positions,  that  they 
may  see  them  again,  or  take  care  of  them  in  old  age. 

"Two  of  the  most  intelligent  Aleuts,  who  had  been  taken  to  St. 
Petersburg,  who  were  beloved  by  their  superiors  and  comrades,  and 
making  much  money  by  exhibiting  their  skin  boats  on  the  Neva,  left 
everything,  that  they  might  see  their  aged  mother  again,  and  take  care 
of  her  in  her  old  age.  One  of  them,  Pors  nikoff,  who  had  become 
much  attached  to  Russia,  has  lived  with  her  since  1820,  and  tries  to 
insure  her  every  possible  comfort,  in  the  most  tender  manner.  He  is 
now  (1834)  fifty  years  old,  and  with  his  wife  bears  with  exemplary  patience 
all  the  discomfort  caused  by  an  old,  sick,  blind  woman.  Such  instances 
are  not  rare.  I  only  mention  this  because  his  tender,  truly  pious  care 
of  his  mother  has  often  moved  me  to  tears. 

"  The  Aleut  is  emphatically  undemonstrative,  no  politeness  must  be 


39^  ABORIGINAL   INHABITANTS. 

looked  for  from  him  ;  a  bright  look,  zeal  in  performing  a  service,  and  a 
peculiar  intonation  of  his  '  akh,'  alone  show  his  attachment  to  a  person. 

"  They  are  slight  talkers,  even  keeping  silent  for  a  whole  day,  or  even 
longer,  particularly  if  dissatisfied  in  any  way.  Still,  in  the  long  even- 
ings they  recount  their  hunting  adventures  of  the  day,  often  not  leaving 
even  the  slightest  item  untold.  In  transacting  important  business  they 
use  few  words  ;  the  toydn  or  elder  explains  the  matter  to  them,  a  short 
yes,  or  no,  and  the  matter  is  settled. 

"They  are  naturally  timid,  punishment  of  any  kind  being  unknown 
among  them.  Their  former  mode  of  war  showed  that  there  was  very 
little  '  fight '  in  their  composition,  being  a  secret  conspiracy,  carried 
out  through  an  ambush  or  sudden  surprise,  which,  if  not  successful,  was 
followed  by  a  speedy  retreat. 

"  They  never  dispute,  not  even  when  convinced  they  are  right ;  if 
doubt  be  expressed  they  are  silent,  or  answer  only,  '  I  do  not  know ;  you 
are  certainly  better  informed.' 

"  They  are  credulous  in  regard  to  things  which  they  do  not  under- 
stand, but  they  are  apt  to  read  a  braggart  better  than  he  can  tell ;  al- 
though they  never  express  disbelief  to  his  face,  yet  they  make  merry 
over  him  in  his  absence.  Naturally  inclined  to  be  just,  the  Aleut  feels 
deeply  an  undeserved  injury,  and  I  am  inclined  to  agree  with  some  trav- 
ellers who  say  the  Aleuts  were  a  very  revengeful  people.  The  wars 
raging  before  the  advent  of  the  Russians,  and  the  frequent  attacks  to 
which  the  latter  were  subject,  show  this  to  be  true.  Now  it  is  quite 
different ;  since  the  introduction  of  Christianity  no  instance  of  revenge 
has  been  known.  The  only  satisfaction  they  allow  themselves  is  an 
absolute  silence  toward  the  offender,  till  that  person  has  repaired  the 
wrong. 

"The  Aleuts  are  very  dirty,  though  they  wash  daily,  and  are  fond  of 
bathing.  Dirt  is  piled  up  close  to  the  yourt ;  they  prepare  their  food 
very  carelessly ;  the  household  utensils  are  never  washed.  The  children 
are  usually  dirty,  with  unkempt  hair,  and  the  women  are  very  disorderly, 
dirty,  and  careless.  Their  poverty,  it  is  true,  does  not  admit  of  much 
cleanliness.  A  man  who  has  only  one  parka,  which  he  uses  at  once  for 
clothing,  bed,  and  blanket,  cannot  keep  always  clean.  He  who  has 
eaten  sour,  fermented  food  from  his  childhood,  with  the  disgusting  smell 
of  which  he  is  perfectly  familiar,  cannot  hate  dirt.  I  believe  that  their 
olfactory  organs  must  become  quite  obtuse.  Many  Aleuts,  however, 
particularly  those  who  have  been  much  in  contact  with  the  Russians, 
form  praiseworthy  exceptions,  and  have  improved  their  dwellings  so  that 
strangers  may  enter  without  disgust. 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 


399 


"  They  are  bad  housekeepers,  lavish  when  food  is  plenty,  and  in 
consequence  starving  in  spring.  Some  have  commenced  gardens,  but 
this  also  they  follow  negligently.  February,  in  their  language,  is  the 
'hunger  month.'  Their  improvidence  is  partly  owing  to  their  chief 
dependence  being  the  sea,  which  always  offers  them  something,  or  the 
tundras,  which  furnish  them  with  roots.  If  both  fail  them,  there  remain 
only  patience  and  resignation. 

"  Yet  there  are  some  exceptions,  and  particularly  one  settlement  in 
Aliaska,  called  Paulosk.  They  use  their  provisions  with  a  praiseworthy 
economy,  and  hence  seldom  suffer  from  want.  They  were  the  first  to 
learn  from  the  Kadiak  missionaries  the  cultivation  of  the  potato,  which 
they  have  carried  on  so  well  since  the  commencement  of  this  century  that 
they  plant  annually,  and  have  always  saved  the  seed.  They  have  more 
leisure  to  themselves  than  most  Aleuts,  as  there  are  no  Russians  in  the 
settlement. 

"  They  are  universally  reproached  with  laziness.  It  has  been  even 
said  that  an  Aleut  will  lie  and  suffer  from  thirst  for  hours,  unless  some 
one  sends  him  after  water.     I  do  not  doubt  the  truth  of  it  in  some  cases. 

"  It  must  be  remembered  that  their  indolence  depends  on  circum- 
stances, and  that  they  are  as  active  and  busy  when  the  hunting  season 
comes,  or  they  are  at  work  carving,  as  they  are  indolent  at  other  times. 
Their  indolence  while  working  for  the  Company  is  as  great  as  their 
activity  when  working  for  themselves  ;  so  that  under  different  circum- 
stances they  appear  like  different  individuals.  Those  who  have  lived 
among  the  Russians  are  great  drunkards,  and  they  are  all  passionately 
addicted  to  the  use  of  tobacco. 

"  They  incline  to  sensuality.  Before  the  teachings  of  the  Christian 
religion  had  enlightened  them,  this  inclination  had  full  sway.  The 
nearest  consanguinity  only,  put  limits  to  their  passions.  Although  po- 
lygamy was  general,  nevertheless,  there  were  frequent  secret  orgies,  in 
which  all  joined.  The  strange  guest  shared  all  marital  rights  with  his 
host.  The  bad  example  and  worse  teachings  of  the  early  Russian 
settlers  increased  their  tendency  to  licentiousness.  The  introduction 
of  Christianity  abolished  many  of  these  customs  (some  of  which  had 
a  religious  significance)  with  polygamy  ;  but  still  secret  orgies  were  held, 
and  the  births  were  very  much  fewer  than  they  should  have  been  up  to 
1825-1827.  Child-murder  is  very  rare,  the  belief  still  being  that  it 
brings  misfortune  on  the  whole  village,  and  that  the  murdered  babe  is 
heard  crying'  every  night. 

"  However,  I  am  able  to  declare  that  the  tendency  to  dissipation  de- 
creases day  by  day,  the  number  of  births  has  almost  doubled,  notwith- 


400  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

standing  there  are  only  one  fourth  as  many  illegitimate  ones  as  formerly; 
and  I  believe  that  dissipation  in  future,  if  not  entirely  eradicated,  will 
be  confined  within  very  narrow  bounds. 

"  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  those  who  have  most  imitated  the  Russian 
customs  have  always  become,  gradually,  the  most  worthless  and  in- 
dolent, apparently  losing  their  native  virtues  and  acquiring  foreign 
vices,  while  the  dark  side  of  their  character  grows  rapidly  darker.  It 
may  be  said,  however,  as  a  consolation  to  the  well-wishers  of  the  Aleuts, 
that  these  individuals  are  very  rare,  and  confined  to  the  chief  settlement. 
In  such  cases  their  patience  and  firmness  degenerate  into  stubbornness 
and  obstinacy.  If,  in  addition,  they  had  the  means  of  readily  obtain- 
ing strong  liquors,  they  might  easily  become  insufferable,  or  even  dan- 
gerous. 

"  The  Aleuts  learn  readily,  almost  without  teaching,  not  only  mechan- 
ical things,  but  those  which  require  thought,  such  as  playing  chess. 
There  are  found  among  them  very  good  joiners,  carpenters,  coopers, 
locksmiths,  blacksmiths,  and  sailors. 

"A  certain  Ustiakoff  was  considered  an  excellent  navigator.  His 
charts  of  several  districts,  including  Nushergak,  are  considered  pretty 
correct  to  this  day  (1834). 

"  Many  Aleuts,  particularly  those  of  the  Pribyloff  Islands,  are  excel- 
lent chess-players. 

"  The  adults  are  eager  to  learn  to  read,  but  only  for  the  purpose  of 
reading  the  ecclesiastical  books  of  the  Greek  Church,  although  they 
understand  hardly  anything  of  their  contents. 

"  It  is  to  be  regretted  very  much  that  their  talent  for  drawing  and 
painting  has  never  been  promoted.  I  am  convinced  that  they  would 
become  artists  above  mediocrity.  They  are  very  skilful  workers  in 
ivory  (walrus-tusks)  without  instruction.  I  saw  in  the  possession  of 
Baron  Wrangell  a  number  of  characteristic  representations  of  animals. 
They  are  very  fond  of  cutting  caricatures  of  the  Russians,  and  often 
make  an  excellent  likeness  of  the  person  intended,  though 
very  grotesque.  This  shows  that  they  have  vivid  imagi- 
nations and  faithful  memories." 

The  talent  for  carving  above  alluded  to,  is  ex- 
emplified by  the  accompanying  sketch  of  an  image, 
or  caricature,  of  one  of  the  sailors  of  Wilkes's  Ex- 
pedition. The  sailor's  shoes,  pea-jacket,  and  mode 
of  wearing  the  hair,  are  accurately  represented,  and 
the  general  effect  is  very  comical,  as  was  doubtless 
intended  by  the  artist. 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  401 

The  Iiinuit  Tribes. —  The  Innuit  of  Alaska  extend  everywhere 
along  the  coast,  from  Mount  St.  Elias  northward  to  Point  Barrow, 
and  eastward  to  the  Mackenzie. 

The  Ugaldkmuts. —  Beginning  at  the  southward,  this  is  the 
first  Innuit  tribe  on  the  west  coast  of  America.  Their  hunting- 
grounds  extend  from  Icy  Bay  nearly  to  the  mouth  of  the  Atna  or 
Copper  River.  We  only  know  of  their  existence  and  mode  of  life 
by  a  vocabulary  obtained  by  Mr.  Gibbs  from  the  Russian  traders, 
and  by  the  statements  of  the  latter,  that  they  form  a  body  of 
some  two  hundred  families,  who  chiefly  live  by  fishing.  Between 
them  and  the  next  tribe  the  Indians  of  the  Copper  River  have 
forced  their  way,  and  hold  a  small  portion  of  the  coast. 

TJie  Chiigdchigimits.  —  These  Innuit  occupy  the  shores  and 
islands  of  Chugach  Gulf,  and  the  southwest  coasts  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Kenai.  They  are  few  in  number,  compared  with  the 
large  extent  of  territory  which  they  occupy,  but  are  described  as 
active  and  warlike.  They  have  on  several  occasions  successfully 
defied  the  Russian  traders,  and  have  never  been  obliged  to 
render  personal  service  or  tribute.  The  gap  between  them  and 
the  following  tribe,  comprising  the  north  shore  of  Kenai  and  the 
opposite  coast  of  Cook's  Inlet,  is  occupied  by  Indians. 

The  Kanidgmuts. —  This,  the  largest  and  most  powerful  tribe 
of  Innuit  on  the  Alaskan  coast,  occupies  the  island  of  Kadiak 
(formerly  Kanidg)  and  the  greater  part  of  the  peninsula  of 
Aliaska,  from  Iliamna  Lake  to  the  159th  degree  of  west  longi- 
tude. They  were  confounded  with  the  Aleuts  by  the  early  voy- 
agers, and  called  by  the  same  name.  They  were  a  much  more 
energetic  and  indomitable  race,  meeting  force  with  force,  and  re- 
fusing to  give  up  their  ancient  customs  at  the  behast  of  Russian 
priests.  Although  time  and  constant  intercourse  with  the  Rus- 
sians for  more  than  a  century  have  changed  them,  still  the  change 
is  much  less  than  that  which  has  taken  place  among  the  Aleuts. 
Lisiansky,  who  visited  them  in  1805,  has  given  a  full  account  of 
their  former  manners  and  customs,  and  from  it  I  have  obtained 
much  of  the  following  information. 

The    Kaniagmuts   are    of  middle    stature,   and   a   complexion 
more  reddish  than  that  of  the  Aleutians  or  more  northern  Innuit. 
They  are  stoutly  built,  with  large,  broad  faces,  and   their  hair  is 
coarse,  black,  and  straight. 
26 


402  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

The  tonsure  was  rarely  practised  among  them.  The  women 
cut  their  hair  short  in  front  and  wore  it  in  a  sort  of  club  behind. 
The  men  sometimes  cut  their  hair  very  short  all  over  the  head. 
The  dress  of  both  sexes  consisted  of  kamlaykas  and  parkies, 
the  latter  shorter  than  those  worn  by  the  Aleutians.  The  men 
wore  a  belt  with  a  kind  of  apron  hanging  down  in  front  to  the 
middle  of  the  thigh.  The  women  used  a  broad  sealskin  belt, 
without  the  apron.  Both  sexes  wore  caps  made  of  the  skins  of 
sea-birds,  or  hats  plaited  from  spruce  roots  painted  and  decorated 
with  grotesque  carved  figures.  They  went  barefoot,  except  while 
travelling,  when  they  wore  sealskin  boots.  Both  sexes  were  very 
fond  of  beads  and  other  ornaments.  The  labrets  were  of  the 
same  description  as  those  worn  among  the  Aleuts.  The  women 
wore  strings  of  beads  suspended  from  the  lower  lip,  and  had  the 
ears  pierced  all  round  for  the  same  purpose.  They  also  tattooed 
the  chin,  breast,  and  back.  They  were  exceedingly  fond  of  amber, 
upon  which  they  placed  the  greatest  value. 

For  provisions  they  relied  mainly  on  fish  and  the  blubber  of 
the  whale.  The  latter  was  a  prime  delicacy  even  when  putrid. 
Shell-fish,  roots,  and  berries  also  formed  part  of  their  fare.  Much 
of  their  food  was  consumed  in  a  raw  condition. 

A  young  man  desiring  to  take  a  wife  was  accustomed  to  visit 
the  parents  of  the  girl  he  desired,  taking  his  most  valuable  treas- 
ures with  him.  If  they  were  satisfied  with  him,  he  made  them 
presents  until  they  said,  "  Enough."  If  he  did  not  please  them,  he 
returned  home  with  his  property.  There  was  no  ceremony  at- 
tending marriage ;  but,  when  food  was  plenty,  the  father-in-law 
usually  gave  a  feast.  The  next  day  the  husband  prepared  a  hot 
bath,  which  is  the  custom  of  purification  for  him  and  his  wife. 
He  always  lived  with  his  wife's  parents,  and  was  obliged  to  serve 
them.  This  custom  is  still  in  vogue  among  the  Aleuts.  Po- 
lygamy was  formerly  much  practised.  The  most  revolting  of  the 
ancient  customs  of  the  Kaniagmuts  (also  common  to  the  Aleuts) 
was  that  of  keeping  sJiupans,  or  men  who  were  dressed  and 
brought  up  like  females,  and  supplied  their  places.  These  un- 
natural beings  so  nearly  imitated  the  manner  and  appearance  of 
women,  that  strangers  would  frequently  take  them  for  such,  and 
the  Kadiak  priest  once  nearly  married  one  of  them  to  a  toyon  or 
chief  who  came  in  for  the  purpose.     Fortunately,  an  interpreter 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  4O3 

came  to  the  priest  and  informed  him,  before  the  ceremony  was 
finished,  that  the  couple  he  was  joining  in  marriage  were  both 
males. 

The  bodies  of  the  dead  were  formerly  buried  in  the  ground. 
They  were  wrapped  in  furs  and  sealskins,  and  large  stones  or 
pieces  of  wood  were  piled  over  the  grave.  The  spectators  went 
home  as  soon  as  the  interment  was  over,  but  the  parents  of  the 
deceased  waited  near  the  spot  until  sunset.  A  slave  was  for- 
merly killed  over  the  graves  of  the  wealthy,  broken  beads  and 
pieces  of  amber  were  strewn  over  the  grave,  and  high  poles  some- 
times erected.  The  weapons  of  hunters  were  buried  with  them, 
and  the  frame  of  a  kyak  placed  over  the  spot.  The  relations 
were  loud  in  their  grief  for  the  dead,  and  exhibited  their  mourn- 
ing by  blackening  the  face  and  cutting  the  hair  short.  The  sur- 
vivor of  a  married  couple  retired  for  a  certain  period  to  another 
settlement.  When  a  child  died,  the  mother  secluded  herself  for 
ten  or  fifteen  days  in  a  small  hut  built  for  the  purpose. 

The  same  custom  prevailed  when  a  child  was  born,  and  for 
twenty  days  the  mother  was  considered  so  unclean  that  no  one 
would  touch  her,  and  her  food  was  given  to  her  on  the  end  of  a 
stick.  When  the  twenty  days  were  over,  the  mother  and  child 
took  a  warm  and  then  a  cold  bath,  and  were  then  considered  clean. 
At  this  time  the  incisions  for  the  labrets  and  in  the  nose  of  the 
child  were  made.  The  same  custom  was  observed  by  women  at 
certain  periods,  and  they  were  not  considered  clean  until  after  the 
usual  ablutions.  The  huts  to  which  they  retired  were  built  of 
reeds  and  grass,  and  were  only  about  three  feet  square. 

The  principal  pursuits  of  these  Innuit  were  hunting  the  seal, 
whale,  sea-otter,  and  fur-seal.  They  also  caught  auks,  divers, 
and  puffins,  in  nets  ;  from  the  skins  they  made  clothing,  and  con- 
sumed the  flesh.  Fish  were  also  obtained  in  nets,  and  with  the 
hook  and  line. 

Their  weapons  were  spears,  harpoons,  and  arrows.  The  tools 
used  in  carving  and  working  in  wood  were  stone  adzes,  sharp- 
ened fragments  of  shell,  which  have  been  surperseded  by  crooked 
knives,  a  polishing-stone,  and  a  tooth  fixed  in  a  wooden  handle  and 
used  as  a  gouge. 

The  art  of  carving  has  somewhat  declined  from  its  ancient  per- 
fection, but  they  still  practise  it. 


404  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

The  woman  were  only  surpassed  in  their  needlework  by  the 
Aleutians.  They  were  great  gamblers,  and  had  several  games, 
one  resembling  dice,  and  another  which  consisted  in  throwing 
flat  pieces  of  wood  at  a  painted  skin.  These  counted  according 
to  the  part  of  the  skin  on  which  they  fell ;  the  game  was  one  hun- 
dred and  twelve  points. 

The  single  and  two-holed  bidarkas  have  been  in  use  since  the 
discovery  of  the  country.  The  three-holed  bidarka  is  an  inven- 
tion of  the  Russians.  All  the  Orarian  tribes,  except  the  Aleu- 
tians and  Kaniagmuts,  have  single  bidarkas  or  kyaks.  The 
festivals  and  dances  of  these  natives  resembled  those  of  the 
Aleutians. 

Those  who  attack  the  whale,  were  considered  by  their  coun- 
trymen, during  the  fishing  season,  as  unclean,  though  otherwise 
they  were  held  in  high  honor.  They  only  attempted  to  kill  the 
smaller  species.  A  singular  custom  obtained  among  the  whalers, 
of  stealing  the  bodies  of  dead  hunters  who  had  been  successful  in 
the  chase,  and  secreting  them  in  caves.  This  was  thought  to  ren- 
der the  possessor  of  such  trophies  prosperous  in  his  fishery  ;  and 
these  caves,  with  their  contents,  were  bequeathed  from  father  to 
son,  until  the  number  of  bodies  sometimes  amounted  to  twenty. 

The  houses  were  composed  of  a  single  large  room,  which  an- 
swered the  purposes  of  a  store-room,  work-room,  and  dance-house, 
resembling  the  casines  of  the  more  northern  Innuit.  Into  this 
room  opened  the  doors  of  the  excavations  in  which  the  different 
families  lived  and  slept,  and  were  even  sometimes  buried.  These 
were  called  ji'tpan.  Blocks  of  wood  ornamented  with  sea-otter 
teeth  served  for  a  pillow,  and  separated  the  space  on  which  the 
natives  slept  from  the  rest  of  the  room.  Fires  were  built  in 
winter  in  the  jupan,  and  they  were  very  warm.  Sealskins  and 
dry  grass  served  for  a  bed.  The  natives  were  fond  of  hot  baths, 
which  resembled  those  of  the  Norton  Sound  Innuit. 

Shamanism  was  much  practised  by  the  Kaniagmuts,  and  fre- 
quently large  presents  were  made  to  the  shamans,  while  those 
among  the  Aleuts  did  not  receive  payment  for  their  services. 
Other  wise  men,  called  kasek,  taught  the  children  the  difterent 
dances  and  superintended  the  public  festivals.  They  were  re- 
garded as  second  only  to  the  shamans. 

The  Kaniagmuts  trace  their  ancestry  from  the  oftspring  of  a 


ABORUilXAL    INHABITANTS. 


405 


dog,  and  assert  that  the  island  of  Kadiak  was  separated  from 
Aliaska  by  a  large  otter,  who  pushed  through  from  Cook's  Inlet. 
At  present  many  of  them  profess  the  Greek  Catholic  religion,  but 
retain  at  the  same  time  their  old  superstitions.  Many  of  their 
habits  are  very  dirty,  while  in  intelligence  and  morals  they  fall 
far  behind  the  Aleutians. 

TJie  Oglenmts.  —  This  tribe  inhabits  the  north  coast  of  Aliaska 
from  the  159th  degree  of  west  longitude  to  the  head  of  Bristol 
Bay,  and  along  the  north  shore  of  that  Bay  to  Point  Etolin. 
Their  habits  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  of  the  last-men- 
tioned tribe,  while  their  vocabulary  differs  somewhat  from  that  of 
the  latter.  They  live  principally  by  fishing  and  hunting  the  wal- 
rus, seal,  deer,  and  foxes  ;  they  are  few  in  number.  They  are  the 
Aglcgniut  of  Holmberg. 

The  Niishcrgdgimits.  — These  people  inhabit  the  coast  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Nushergak  River,  and  westward  to  Cape  Newen- 
ham.  They  are  similar,  as  far  as  known,  to  the  more  northern 
Innuit  in  most  of  their  customs.  Their  sledges  differ  from  those 
of  Norton  Sound  by  being  lower,  shorter,  heavier,  more  gayly  or- 
namented, and  often  lined  with  fur.  They  particularly  excel  in 
carving  ivory,  and  most  of  their  weapons  and  tools  are  made  of 
ivory  or  bone.  The  annexed  sketch  represents  an 
ivory  knife  used  for  skinning  animals  and  cutting  up 
fish.  They  are  represented  as  very  active  and  ener- 
getic, fond  of  festivals  and  dances,  and  travelling  a 
great  deal  in  winter  with  dogs.  They  rely  principal- 
ly on  deer  and  fish  for  their  food.  They  are  particu- 
larly fond  of  small  white  beads  and  tobacco.  Some 
of  their  casines,  or  dance-houses,  are  said  to  be  among 
the  largest  structures  of  their  class  in  Russian  Amer- 
ica. They  call  themselves  Nushergagmut,  and  are  ivory  knife. 
the  Kijataigiimt  of  Holmberg. 

The  Ktiskwogmiits.  —  These  inhabit  both  shores  of  Kuskoquim 
Bay,  and  some  little  distance  up  that  river.  They  differ  little 
from  the  last-mentioned,  except  in  their  vocabulary.  Baer  has 
stated  that  some  of  the  more  southern  tribes  of  Innuit  have  inter- 
married with  the  Indians,  and  that  an  intermixture  of  words  has 
taken  place  between  the  two  languages.  The  first  statement  is 
quite  unsupported  by  the  facts,  and  the  latter  is  probably  due  to 


406  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

a  miscomprehension  of  his  informant,  who  probably  mistook  the 
trading  jargon,  in  use  among  all  western  Innuit  who  have  any 
trade  with  the  Indians,  for  the  true  language  of  the  former.  At 
all  events,  I  have  so  far  found  no  traces  of  Indian  words  in  the 
numerous  Innuit  vocabularies  which  I  have  examined,  nor  vice 
versa.  In  regard  to  this  tribe  he  also  makes  some  assertions 
which  are  not  borne  out  by  the  accounts  which  I  have  received 
in  regard  to  them,  from  Russian  traders  who  had  spent  years  on 
the  Kuskoqiiim,  especially  Ivan  Lukeen,  who  is  elsewhere  men- 
tioned. I  refer  to  the  statement  that  all  the  adult  able-bodied 
males  sleep  in  the  casine,  or  dance-house,  and  that  the  only  women 
who  are  admitted  to  the  same  place  during  festivities  are  those 
who  have  been  especially  initiated.  I  have  good  reason  to  believe 
that  the  customs  of  this  tribe  closely  resemble  those  of  the  Nor- 
ton Sound  Innuit,  which  are  elsewhere  described,  and  that  the 
information  on  which  Von  Baer's  statements  are  founded  must 
have  been  untrustworthy.  These  natives  call  themselves  Kus- 
kwogmut,  and  are  the  KnskiitcJicivak  of  Baer  and  Richardson, 
and  the  Kiiskokivigmiit  of  Holmberg,  who  has  also  confounded 
them  with  parts  of  other  tribes,  especially  the  following. 

TJie  Agiihmits.  —  This  tribe  extends  from  near  Cape  Avi'nofif 
nearly  to  Cape  Romanzoff.  There  are  also  a  number  of  settle- 
ments of  the  same  tribe  on  the  island  of  Nunivak.  They  are 
comparatively  little  known.  The  information  which  I  have  been 
able  to  gather  would  indicate  that  they  are  very  shameless  and 
filthy,  extremely  fond  of  tobacco,  and  remarkable  for  the  beauty 
of  their  workmanship  in  ivory.  Their  clothing  is  largely  com- 
posed of  foxskins  ;  their  kyaks,  while  larger  than  those  of  the 
more  northern  tribes,  are  well  made  and  attractive  in  appearance. 
Foxes,  oil,  and  ivory  are  their  principal  articles  of  trade.  A  kan- 
tag  or  wooden  dish,  which  was  obtained  at  Nunivak  by  Captain 
Smith,  was  neatly  carved  and  inlaid  with  lozenges  of  white  stone, 
resembling  gypsum.  They  wore  labrets  of  the  same  material. 
Their  food  was  principally  fish  and  seal,  and  they  appeared  to  be 
very  destitute  of  iron  and  other  articles  introduced  by  traders. 
Their  ivory  weapons  were  of  great  beauty,  and  some  specimens 
of  hollow  carving  would  tax  the  resources  of  the  most  skilful  civ- 
ilized workman  to  equal.  They  should  not  be  confounded  with 
the  Oglemuts  of  Bristol  Bay.  Holmberg  gives  their  boundaries 
incorrectly. 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  4O7 

TJie  Mdgemuts.  —  These  inhabit  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Roman- 
zoft",  and  reach  nearly  to  the  Yukon-mouth.  They  resemble  their 
southern  neighbors  more  nearly  than  they  do  those  to  the  north 
of  them.  The  peculiar  labrets  worn  by  the  women  are  elsewhere 
described.  They  are  tall,  finely  formed,  and  have  very  fair  com- 
plexions. Blue  eyes  are  not  unknown  among  them,  but  their  hair 
is  black  and  their  beards  are  very  light.  They  are  fond  of  orna- 
ments, especially  large  glass  beads.  Tobacco  is  greatly  esteemed, 
especially  the  Circassian  variety.  Deer  are  uncommon  in  their 
district,  and  they  live  prmcipally  on  fish  and  birds.  Foxes  and 
mink  are  the  most  abundant  furs  among  them.  They  celebrate 
their  dances  and  festivals  with  great  pomp  and  display.  Some 
of  their  festivals  last  for  weeks.  They  call  themselves  Magemut, 
meaning  "mink  people." 

Wood  is  very  scarce  in  the  Magemut  country,  and  is  an  article 
of  trade.  Holmberg  calls  them  also  Magdgnmt,  and  fixes  their 
boundaries  wrongly. 

The  Ekogmuts.  —  These  inhabit  the  Yukon  delta  from  the 
Kipni'uk  to  Pastolik,  and  ascend  the  river  as  far  as  Manki,  some 
distance  above  the  mission.  Their  habits  and  customs  are  else- 
where described.  Those  who  inhabit  the  Kwi'khpak  slough  call 
themselves  Kwikhpdgmiit,  a  name  sometimes  applied  to  the 
whole  tribe.  A  noticeable  feature  in  many  of  them  is  the  ex- 
treme hairyness  of  their  persons.  Many  have  very  strong  black 
beards  and  hairy  bodies.  They  include  the  KunkJilndgeviut  and 
KwikJipdgunit  of  Holmberg. 

The  Unaligmnts  or  Unaleet.  —  These  occupy  the  coast  from 
Pastolik  to  Shaktolik.  They  are  elsewhere  described  at  length. 
They  include  the  Tschndgmtit  and  Pastoliginut  of  Holmberg. 
The  latter  is  only  a  local  name,  the  former  is  of  very  questionable 
authority,  and  not  in  use  among  any  of  them.  They  have  also 
been  erroneously  called  Azidguuit. 

The  Mdhlemnts.  —  These  Innuit  occupy  the  coast  of  Norton 
Sound  and  Bay  north  of  Shaktolik  and  the  neck  of  the  Kaviak 
Peninsula  to  Selawik  Lake.  Their  most  eastern  village  is  Atten- 
inut,  and  their  western  boundary  the  river  which  flows  northward 
into  Spavarieff  Bay,  Kotzebue  Sound.  Their  mode  of  life  is  fully 
described  in  the  first  part  of  this  volume.  They  are  the  Malicg- 
imit  of  Holmberg. 


4o8 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 


TJie  Kavidguiuts.  —  These  occupy  the  Kaviak  Peninsula  and 
Sledge  or  Aziak  Island.  They  have  also  been  previously  de- 
scribed. Many  of  them  pass  the  winter  in  the  southern  part  of 
Norton  Sound,  and  there  is  a  large  Kaviak  village  at  Unalakli'k. 
Their  principal  Omaylik  or  chief  is  Kavwkin,  well  known  to 
many  Arctic  voyagers.     Their  principal  villages  are  Nookvmt  at 

ARROWS   AND    LANCES. 


A.    Ekogmut  bird  spear. 
D.    Seal  spear  of  nortlierr 
G.    Aleut  arrinv.  H. 


B.    Aleut  harpoon-lance. 
E.   Mahlemut  arrow, 
ow.  I.    Aleut  fish  arrow. 


C.    Nushergagmut  seal  spear. 

F.    Tuski  arrow. 

J.     Unaleet  bird  arrow. 


Port  Clarence,  and  Knik-tdguiut  on  Golofni'na  Bay.  They  call 
themselves  Kaviagmut  ;  they  are  the  Anligniuts  of  Holmberg, 
and  the  local  name,  Asid<rjnut,  of  the  inhabitants  of  Aziak  Island 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 


409 


(who  travel  extensively)  has  been  applied  to  other  tribes.  Among 
the  members  of  this  tribe,  as  we  go  northward,  the  tendency  to 
theft  and  violence  appears  more  strongly,  and  maybe  due,  in  part, 
to  the  introduction  of  alcohol  by  unscrupulous  traders.  The  In- 
nuit  of  Norton  Sound  and  to  the  southward  exhibit  this  tendency 
in  a  much  smaller  degree. 

The  Okc-Sgmuts.  —  This  name  is  universally  applied  by  the 
Innuit  to  the  small  but  active  and  energetic  tribe  who  inhabit 
the  islands  of  Bering  Strait.  They  are  essentially  the  same  as 
the  Kaviagmuts.  They  carry  on  the  trade  between  the  two  con- 
tinents, and  visit  the  island  of  St.  Michael  every  year  for  the  pur- 
pose. I  have  also  heard  the  same  name  applied  to  the  inhabitants 
of  St.  Lawrence  Island. 

The  Western  Eskimo.  —  This  name  has  been  very  generally 
applied  to  the  Innuit  who  inhabit  the  coast  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Mackenzie  westward  to  Point  Barrow,  and  south  to  Kotzebue 
Sound.  In  the  absence  of  accurate  knowledge  I  have  preferred 
to  retain  it,  rather  than  use  the  local  designations  which  are 
given  by  Simpson  as  tribal  names.  Parties  of  Kaviagmuts  and 
Mahlemuts  visit  Point  Barrow  nearly  every  season,  and  may  have 
been  confounded  with  the  indigenous  Innuit  by  the  few  explorers 
who  have  travelled  in  that  direction.  Richardson  says,  that  from 
the  Mackenzie  River  to  Barter  Reef  they  call  themselves  Kang- 
mali-Innilin.  Among  the  Innuit  of  Norton  Sound  most  other 
names  are  derived  from  names  of  places  ;  the  tribal  designations 
appear  to  follow  a  similar  rule.  Thus,  most  of  the  geographical 
names  end  in  ik  or  ak,  as  Kavi-i-ak,  a  tract  of  country.  From 
this  we  have  Kavidgmitt  (noun),  a  town  or  village  in  that  country; 
Kavi-dzak  (noun),  a  river  passing  through  it  ;  Kavicigeniut  (adjec- 
tive singular),  the  tribal  name  of  an  individual  from  that  country  ; 
Kavidgmeun  (adjective  plural),  a  number  of  individuals  from  that 
country  ;  and  finally  Kavidgmut  Innuit,  the  people  of  the  country, 
collectively.  The  c  which  follows  the  g  in  the  adjective  is  fre- 
quently slurred  so  as  to  be  hardly  noticeable.  Emik,  Enyiik,  or  a 
word  of  the  same  derivation,  means  a  "  man  "  ;  Enyiiin  means 
"several  men";  Innuit  means  "people"  collectively.  The  termi- 
nation imit  in  a  substantive  sense  means  a  village  at  the  place  or 
on  the  river  to  the  name  of  which  it  is  added.  In  an  adjective 
sense  it  means  the  people  of  that  village,  as  we  would  say  Indiana, 


4IO  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

Indianapolis,  Indianapolitan.  It  is  generally  very  local  in  its 
meaning,  although  it  is  also  added  to  the  tribal  names.  Ki<.'cck, 
meaning  river,  compounded  with  some  adjective,  usually  forms 
the  name  of  any  river,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  Kikhiuk,  an 
island. 

The  Point  Barrow  tribe  are  said  by  Richardson  to  be  called 
Njiwungmcun.  This  is  the  plural  of  Xookvint,  which  is  the  local 
designation  of  the  Kaviagmuts  of  Port  Clarence,  who  annually  visit 
Point  Barrow.  These  northern  Innuit  are  very  few  in  number. 
They  are  said  to  be  treacherous  and  addicted  to  theft.  Simp- 
son mentions  that  their  thumbs  appeared  to  be  disproportionally 
short.  The  same  may  be  true  of  the  Norton  Sound  Innuit ;  at  all 
events,  no  white  man  can  wear  one  of  their  mittens  comfortably 
until  the  thumb  is  lengthened.  The  northern  tribes  are  not  so 
proficient  in  embroidery  as  those  of  Norton  Sound,  and  their  gar- 
ments are  much  more  plainly  made  and  deficient  in  trimming. 
The  former  still  use  many  articles  of  stone  or  flint  which  the  lat- 
ter have  rejected  for  bone  or  iron.  Simpson,  on  the  Arctic  coast, 
saw  dishes  made  from  the  tusks  of  the  fossil  elephant,  and  the 
Innuit  of  Back's  Great  Fish  River  are  noted  for  their  stone  dishes 
or  kettles. 

The  Innuit  formerly  extended  much  farther  up  the  Mackenzie 
than  at  present,  and  have  been  driven  out  by  the  Indians  within 
historic  times. 

Dr.  Otis,  of  the  United  States  Army  Medical  Museum  at 
Washington,  who  has  handled  as  many  aboriginal  American 
crania  as  any  modern  ethnologist,  says  that  the  skulls  found  in 
the  northern  mounds  have  the  .same  peculiarities  which  distin- 
guish all  Orarian  crania,  and  that  both  are  instantly  distinguish- 
able from  any  Indian  skulls. 

The  Norton  Sound  tribes  have  various  names  for  the  whites, 
one  of  which  means  "  men  with  white  eyes,"  and  another  "  men 
who  wear  hats."  The  common  designation  of  the  Russians  is 
Kossdk,  which  is  evidently  derived  from  Cossack.  The  Ameri- 
cans are  usually  called  Americdni.  Some  Kanaka  words  are  in  use 
in  the  jargon  through  which  barter  is  carried  on  with  the  traders* 
who  employ  many  Sandwich-Islanders  as  sailors.  Some  of  these, 
and  also  some  Russian  words,  have  found  their  way  into  recently 
published  vocabularies,  which  are  also  inaccurate  in  other  respects. 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  4II 

Indian  Stocks  {Stdmvic.)  —  There  are  two  stocks  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Alaska.  They  are  the  TJilinkets  and  the  TinneJi.  The 
former  are  confined  to  the  coast,  and  the  latter  occupy  the  greater 
part  of  the  interior. 

The  Thlinkets.  —  This  stock  comprises  the  Chimsydns,  the 
Kygdni  or  Hdidahs,  the  true  Thlinkets  or  so-called  Koloshes,  and 
the  Ydhitats  or  tribe  which  inhabit  the  vicinity  of  Bering  Bay. 
There  are  perhaps  other  tribes  of  the  same  stock  to  the  south, 
which,  as  well  as  the  Chimsyans,  are  outside  of  the  limits  of  this 
work.  The  Ugalcnses  have  also  been  referred  to  this  stock  by 
some  authors. 

The  Kygdni.  —  These  Indians  have  their  head-quarters  on 
Queen  Charlotte's  Archipelago,  but  there  are  a  few  villages  on 
the  extreme  southern  part  of  Prince  of  Wales  and  the  adjoining 
islands.  They  are  a  very  fierce,  treacherous  race,  and  have  not 
been  improved  by  the  rum  and  fire-arms  sold  to  them  by  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company  at  Fort  Simpson.  They  are  noted  for 
the  beauty  and  size  of  their  cedar  canoes  and  their  skill  in  carv- 
ing. Most  of  the  stone  pipes,  inlaid  with  fragments  of  Haliotis 
or  pearl  shells,  so  common  in  ethnological  collections,  are  their 
handiwork.  The  slate  quarry  from  which  the  stone  is  obtained 
is  situated  on  Queen  Charlotte's  Island.  They  are  frequently 
called  Hydahs  or  Hdidahs. 

The  Thlinkets  or  T'linkets.  —  These  are  divided  into  two 
tribes,  whose  customs  are  almost  identical  and  whose  vocabu- 
laries differ  but  little.  Their  tribal  names  are  indicated  by  the 
appellation  of  the  district,  to  which  is  added  the  syllable  kzudn, 
meaning  people.  Tlinkit  means  a  man,  according  to  Wrangell, 
but  this  does  not  appear  by  the  vocabularies. 

The'^takhin-kwan.  —  These  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  main- 
land near  the  Stikine  River.  The  latter  name  has  been  modified 
by  English  mouths  from  Stakhin,  the  native  designation.  Their 
manners  and  customs  are  identical  with  those  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  archipelago,  but  they  consider  themselves  a  distinct  tribe, 
and  the  two  have  had  frequent  wars.  The  Stakhi'n-kwan  do  not 
penetrate  far  into  the  interior,  but  extend  northwest  as  far  as 
Lynn  Canal,  and  south  to  the  Portland  Channel.  Here  they  are 
bounded  on  the  south  and  east  by  the  Auisse  Indians  and  the 
CJiimsydns.  ji^^ 


412  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

TJic  Sitka-kivan.  —  This  includes  the  inhabitants  of  Sitka  Bay, 
near  New  Archangel,  and  the  neighboring  islands.  They  have 
coarse  black  hair,  small  eyebrows,  and  fine  large  eyes.  Their  com- 
plexion is  dark,  teeth  white  and  good,  hands  and  feet  soft  and  small. 
They  are  indolent  by  nature,  but  fond  of  dress,  and  exert  them- 
selves to  hunt  and  trade  in  order  to  be  able  to  dress  well.  They 
have  generally  adopted  a  style  of  dress  somewhat  civilized  in 
appearance,  and  it  is  now  impossible  to  find  any  of  them  dressed 
in  their  original  style,  which  is  quite  forgotten.  At  present  men 
and  women  wear  much  the  same  clothing.  It  consists  of  a  long 
shirt  or  chemise  and  a  blanket  ornamented  with  buttons,  which 
covers  the  whole  body.  Some  of  them  weave  variegated  blankets 
which  display  some  artistic  taste.  Those  at  Sitka  have  more 
variety  in  their  apparel  than  others  who  are  farther  from  a  trad- 
ing-post. They  always  go  barefooted  in  their  uncivilized  con- 
dition, and  the  moccasins  which  they  offer  for  sale  are  purchased 
by  them  from  the  Ti'nneh  tribes  of  the  interior.  They  all  paint, 
and,  while  naturally  not  ugly,  become  fearfully  so  in  consequence. 
Lampblack  or  vermilion  mixed  with  oil  is  rubbed  over  the  whole 
face,  and  the  color  is  removed  by  small  brushes,  leaving  patterns 
on  the  skin.  The  rich  paint  every  day,  while  the  poorer  natives 
renew  the  paint  only  when  worn  out.  They  perforate  their 
noses,  wearing  a  ring  adorned  with  feathers.  They  make  a 
succession  of  perforations  all  around  the  edge  of  the  ears,  which 
are  ornamented  with  scarlet  thread,  sharks'  teeth,  or  pieces  of 
shell.  Each  hole  is  usually  the  record  of  a  deed  performed  or  a 
feast  given,  by  the  person  so  adorned. 

On  arriving  at  the  age  of  puberty  the  girls  are  considered  as  un- 
clean, and  are  strictly  confined  to  a  small  hut,  formerly  for  a  year, 
but  at  present  near  Sitka  the  period  has  been  shortened  to  three  • 
months.  Only  the  girl's  mother  and  a  female  slave  can  carry 
food  to  her  while  secluded,  and  she  wears  a  broad-brimmed  hat 
to  protect  the  sky  from  pollution.  At  this  time  the  lower  lip  is 
pierced,  and  a  silver  pin  shaped  like  a  nail  is  inserted.  The  broad 
head  prevents  the  pin  from  falling  out.  This  is  a  sign  of  freedom ; 
the  poor  slave  girl  has  no  right  to  such  an  ornament.  The  gait 
of  the  women,  kept  imprisoned  at  this  critical  period  of  their  lives, 
py's  weak  and  unsteady,  forming  a  striking  contrast  to  the  proud, 
'ect  bearing  of  the  men.     On  releasing  a  rich  Thlinket  girl,  a 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 


413 


great  feast  is  given.  She  is  richly  dressed  and  placed  on  a  divan 
of  otter-skins,  while  the  slave  who  waited  upon  her  during  her 
confinement  is  usually  freed,  and  all  her  old  clothing  is  destroyed. 

The  Thlinkets  migrate  with  the  season,  according  to  the  preva- 
lence of  game  or  fish.  The  latter  is  their  principal  source  of 
food;  it  is  smoked  in  their  houses,  not  dried  in  the  sun,  as  is  the 
custom  farther  north.  Shell-fish  are  eaten  raw.  Fish  and  cuttle- 
fish {Octopi),  which  are  common,  are  always  cooked.  The  spawn 
of  the  herring  in  a  putrid  state  is  reckoned  a  great  delicacy,  and 
eaten  raw  or  dried.  Fucoid  algas  are  also  eaten.  They  do  not 
eat  whale  blubber,  as  the  whale  is  one  of  their  totems,  but  use 
that  of  the  porpoise  and  seal.  They  make  water-proof  baskets,  in 
which  food  was  formerly  cooked  with  hot  stones.  Fish  abounds 
in  such  quantities  that  hunger  is  never  necessary. 
Paddling  among  the  schools  of  herring  the  na- 
tives beat  the  water  with  a  pole,  in  which  nails  are 
fastened  like  the  teeth  of  a  comb,  and  it  is  rarely 
that  every  nail  does  not  catch  a  fish.  They  fish 
for  halibut  with  wooden  hooks  barbed  with  bone, 
and  a  long  line  made  from  the  giant  kelp.  Ulikon 
(a  kind  of  smelt)  is  caught  in  basket  nets  of 
wicker-work.  These  fish  ascend  the  Nasse  and 
other  rivers  about  the  20th  of  March  in  prodigious 
numbers.  The  first  fish  is  carefully  handled,  ad- 
dressed as  a  chief,  and  a  festival  given  in  his 
honor.  After  this  is  over  the  fishing  goes  on, 
and  lasts  for  a  fortnight  or  longer. 

The  principal  animals  which  are  hunted  are  the 
deer,  mountain  sheep,  and  mountain  goat.  Of 
the  horns  of  both  they  make  ladles  and  spoons  ; 
the  latter  are  often  curiously  carved,  as  in  the 
annexed  sketch  of  a  goat-horn  spoon-handle. 
They  use  the  wool  of  the  sheep  to  weave  their 
blankets. 

There  are  about  sixteen  settlements  in  the 
archipelago,  which  form  their  dwelling-places  dur- 
ing a  great  part  of  the  year.  Their  winter  houses 
are  massively  built  of  large  squared  logs.  They 
serve  both  for  dwellings  and  purposes  of  defence.  ThinWet  spoon-handie. 


414  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

The  walls  are  several  feet  thick,  six  or  eight  high,  and  sometimes 
forty  feet  square.  The  roof  is  of  bark ;  there  is  a  round  hole, 
reached  by  steps,  for  a  door,  and  a  square  one,  to  let  out  the  smoke, 
in  the  roof.  They  rarely  have  openings  for  windows.  Some  of  the 
houses  are  floored,  and  have  an  air  of  durability  and  comfort. 

A  very  strong  trait  in  their  characters  is  their  respect  for  their 
ancestors.  The  Thlinkets  are  divided  into  four  totems :  the  raven 
{Yehl),  the  wolf  {Khanukh),  the  whale,  and  the  eagle  {C/ieihr). 
The  first  is  the  beneficent  spirit ;  while,  among  the  Ti'nneh,  the 
raven  is  considered  to  be  the  most  depraved  of  all  birds.  The 
emblems  which  to  them  represent  the  totems  are  carved  on  every 
house,  paddle,  household  utensil,  and  frequently  on  amulets  or 
plates  of  native  copper,  which  they  preserve  with  great  care,  and 
consider  to  be  of  the  greatest  value.  They  also  wear  dresses  on 
festive  days  which  are  made  to  resemble,  wholly  or  in  part,  the 
animated  form  of  the  totem.  High  posts  curiously  carved  are 
frequently  erected  before  each  house.  Sometimes  they  are  placed 
directly  in  front,  so  that  an  entrance  is  made  through  the  block 
or  log,  which  is  often  of  enormous  size.  These  carvings  repre- 
sent the  successive  ancestral  totems,  and  are  usually  capped  with 
that  of  the  builder.  They  are  frequently  painted  of  various 
colors.  The  wolves  are  the  warriors,  and  bear  the  title  of  Ko- 
khdntJien. 

They  derive  their  origin  from  Yehl  and  Khanukh,  whose  chil- 
dren lived  in  huts  on  the  mountain-side,  near  the  Nasse  River,  in 
the  interior.  Their  descendants  dispersed,  reaching  the  coast 
near  Queen  Charlotte's  Island,  and  retaining  the  name  of  their 
parents.  Their  ancestral  names  are  preserved  with  the  greatest 
care. 

Opposite  totems  only  can  marry,  and  the  child  usually  takes  the 
mother's  totem.  The  child  receives,  at  or  soon  after  birth,  a  name 
derived  from  that  of  its  mother's  ancestors.  This  name  is  con- 
ferred without  any  ceremony.  Afterward  he  receives  another 
from  his  father's  side.  The  last  is  always  conferred  with  great 
solemnity  and  festivity.  Poor  Thlinkets,  who  have  no  means  of 
giving  a  feast,  sometimes  retain  the  mother's  name  through  life. 
A  rich  chief  may  give  his  name  to  his  son  at  birth,  but  he  must 
afterwards  celebrate  a  feast  in  honor  of  his  paternal  ancestors.  A 
father  of  a  son  who  has  distinguished  himself  is  called  after  his 


ABORIGINAL  INHABITANTS.  415 

son.  A  distinguished  chief  at  Sitka,  having  two  paternal  names, 
was  baptized,  thus  adding  another.  If  he  had  had  a  son,  he  would 
have  been  called  after  the  child,  but  as  he  was  without  children, 
the  other  Thlinkets  called  him  after  his  favorite  dog  ! 

Polygamy  is  common  among  the  rich,  but  the  first  wife  has  the 
precedence  and  authority.  One  of  the  Nasse  chiefs  was  said  to 
have  had  forty  wives.  A  lover  sends  to  his  mistress's  relations, 
asking  for  her  as  a  wife.  If  he  receives  a  favorable  reply,  he  sends 
as  many  presents  as  he  can  get  together,  to  her  father.  On  the 
appointed  day  he  goes  to  the  house  where  she  Hves,  and  sits  down 
with  his  back  to  the  door. 

The  father  has  invited  all  the  relations  who  now  raise  a  song,  to 
allure  the  coy  bride  out  of  the  corner  where  she  has  been  sitting. 
When  the  song  is  done,  furs  or  pieces  of  new  calico  are  laid  on 
the  floor,  and  she  walks  over  them  and  sits  down  by  the  side  of 
the  groom.  All  this  time  she  must  keep  her  head  bowed  down. 
Then  all  the  guests  dance  and  sing,  when  tired,  diversifying  the 
entertainment  by  eating.  The  pair  do  not  join  in  any  of  the 
ceremonies.  That  their  future  life  may  be  happy  they  fast  for 
two  days.  Then,  taking  a  little  food  to  sustain  life,  they  fast  for 
two  days  more.  Four  weeks  afterward  they  come  together  and 
are  then  recognized  as  man  and  wife.  A  similar  course  of  fasting 
and  reflection  might  be  advantageous  in  some  civilized  communi- 
ties in  this  era  of  hasty  and  ill-assorted  marriages. 

The  bridegroom  is  free  to  live  with  his  father-in-law  or  return 
to  his  own  home.  If  he  chooses  the  latter  the  bride  receives  a 
troitsseaii  equal  in  value  to  the  gifts  received  by  her  parents  from 
the  husband.  If  the  husband  become  dissatisfied  with  his  wife, 
he  can  send  her  back  with  her  dowry,  but  loses  his  own  gifts.  If 
a  wife  is  unfaithful  he  may  send  her  back  with  nothing,  and  de- 
jnand  his  own  again.  They  may  separate  by  mutual  consent  with-^ 
out  returning  any  property.  When  the  marriage  festival  is  over, 
the  silver  pin  is  removed  from  the  lower  lip  of  the  bride  and  re- 
placed by  a  plug,  shaped  like  a  spool,  but  not  over  three  quarters 
of  an  inch  long,  and  this  plug  is  afterward  replaced  by  a  larger 
one  of  wood,  bone,  or  stone,  so  that  an  old  woman  may  have  an 
ornament  of  this  kind  two  inches  in  diameter.  These  large  ones 
are  of  an  oval  shape,  but  scooped  out,  above  and  below  and 
around  the  edge,  like  a  pulley-wheel.     The  annexed  sketch  of  a 


4l6  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

mask  or  rather  carving  of  a  female  head,  cut  by  a  Thlinket  work- 
man, shows  the  position  of  the  plug  in  the  lower 
lip.  When  very  large  a  mere  strip  of  flesh  goes 
round  the  kalusJika  (little  trough)  as  the  Aleu- 
tians called  it.  This  disgusting  practice  is  similar 
to  one  in  vogue  among  the  Botokudos  of  Brazil, 
and  something  resembling  it  was  anciently  worn 
by   the    Aleutians    and    Kaniagmuts.     From    the 

Thlinket  mask.  ^^^^  \v\{\c\i  thc  Alcuts  gavc  the  appendage  when 
they  first  visited  Sitka,  the  nickname  Kolosh  has  arisen,  and 
been  applied  to  this  and  allied  tribes. 

Veniami'noff  says  that  a  certain  Sicilian  custom  was  anciently 
in  favor  among  the  Thlinkets,  and  the  cavalier  was  usually  the 
brother  of  the  husband.  When  a  husband  dies,  his  brother  or  his 
sister's  son  must  marry  the  widow.  The  omission  of  this  custom 
has  occasioned  bloody  feuds.  If  there  are  no  male  relations  of 
the  husband,  the  widow  may  choose  for  herself. 

A  seducer  rarely  escapes  the  dagger,  but,  if  he  should  be  so 
fortunate,  he  must  render  a  sufficient  payment  in  goods  to  the  in- 
jured husband. 

The  women  are  treated  with  little  kindness  during  childbirth. 
They  are  excluded  from  the  house  and  placed  in  a  temporary  hut, 
or  even  left  without  shelter  for  ten  days  as  unclean.  When  the 
child  is  some  weeks  old  it  is  tied  to  a  board  and  padded  with 
moss,  which  is  removed  and  replaced  by  a  fresh  supply  daily. 
It  is  weaned  when  about  a  year  old,  and  fed  on  seal  or  porpoise 
blubber  at  first.  As  soon  as  it  can  walk  it  is  bathed  in  the  sea 
daily. 

They  consider  corporeal  punishment  as  a  great  disgrace,  and 
only  chastise  the  child  who  refuses  to  take  its  daily  bath. 

Theft  is  not  considered  as  a  crime,  but  the  loser  may  demand 
restitution  if  the  thief  is  discovered. 

Murder  demands  blood  for  blood  ;  if  not  that  of  the  actual 
murderer,  at  least  one  of  the  tribe  or  family  to  which  he  belongs. 

Family  feuds  are  not  uncommon,  and  sometimes  result  in  duels. 
The  duellists  are  dressed  in  armor  of  raw  moose  or  bear  hide,  or 
thin  strips  of  wood  laced  together.  They  wear  heavy  wooden 
helmets  painted  or  carved  with  their  totemic  emblems.  The 
combat  is  carried  on  with  knive.s,  and  accompanied  with  songs  by 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  417 

the  bystanders.  At  a  conclusion  of  peace,  either  between  two 
tribes  or  two  members  of  a  family,  hostages  are  exchanged. 
These  are  obliged  to  eat  with  their  left  hands  for  a  certain 
period,  as  they  had  carried  weapons  in  the  right  hand  during 
the  combat.  Each  hostage  has  two  companions  of  equal  rank 
assigned  to  him  by  the  tribe  which  holds  him. 

Their  method  of  war  is  an  ambush  or  surprise.  The  prisoners 
are  made  slaves,  and  the  dead  are  scalped.  The  scalps  are  woven 
into  a  kind  of  garter  by  the  victor.  During  war  they  use  red 
paint  on  their  faces,  and  powder  the  hair  with  red  earth  and  the 
down  of  birds. 

The  bodies  of  the  dead  are  disjointed  by  a  person  who  is  as- 
signed to  this  special  duty,  and  the  act  is  performed  in  solitude. 
The  remains  are  then  burned  near  the  house  of  the  deceased. 
Poor  people  take  their  dead  in  a  boat  to  some  distant  spot  and 
burn  them  there.  The  bodies  of  the  shamans  only,  are  put  in 
boxes  on  four  poles  by  the  sea-shore.  The  bodies  of  slaves  are 
thrown  into  the  sea.  Some  time  after  the  death  of  a  Thlinket  the 
members  of  the  family  who  belong  to  other  totems  are  invited  to 
a  feast.  The  body  is  put  on  a  funeral  pile  before  the  relations, 
and  burned.  The  guests  accompany  the  ceremony  with  dismal 
cries.  They  sometimes  burn  their  hair  in  the  fire,  or  cut  it  off, 
and  smear  themselves  with  ashes.  Among  the  Kygani  they  cut 
themselves  with  knives  and  stones.  The  guests  who  are  of  the 
same  totem  as  the  wife  then  enter  the  house,  while  the  near  rela- 
tives come  in,  disfigured  and  leaning  on  long  staves,  and  weep  or 
sing  in  the  middle  of  the  floor.  These  ceremonies  last  four  days, 
with  short  intervals  for  eating.  Several  slaves  were  formerly 
killed,  the  number  varying  with  the  wealth  of  the  dead  man. 
After  four  days  the  relations  wash  and  paint  their  faces.  Pres- 
ents are  made  to  the  guests  who  have  assisted,  and  food  is  dis- 
tributed, which  concludes  the  ceremony. 

The  next  heir  is  the  younger  brother  or  sister's  son.  The  ashes 
of  the  dead  are  placed  in  curiously  painted  boxes  near  the  house. 
The  talent  for  carving  in  wood  and  bone  possessed  by  the  Thlin- 
kets  has  long  been  a  matter  of  remark.  The  accompanying  illus- 
tration shows  the  general  style  of  their  carving.  Their  canoes 
are  of  less  beauty  than  those  of  the  more  southern  tribes,  and  the 
natives  resident  at  Sitka,  from  the  demoralizing  effect  of  liquor 
27 


4i8 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 


Stone  axe  and  skindresser. 


obtained  at  the  adjacent  trading-post,  have  much  degenerated  in 
this  kind  of  work,  but  those  more  remote  are  still  proficient  in  it. 
Before  the  introduction  of  iron  by  the 
Russians  they  were  unacquainted  with 
it,  but  used  tools  of  stone  or  native  cop- 
per. The  annexed  cut  shows  an  ancient 
stone  axe  and  skindresser,  as  formerly  in 
use.  At  present  many 
of  them  have  some 
knowledge  of  working 
in  iron.  They  pur- 
chase large  files  of  the 
traders,  of  which  they 
make  peculiar  bayo- 
net -  shaped  knives. 
Those  of  native  cop- 
per were  of  similar 
form,  and  both  are 
frequently  ornament- 
ed with  totemic  em- 
blems. They  are  fond  of  silver  and 
other  white  metals,  which  they  prefer 
to  brass  or  gold.  They  wear  ear-rings 
and  other  ornaments  of  their  own  manu- 
facture from  silver  half-dollars. 

Bows  and  arrows  seem  to  have  disap- 
peared, as  they  have  been  well  supplied 
for  years,  by  the  traders,  with  iron  spears 
or  pikes  and  flint-lock  guns. 

Their  festivals  consist  of  dancing, 
singing,  and  feasting.  The  dances  and  songs  are  all  emblematic, 
and  the  Thlinket  prides  himself  above  all  on  his  proficiency  in 
these  accomplishments.  The  songs  are  remarkable  for  their 
rhythm.  The  principal  authors  who  have  described  the  Thlin- 
kets  are  Veniami'noff  and  Wrangell,  from  whose  works  the  greater 
part  of  these  facts  have  been  extracted.  Festivals  are  given  on 
erecting  a  new  house,  on  the  naming  of  children,  deaths,  mar- 
riages, etc. 

Among  their  more  important  festivals  are  those  called  "  elevat- 


Thlinket  comb. 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITAxNTS.  419 

ing  tJic  dead','  on  which  occasions  they  erect  monuments  in  their 
honor.  Such  festivals  are  rare,  on  account  of  their  costliness. 
Guests  are  invited  even  from  distant  settlements,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  the  host  gives  away  not  only  his  own  property,  but  that 
which  his  wife  brought  him,  and  lives  afterwards  in  abject  pov- 
erty, retaining  only  the  honor  and  glory  of  the  celebration  as  a 
reward  for  the  respect  paid  to  his  ancestors'  memory. 

Frequently  a  whole  family,  and  even  a  whole  settlement,  take 
part  in  such  festivals.  Invitations  are  sent,  long  beforehand,  to 
the  most  remote  villages.    Women  and  children  frequently  attend. 

The  house  or  lodge  where  the  festivities  are  to  take  place  is 
thoroughly  cleansed,  or  even  a  new  one  is  erected,  with  the  inner 
and  outer  walls  covered  with  emblematic  paintings,  particularly 
of  the  totems. 

Dancing  and  singing  commence  with  the  arrival  of  guests,  the 
more  distinguished  among  whom  are  selected  to  take  part  in  the 
opening  ceremonies.  These  last  commence  with  the  relatives 
only,  on  the  first  morning  after  the  guests  have  arrived  and  later 
a  solemn  meal.  This  is  succeeded  by  dances  and  songs,  in  which 
the  women  do  not  participate,  which  are  all  emblematic  or  sym- 
bolic ;  they  are  kept  up  without  intermission,  except  for  eating, 
as  many  days  as  the  host  can  afford. 

On  the  evening  before  the  close  of  the  festivities  the  host,  gen- 
erally a  chief,  retires  with  a  slave  to  a  small  hut  or  room,  where 
he  puts  on  a  singular  costume,  frequently  an  heirloom,  handed 
down  with  the  greatest  veneration  from  many  generations,  and 
only  used  on  such  occasions.  It  is  different  in  different  families, 
but  always  represents  the  totem  of  the  family,  either  in  part  or 
complete.  It  is  also  ornamented  with  human  teeth,  ribands,  er- 
mine skins,  and  other  things  valued  by  the  owner.  The  slave 
who  dresses  his  master  in  this  manner  is  selected  a  long  time  in 
advance,  and  is  always  set  free  after  it  is  over. 

Dressed  in  this  manner,  on  leaving  his  place  of  concealment, 
surrounded  by  slaves,  he  is  greeted  by  a  member  of  the  family 
with  a  cry  resembling  that  of  the  animal  denoted  by  the  totem. 
Upon  the  nature  of  the  cry,  which  is  made  in  a  stated  manner, 
depend  the  lives  of  several  slaves.  If  unfavorable  they  are  imme- 
diately executed,  and  the  hosts  begin  to  sing  their  family  songs, 
relating  the  deeds  of  their  ancestors,  and  the  origin  of  the  family. 


420  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

The  host  seats  himself,  and  the  presents  are  brought  forth  and 
distributed.  They  are  given  in  proportion  to  the  rank  and  wealth 
of  the  receiver.  Slaves  are  also  given  away.  This,  if  any  other 
families  participate  in  the  festival,  is  followed  on  the  next  day  by 
a  similar  proceeding  in  another  house,  till  the  number  of  the 
hosts  is  exhausted.  The  latter  are  entitled  on  these  occasions  to 
assume  the  name  of  some  deceased  paternal  ancestor. 

Another  class  of  festival,  also  very  costly,  and  considered  among 
their  more  prominent  ones,  deserves  mention.  It  is  given  in 
honor  of  children.  A  new  house  is  always  built  for  its  express 
celebration,  in  which  both  the  guests  and  members  of  the  tribe 
receive  presents,  while  at  other  times  only  guests  receive  them. 
After  the  dancing  and  singing  are  over,  slaves,  to  the  number  of 
the  children  for  whom  the  celebration  is  given,  receive  their 
liberty.  The  children  are  then  brought  forward,  according  to 
their  age,  and  the  holes  before  mentioned  are  made  in  their  ears 
with  an  awl.  Meanwhile  the  bystanders  utter  a  hissing  sound, 
probably  to  drown  any  outcry  on  the  part  of  the  children,  after 
which  food  and  presents  are  distributed,  and  the  festival  comes 
to  an  end. 

The  Thlinket  slaves  are  either  captured  in  war,  bought  from 
other  tribes  who  may  themselves  have  captured  them,  or  the 
children  of  i^male  slaves.  The  wars  between  the  tribes,  being 
now  of  rare  occurrence,  the  supply  of  slaves  is  kept  up  by  barter 
with  the  more  southern  tribes,  and  hence  many  of  the  slaves  are 
Flatheads  from  Oregon.  The  slaves  of  the  Thlinkets,  as  former- 
ly the  case  with  other  slaves  nearer  home,  have  no  rights  that 
the  master  is  bound  to  respect.  A  slave  cannot  acquire  property, 
nor  marry,  except  by  consent  of  his  master,  which  is  rarely  given. 
Manumitted  slaves  have  the  rights  of  common  Thlinkets.  When 
in  a  state  of  slavery  they  are  seldom  killed,  except  at  festivals  as 
above  mentioned,  as  they  are  valuable  property  and  hard  to  re- 
place. If  the  selected  victim  makes  his  escape,  and  hides  himself, 
he  may,  after  the  festival  is  over,  return  to  his  master's  house 
without  fear  of  punishment.  Opportunities  are  often  furnished 
for  favorite  slaves  to  escape  in  this  way.  As  a  rule,  only  old, 
sickly,  or  obstinate  slaves  are  sacrificed.  After  their  death  the 
bodies  are  committed  to  the  tender  mercies  of  the  sea,  so  that 
they  do  not  obtain  rest,  even  in  their  graves. 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  42  I 

The  Thlinkets,  like  all  American  Indians,  do  not  believe  in  a 
Supreme  Being,  for  good  or  evil.  Their  feeble  polytheism  pre- 
sents no  features  worthy  of  the  name  of  religious  belief  Yehl,  or 
Yayhl,  is  the  maker  of  woods  and  waters.  He  put  the  sun,  moon, 
and  stars  in  their  places.  He  is  generally  well  behaved,  but  on 
occasions  brings  misfortune  upon  men,  generally  for  very  trivial 
reasons.  Wrangell's  account  of  him  is  mingled  with  superstitions 
derived  from  the  Russian  priests,  and,  consciously  or  uncon- 
sciously, applied  to  the  aboriginal  myth.  Yehl  lives  in  the  east, 
near  the  head-waters  of  the  Nasse  River,  whence  the  Thlinkets 
say  they  originally  came.  He  makes  himself  known  in  the  east- 
wind,  "  Ssdnakhdh"  and  his  abode  is  "  NdsssJiak-ychir 

There  was  a  time  when  men  groped  in  the  dark  in  search  of 
the  world.  At  that  time  a  Thlinket  lived  who  had  a  wife  and 
sister.  He  loved  the  former  so  much  that  he  did  not  permit  her 
to  work.  She  sat  the  whole  day  doing  nothing.  Eight  little 
red  birds,  called  Kiin  by  the  Thlinkets,  were  always  around  her. 
One  day  she  spoke  to  a  stranger.  The  little  birds  flew  and  told 
the  jealous  husband.  So  when  he  went  into  the  woods  to  build 
a  canoe  he  shut  her  up  in  a  box.  He  killed  all  his  sister's  chil- 
dren because  they  looked  at  his  wife.  Weeping,  the  mother 
went  to  the  sea-shore.  A  whale  saw  her,  and  asked  the  cause  of 
her  grief,  and  when  informed  told  her  to  swallow  a  small  stone 
from  the  beach  and  drink  some  sea-water.  In  eight  months  she 
had  a  son,  whom  she  hid  from  her  brother.  This  son  was  really 
Yehl.  As  he  grew  he  became  a  great  expert  in  shooting  with  a 
bow  and  arrow.  It  is  said  the  mother  made  herself  a  mantle  out 
of  the  skins  of  humming-birds  which  he  had  brought  down. 

He  killed  birds  of  large  size,  and,  dressing  himself  in  their 
skins,  flew  about  to  different  places,  having  many  adventures. 

The  only  one  worth  relating  is  the  most  glorious  of  his  deeds, 
—  that  of  putting  the  light  in  its  place.  At  that  time  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars  were  kept  by  a  rich  chief  in  separate  boxes, 
which  he  allowed  no  one  to  touch.  Yehl  heard  of  it,  and  desired 
to  have  them.  This  chief  had  an  only  daughter,  whom  he  loved 
and  spofled  to  such  a  degree,  that  he  examined  everything  she 
ate  and  drank  before  he  would  allow  her  to  partake.  Yehl  saw 
that  only  a  grandson  of  the  old  chief  could  obtain  the  light  ;  and, 
in  the  form  of  a  blade  of  grass,  he  was  swallowed,  and  made  his 


42  2  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

next  appearance  in  that  character,  and  was  soon  beloved  even 
more  than  his  mother.  Once  Yehl  commenced  weeping,  and 
nothing  would  appease  him  but  the  boxes  in  which  the  luminaries 
were  kept.  After  a  long  siege  of  crying  the  grandfather  gave 
him  one  of  the  boxes  to  pacify  him,  and  he  went  out  of  the  house 
playing  with  it.  Seeing  he  was  not  observed,  he  opened  the  box, 
and,  lo  !  there  were  stars  in  the  sky.  Great  were  the  lamenta- 
tions of  the  old  man  over  the  loss  of  his  treasure,  but  he  loved 
his  grandson  too  well  to  scold  him,  and  actually  permitted  him- 
self to  be  cheated  out  of  the  moon  in  the  same  way.  But  with 
the  box  containing  the  sun  he  was  more  careful,  and  only  after 
refusing  food  and  making  himself  sick  did  Yehl  succeed  in  im- 
posing on  the  affectionate  old  man.  That  was  finally  given  to 
him,  with  the  strict  injunction  not  to  open  it.  But,  turning  him- 
self into  a  raven,  he  flew  away  with  it,  and,  on  opening  the  box, 
light  shone  on  the  earth  as  it  does  now.  But  the  people,  aston- 
ished by  the  unwonted  glare,  ran  oft^  into  the  mountains,  woods, 
and  even  into  the  water,  becoming  animals  or  fish. 

Yehl  was  also  said  to  have  brought  fire  from  an  island  in  the 
ocean.  Fresh  water  was  also  wanting.  Khanukh,  the  wolf, 
watched  incessantly  over  the  only  well  in  the  world.  Khanukh 
was  older  and  more  powerful  than  Yehl,  and  is  the  malign  spirit 
of  the  Thlinkets.  Yehl  finally  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  water 
by  a  stratagem.  The  many  stories  told  of  him  probably  owe  their 
origin  quite  as  often  to  the  imagination  of  the  individual,  whose 
fancies  crystallize  around  Yehl  as  a  centre,  as  to  any  definite 
tradition.  After  arranging  everything  for  the  comfort  of  the 
Thlinkets,  Yehl  disappeared  in  his  abode,  where  neither  man  nor 
spirit  can  penetrate. 

There  are  immense  numbers  of  minor  spirits  called  YekJi,  who 
are  invoked  by  the  shamans.  Each  shaman  has  his  own  familiar 
spirits,  who  do  his  bidding,  and  others  on  whom  he  may  call  in 
certain  emergencies.  These  spirits  are  divided  into  three  classes  : 
Khiyekh  ("  the  upper  ones "),  TdkJii-yckJi  {"  land  spirits  "),  and 
Tckhi-yekh  ("  sea  spirits").  The  first  are  the  spirits  of  the  brave, 
killed  in  war,  dwelling  in  the  north.  Hence  a  great  display  of 
northern  lights  is  looked  upon  as  an  omen  of  war.  The  second 
and  third  are  the  spirits  of  those  who  died  in  the  common  way, 
and  who  dwell  in  TakJian-khon.     The  ease  with  which  these  last 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  423 

reach  their  appointed  place  is  apparently  dependent  on  the  con- 
duct of  their  relations  in  mourning  for  them. 

Too  many  tears  mire  the  road,  but  the  sufficient  quantity  just 
lays  the  dust,  and  makes  the  road  hard  and  even. 

The  Tdkhi-yekh  appear  to  the  shamans  in  the  form  of  land 
animals,  but  TdkJii-yekh  in  the  form  of  marine  animals.  With 
regard  to  the  latter  there  is  some  doubt,  some  of  the  Thlinkets 
saying  that  they  are  the  spirits  of  marine  animals  themselves, 
and  not  human  spirits.  Beside  this,  every  one  has  his  YckJi, 
who  is  always  with  him,  except  in  cases  when  the  man  becomes 
exceedingly  bad,  when  the  Yekh  leaves  him.  These  spirits  are 
said,  with  questionable  truth  I  presume,  to.  be  fond  of  cleanliness, 
and  only  permit  themselves  to  be  conjured  by  the  sound  of  a 
drum  or  rattle.  The  last  is  usually  made  in  the  shape  of  a  bird, 
—  hollow,  and  filled  with  small  stones.  These  are  used  at  all  fes- 
tivities, and  whenever  the  spirits  are  wanted. 

The  Thlinkets  believe  in  immortality  and  transmigration,  but 
not  in  the  transmigration  of  human  souls  into  animals,  only  from 
one  human  body  to  another. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  hear  a  poor  Thlinket  say,  when  speak- 
ing of  a  wealthy  or  prosperous  family,  "  If  I  should  die,  I  should 
like  to  be  born  into  that  house,"'  or  even,  "Akh,  were  I  dead,  I 
might  perhaps  return  to  the  world  in  a  happier  condition  ! " 

Those  whose  bodies  are  burned,  are  supposed  to  be  warm  in 
the  other  world,  others  to  suffer  from  cold.  Those  in  whose 
honor  slaves  were  sacrificed,  need  not  work  there. 

Their  traditions  tell  of  a  general  deluge,  in  which  a  few  were 
saved  on  a  raft.  The  waters  receding,  the  raft  broke  in  two  ;  on 
one  side  were  the  ancestors  of  the  Thlinkets,  on  the  other  those 
of  all  other  nations  of  the  world.  Hence  the  differences  of  lan- 
guage and  customs.  In  the  beginning  of  this  flood  a  brother  and 
sister  were  separated.  The  brother's  name  was  CJictJit  ;  the  sister's 
was  Ah-gish-dn-akhou  ("  woman  under  the  world  ").  As  they  were 
torn  asunder,  Chethl'  said  to  his  sister,  "  You  will  see  me  no 
more,  but  as  long  as  I  live  you  shall  hear  my  voice."  Then  he 
put  on  the  skin  of  an  immense  bird,  and  disappeared  in  the 
southwest.  The  sister  ascended  Mount  Edgecumbe,  near  Sitka, 
which  opened  and  swallowed  her  up,  of  which  the  crater  remains 
in  evidence. 


424  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

Descending  beneath  the  earth,  she  devoted  herself  to  sustain- 
ing the  world  (which  is  buckler-shaped,  according  to  the  Thlinkets) 
upon  a  pillar,  above  the  waters  which  had  so  lately  surged  over  it. 
Spirits  hating  mankind  endeavor  to  drive  her  away,  to  overturn 
the  pillar,  to  destroy  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants.  The  pil- 
lar sometimes  is  made  to  tremble,  producing  earthquakes,  during 
these  battles  ;  but  AJi-gisJi-dn-akJioii  is  strong  and  faithful,  and 
the  earth  is  safe.  Chethl',  in  the  form  of  the  bird  Kiimia-kdt-eth, 
frequents  the  crater  of  Edgecumbe,  feeding  on  whales,  which  he 
carries  there  in  his  claws.  Rising  from  his  eyrie  with  the  com- 
ing storm,  true  to  his  promise,  thunder  is  the  rustling  of  his  wings, 
while  lightning  flashes  from  his  eyes. 

Our  information  goes  no  further.  Wrangell  says  nothing  of 
the  totems  of  the  whale  and  the  eagle,  of  which  last  Chethl'  is 
probably  the  originator,  and  only  incidentally  mentions  the  wolf, 
Khaniikh.  He  says  the  Thlinket  code  of  morals  is,  "  As  Yehl 
lived  and  acted,  so  should  we  live  and  do  "  ;  but  this  is  vague, 
unsatisfactory,  and  probably  erroneous.  It  is  well  worthy  of 
notice  that  among  these  myths  there  is  nothing  pointing  toward  a 
Supreme  Being,  any  system  of  reward  and  punishment,  or  any  law 
of  moral  responsibility  ;  nor,  contrary  to  the  popular  notion,  have 
I  found  among  any  of  the  savage  tribes  any  such  beliefs  whatever, 
except  where  clearly  traceable  to  the  teachings  of  the  whites. 

Sorcery,  "  medicine,"  or  shamanism  appears  to  be  inherent  in 
the  minds  of  all  uncivilized  nations,  and  an  inevitable  concomi- 
tant of  a  low  stage  of  mental  development.  Its  essential  char- 
acters are  the  same  in  the  Indian,  the  Eskimo,  the  native  African, 
the  Koriaks  and  Tunguses  on  the  frozen  steppes  of  Siberia,  and 
the  Fijians  on  the  green  islands  of  the  tropical  ocean.  In  its  de- 
tails it  differs,  taking  its  shades  of  development  generally  from  the 
psychological  peculiarities  of  each  nation,  consequent  on  its  sur- 
roundings and  mode  of  life. 

Some  authors,  losing  sight  of  essential  points  of  agreement  in 
the  differences  of  detail,  would  restrict  it  to  the  northern  nations 
only  ;  or  perhaps  would  apply  only  to  the  closely  allied  forms  of 
superstition  current  among  those  nations,  the  term  "  shamanism," 
which  is  derived  from  a  Yakut  word  meaning  "  holy,"'  but  has 
been  adopted  into  the  English  language  by  lexicographers  *  from 

*  See  Webster's  Unabridged,  &c.,  where  it  is  incorrectly  accented. 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  425 

the  Russian,  as  we  hav'e  no  word  in  our  language  to  express  it. 
It  is  always  closely  interwoven  with  the  aboriginal  polytheistic 
myths,  and  is  in  fact  a  natural  offshoot  from  them. 

The  words  and  actions  of  the  shaman,  or  sorcerer,  are  con- 
sidered infallible  by  the  Thlinkets,  and  believed  implicitly  by 
them. 

A  shaman  must  have  the  faculty,  not  only  of  calling  "  spirits 
from  the  vasty  deep,"  but  also  the  power  to  make  them  come 
when  he  calls  for  them,  or  at  all  events  to  appear  to  come.  The 
office  is  often  hereditary,  a  grandson  or  son  inheriting  the  para- 
phernalia, drums,  rattles,  masks,  etc.  of  the  shaman  ;  but  if  he 
does  not  possess  certain  mental  or  psychological  peculiarities 
beside,  all  this  availeth  nothing. 

The  aspirant  for  shamanism  goes  for  some  time  into  the  forest, 
or  upon  a  mountain,  in  solitude,  —  situations  calculated  to  call  forth 
a  sort  of  mental  fervor,  and  to  excite  the  imagination  to  the  high- 
est pitch.  Here  he  remains,  subsisting  exclusively  on  the  root  of  a 
wild  plant  {Panax  horridimi),  and  avoiding  the  company  and  hab- 
itations of  men.  The  length  of  time  depends  on  his  susceptibility 
to  mental  excitement.  In  their  own  relations  of  the  event,  they 
say  that  one  of  the  foremost  of  the  spirits  sends  a  river-otter  to 
them,  in  the  tongue  of  which  lies  the  whole  secret,  power,  and 
force  required  in  the  profession  of  shamanism.  When  the  otter 
meets  the  shaman,  both  stop.  The  man  kills  the  animal,  crying 
aloud  four  times  as  he  does  so.  The  otter  falls  on  its  back,  stretch- 
ing out  its  tongue,  which  the  shaman  cuts  out  and  preserves  in  a 
small  cover,  made  for  it  with  the  greatest  care,  hiding  it  with  the 
utmost  precaution,  as  an  uninitiated  person  finding  it  would  im- 
mediately lose  his  senses.  The  skin  of  the  otter  is  taken  off, 
and  preserved  by  the  shaman,  as  a  sign  of  his  profession.  The 
flesh  is  carefully  buried,  and,  previous  to  the  Russian  occupation 
of  Sitka,  no  Thlinket  dared  to  kill  an  otter.  At  present,  from 
love  of  gain,  and  experience  having  shown  no  evil  results,  that 
superstition  has  become  nearly  extinct. 

If  solitude  and  a  low  diet  do  not  bring  the  desired  boon,  the 
aspirant  repairs  to  the  grave  of  some  shaman  of  repute,  remains 
overnight  near  the  body,  taking  a  tooth  or  a  finger  from  the 
corpse  in  his  mouth,  the  more  readily  to  compel  the  attendance 
of  the  expected  spirits,  and  the  required  otter.     Haggard  and  half 


426  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

insane,  the  neophyte  returns  to  his  kindred,  where  his  new 
powers  are  immediately  put  to  the  test. 

The  honor  and  respect  with  which  a  shaman  is  regarded  de- 
pend on  the  number  of  spirits  under  his  control,  who,  properly 
employed,  contribute  largely  to  his  wealth.  For  every  one  of 
them  he  has  a  name  and  certain  songs.  Sometimes  the  spirits 
of  his  ancestors  come  to  his  assistance,  and  increase  his  power,  so 
that  it  is  believed  he  can  throw  his  spirits  into  other  people  who 
do  not  believe  in  his  art.  Those  unfortunate  wretches  to  whom 
this  happens,  suffer  from  horrible  fits  and  paroxysms. 

When  the  shaman  is  sick,  his  relations  fast  to  promote  his 
recovery.  His  command  is  law.  The  shamans  long  since  for- 
bade the  eating  of  whale's  flesh  and  blubber,  one  of  the  greatest 
delicacies  among  the  neighboring  tribes  ;  and  to  this  day  it  is 
regarded  with  abhorrence  by  the  Thlinkets; 

The  shaman  has  a  large  amount  of  paraphernalia.  This  in- 
cludes wooden  masks,  one  for  each  spirit,  carved  and  carefully 
painted.  These  are  distinct  from  the  masks  used  by  all  the  Thlin- 
kets in  their  dances  and  festivals. 

The  hair  of  the  shaman  must  never  be  cut.  After  his  death, 
as  was  mentioned  previously,  his  body  is  not  burned,  but  depos- 
ited in  a  wooden  box  on  four  high  posts.  For  the  first  night  he 
remains  lying  in  the  corner  where  he  died  ;  but  on  the  following 
day  he  is  removed  to  the  opposite  corner,  and  this  is  continued 
until  the  body  has  visited  each  of  the  four  corners  of  the  house. 
All  the  inmates  of  the  house  fast  meanwhile.  On  the  fifth  day 
the  body,  dressed  in  the  garb  of  his  profession,  is  bound  to  a  board. 
Two  ivory  or  bone  wands,  which  the  shaman  used  in  his  perform- 
ances, are  placed,  the  one  in  the  cartilage  of  the  nose,  and  the  other 
in  the  hair,  which  is  tied  together.  The  head  is  covered  with  a 
piece  of  basket-work,  and  the  body  is  carried  to  its  final  resting- 
place,  always  on  the  shore.  Every  time  a  Thlinket  paddles  by 
the  remains  he  throws  a  small  offering,  as  a  little  tobacco,  in  the 
water,  that  he  may  by  this  means  find  favor  in  the  eyes  of  the 
dead  man. 

One  example  of  the  manner  in  which  shamanism  is  practised 
will  suffice.  On  the  day  appointed  for  the  exhibition  of  his 
power,  his  relations,  who  act  the  part  of  a  chorus  of  singers,  are 
obliged  to  fast.     Nay,  more  than  that ;  they  are  obliged  to  use  a 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  427 

feather  as  an  emetic,  and  free  themselves  entirely  from  such  gross 
material  substances  as  food. 

The  performance  commences  at  sunset  and  lasts  till  sunrise. 
All  who  wish  to  participate  assemble  in  the  lodge  or  hut  of  the 
shaman,  where  they  join  in  a  song,  to  which  time  is  beaten  on  a 
drum.  Dressed  in  his  paraphernalia,  with  a  mask  over  his  face, 
the  shaman  rushes  round  and  round  the  fire,  which  is  burning  in 
the  centre  of  the  lodge  ;  he  keeps  his  eyes  directed  toward  the 
opening  in  the  roof,  and  keeps  time  to  the  drum  with  violent  mo- 
tions of  his  limbs  and  body.  These  movements  gradually  become 
more  convulsive  ;  his  eyes  roll  till  the  whites  alone  are  visible. 
Suddenly  he  stops,  looks  intently  at  the  drum,  and  utters  loud 
cries.  The  singing  ceases,  and  all  eyes  are  directed  toward  him, 
and  all  ears  strained  to  catch  the  utterances  which  are  sup- 
posed to  be  inspired.  These  ceremonies  comprise  the  whole  art 
of  shamanism  among  the  Thlinkets.  The  spirits  of  the  different 
classes  appear  to  the  shaman  in  different  forms.  By  changing 
the  masks  he  places  himself  en  rapport  with  the  spirit  to  which 
each  mask  is  dedicated.  It  is  believed  that  this  spirit  inspires 
for  the  moment  all  the  utterances  of  the  shaman,  who  is  for  the 
moment  unconscious.  After  the  ceremonies  are  over,  first  to- 
bacco and  then  food  are  distributed  to  those  present,  and  all  is 
concluded. 

The  Sitka-kwan  have  now  a  large  infusion  of  Russian  blood. 
Many  of  the  half-breeds  are  fine-looking,  and  some  have  married 
Russians.  Diseases  are  very  prevalent,  but  less  so  than  before 
the  establishment  of  the  Russian  hospital.  Licentiousness  is 
universal  among  them,  and  much  of  their  present  degradation  is 
due  to  the  sale  of  liquor  to  them  by  the  Russians  and  Hudson 
Bay  traders.  Smugglers,  many  of  them  Americans,  have  carried 
on  a  successful  but  dangerous  traffic  with  them  for  years.  They 
are,  without  doubt,  the  most  dangerous  of  the  tribes  in  the  terri- 
tory. Many  of  them  are  professed  Christians  of  the  Greek  faith. 
Some  have  been  repeatedly  baptized  for  the  sake  of  the  presents 
which  accompany  that  ceremony.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that 
their  Christianity  is  totally  unworthy  of  the  name,  and  only 
served  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  so-called  missionaries  to 
higher  positions  in  the  church  they  disgraced.  It  is  more  than 
probable  that  the  only  missionary,  beside  Veniami'noff,  who  has 


428  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

really  done  much  to  elevate  the  Indian  tribes  on  the  west  coast, 
is  the  Rev.  Mr.  Duncan,  of  Meta-katla. 

Tlie  Ydkutats.  —  This  tribe  includes  the  natives  who  occupy 
the  coast  from  Mount  Fairweather  to  Mount  St.  Elias.  They 
are  of  the  Thlinket  stock,  but  do  not  wear  the  kaliUJika  or  lip- 
ornament,  are  said  not  to  adopt  the  totemic  system,  and  eat  the 
blubber  and  flesh  of  the  whale,  which  the  last-mentioned  tribes 
reject.  They  live  in  great  part  by  fishing,  and  are  few  in  num- 
ber. This  concludes  the  list  of  the  Thlinket  tribes,  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Alaska. 

TJie  TiiineJi  Stock.  —  This  great  family  includes  a  large  num- 
ber of  North  American  tribes,  extending,  from  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Mackenzie,  south  to  the  borders  of  Mexico.  The  Apaches 
and  Comanches  belong  to  it,  and  the  family  seem  to  intersect  the 
continent  of  North  America  in  a  north  and  south  direction,  prin- 
cipally along  the  flanks  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  tribes  of  this  stock  in  the  north  extend  westward  nearly  to 
the  delta  of  the  Yukon,  and  reach  the  coast  at  Cook's  Inlet  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Copper  River.  Eastward  they  extend  quite  or 
nearly  to  the  mountains  which  divide  the  watershed  of  Hudson 
Bay  from  that  of  the  Mackenzie  and  Athabasca.  They  are  the 
TImaina  or  Kejtaiacr  of  Holmberg.  They  have  been  called  C/iip- 
pewyaiis  (pointed  coats),  from  the  shape  of  their  parkies,  and 
Athabascans,  from  the  district  some  inhabit ;  but  their  own  na- 
tional designation  is  ThmeJi,  meaning  "  people  "  in  a  collective 
sense.  Though  some  tribes  evidently  of  this  stock  have  other 
designations,  I  propose,  with  Messrs.  Ross  and  Gibbs,  to  adopt  it 
as  preferable  to  either  of  the  above-mentioned  names. 

The  northern  Ti'nneh  may  be  divided  into  three  natural  groups. 
These  are,  first,  the  Eastern  TinneJi,  who  form  their  tribal  name 
by  the  addition  of  "  tend','  an  evident  modification  of  the  same 
word.  Next  come  the  Kutchin  tribes,  who  principally  occupy  the 
Yukon  and  its  tributaries  above  Nuklukahyet.  They  form  their 
tribal  name  by  the  addition  of  the  word  Kutchin,  which  has  the 
same  meaning  as  Ti'nneh.  Lastly,  the  Western  TinneJi,  who 
occupy  the  region  west  of  the  Yukon  and  the  banks  of  that  river 
below  Nuklukahyet.  They  form  their  tribal  designation  by  the 
addition  of  the  word  "  tana"  another  modification  of  Ti'nneh. 
They  are  bounded  everywhere  on  the  coast  by  the  Innuit  terri- 
tory.    These  three  divisions  will  be  considered  collectively. 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  429 

The  Nehdiinccs.  —  Beginning,  for  the  sake  of  unity,  somewhat 
beyond  our  boundaries,  the  region  which  inckides  the  Lewis,  or 
Tahco,  and  Pelly  rivers,  with  the  valley  of  the  Chilkaht  River,  is 
occupied  by  tribes  known  to  the  Hudson  Bay  voyageurs  as  Ne- 
haunees.  They  are  as  yet  quite  a  primitive  people  and  some  of 
the  tribes  are  described  as  deeply  sunk  in  dirt,  ignorance,  and 
barbarism.  They  can  be  warlike,  but  are  generally  considered  as 
cowardly  and  treacherous.  Those  who  inhabit  the  valley  of  the 
Chilkaht  are  said  to  call  themselves  CJiilkdJit-tcnd.  They  are  a 
bold  and  enterprising  people,  great  traders,  and  of  a  high  degree 
of  intelligence.  They  carry  Russian  goods  over  the  portage, 
indicated  in  the  map  (as  laid  down  by  one  of  them),  to  the  tribes 
living  on  the  Yukon.  They  are  said  to  have  had  a  hand  in  the 
burning  of  Fort  Selkirk. 

Those  on  the  Pelly  and  Macmillan  rivers  call  themselves  Abba- 
to-tcnd,  and  are  a  much  lower  grade  of  Indians.  Those  on  the 
Upper  Yukon  are  little  known,  few  in  number,  and  said  to  be 
very  low  in  the  scale  of  intelligence. 

Some  of  them  near  Liard's  River  call  themselves  Daho-tciid,  or 
AcJieto-tcnd,  and  others  are  called  Sicdnees  by  the  voyageurs. 
Those  near  Frances  Lake  are  also  known  as  Mauvais  Monde  or 
Sldve  Indians.  About  Fort  Selkirk  they  have  been  called  Gens 
des  Four.  They  live  on  the  moose  and  deer,  beside  fishing.  They 
obtain  many  furs,  and  dress  moose  and  deer  skins  for  barter  with 
the  English.  They  wear  the  national  pointed  coat,  like  the 
Koyukuns,  have  the  nose  pierced,  and  practise  embroidery  with 
porcupine  quills.  They  are  migratory  in  their  habits,  following 
the  moose  and  deer,  building  no  permanent  dwellings,  and  living 
in  skin  tents  throughout  the  year.  In  most  respects  their  cus- 
toms agree  with  those  of  the  tribes  below  on  the  river. 

The  Tutchone  Kutchin.  —  These,  also  called  Nehaunee  by  the 
traders,  occupy  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the  Yukon  about 
Fort  Selkirk.  They  are  sometimes  called  Gens  des  Foiix,  Caribou, 
or  Mountain  Indians.  Their  own  name,  translated,  means  "  Crow 
Indians." 

The  Ah-tend.  —  South  and  west  of  the  last-named,  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  Atna  or  Copper  River,  are  a  little-known  tribe  of  the 
above  name.  They  have  been  called  Atnaer  2in(\.  KoIsJuua  by  the 
Russians,  and  Yellozv  Knife,  or  Nehaunee,  by  the  English. 


/ 


430  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 

The  Ugalentsi. — A  small  tribe,  called  by  this  name  among  the 
Russian  traders,  are  said  to  hold  their  winter  festivals  on  Kayak 
Island,  and  to  fish  during  the  summer  on  the  banks  of  the  Copper 
River,  near  the  mouth.  They  have  been  considered  as  an  oftshoot 
of  the  Thlinkets  by  some  authors;  but,  judging  from  a  vocabulary 
in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Gibbs,  they  are  more  properly  grouped 
with  the  Ti'nneh. 

TJie  Kenai-tend.  —  These  Indians  inhabit  the  country  near 
Cook's  Inlet,  and  both  shores  of  the  Inlet  as  far  south  as  Chuga- 
chik  Bay.  They  are  the  "  tnie  Thnama "  of  Holmberg,  and  are 
called  by  the  Yukon  tribes  TeJianin-Ktttchin.  Their  customs  are 
similar  to  those  of  the  other  Indian  tribes  of  the  vicinity,  as  far  as 
we  know.  Lisiansky  says  that  they  use  birch  canoes,  and  bury 
their  dead  in  wooden  boxes,  piling  stones  above  the  dead.  They 
express  their  lamentation  by  smearing  their  faces  with  black  paint, 
singeing  their  hair,  and  lacerating  their  bodies  with  knives.  They 
are  more  intelligent  than  the  neighboring  Innuit  tribes,  and 
live  by  hunting  and  fishing.  They  kill  large  numbers  of  the 
mountain  goat,  and  clothe  themselves  partly  with  the  skins. 
Those  near  the  coast  use  bidarkas,  which  they  purchase  from 
the  Innuit.  Their  language  is  extremely  guttural  when  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  Innuit. 

The  Han-KntcJiin.  —  These  are  found  on  the  Yukon,  next  be- 
low the  Crows,  and  bear  the  name  of  Gens  des  Bois  among  the 
English.  They  are  few  in  number.  They  are  sometimes  called 
Kolshina  by  the  Russian  traders,  who  apply  that  term  to  all  In- 
dians they  are  not  familiar  with. 

The  Tiikkiith-Kutchin.  —  These  occupy  the  country  south  of 
the  head-waters  of  the  Porcupine  or  Rat  River. 

The  Vnntd-KutcJiin.  —  These  inhabit  the  territory  north  of  the 
head-waters  of  the  Porcupine,  somewhat  below  Lapierre's  House, 
which  is  in  the  territory  of  the  last-named.  These  are  sometimes 
called  Loi'icheiix  or  Quarrellers,  and  their  name  signifies  "  Rat 
people." 

TJie  NatcJic-Kiitchin.  —  These  extend  on  the  north  bank  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Porcupine.  Like  all  the  Ti'nneh  tribes  hitherto 
mentioned,  they  are  migratory,  and  their  customs  much  resemble 
those  of  the  following  tribes.  Their  name  means  "  strong  peo- 
ple "  ;  the  English  call  them  Gens  de  Large.     The  first  syllable  is 


ABORIGINAL   INHABITANTS.  43 1 

sometimes  spelled  Natsit.  They  are  also  called  Loucheux.  They 
trade  with  the  Innuit  of  the  northern  coast,  though  the  barter  is 
often  interrupted  by  hostilities.  They  are  noted  for  the  babiche 
which  they  manufacture.  They  are  migratory,  few  in  number, 
and  live  by  deer-hunting. 

The  KiUcJid-KutcJiin.  —  This  tribe  of  Loucheux  are  found  in  the 
country  near  the  junction  of  the  Porcupine  and  the  Yukon.  Their 
habits  are  fully  described  in  the  first  part  of  this  volume.  Their 
name  means  "  lowland  people."  They  have  mostly  assumed  the 
Hudson  Bay  dress,  as  seen  in  the  sketch  opposite,  while  the  next 
tribe  still  retains  the  pointed  coats. 

The  Tendn-Kiitchin.  —  This,  the  last  of  the  list  of  Kutchin 
tribes,  occupies  the  country  drained  by  the  Tananah  River.  They 
have  been  previously  described.  In  all  the  tribes  hitherto  men- 
tioned the  women  are  drudges,  doing  almost  all  the  hard  work, 
and,  naturally  good-looking,  are  soon  made  extremely  ugly  by  their 
mode  of  life.  This  is  not  the  case  among  the  Western  Ti'nneh 
tribes,  where  the  women  do  only  a  fair  share  of  the  work,  and 
have  a  powerful  voice  in  most  affairs.  There  were  formerly  a  few 
bands  of  Indians  between  the  mouths  of  the  Porcupine  and  Tana- 
nah, on  the  Yukon,  but  they  have  been  swept  away  by  scarlet 
fever.  They  were  the  Teiimith-Kiitchin  or  Birch  Indians  {Gens  de 
Bouleaux)  and  the  Tatsdh-Kittchin. 

The  UnakJio-tdna.  —  These  Indians  live  on  the  Yukon  below 
Nuklukahyet  to  the  Koyukuk  River.  They  have  settled  villages, 
and  build  houses,  though  they  leave  them  during  the  hunting  sea- 
son. They  have  been  fully  described  elsewhere.  They  also  call 
themselves,  as  well  as  most  of  the  other  tribes  who  live  on  the 
Yukon,  Yiikonikho-tdna,  or  "  men  of  the  Yukon."  The  other 
name  means  "far-off  people."  They  are  the  Jininachotana  of 
Holmberg. 

TJic  KoyukukJio-tdna.  —  These  are  sedentary  Indians  living  on 
the  Koyukuk  River,  and  described  as  Koyukuns  in  another  part 
of  this  volume.  They  are  the  Jwinakachotana  of  Holmberg,  and 
perhaps  the  Ketlitk-Kntchin  of  the  Hudson  Bay  voyageurs,  who 
know  them  only  by  report.  The  name  means  "  people  of  the 
Koyukuk  River." 

The  KdiyiiJi-kho-tdiia.  —  These  are  very  fully  described  elsewhere, 
and  occupy  both  banks  of  the  Lower  Yukon,  nearly  to  the  Mission, 


43^ 


ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS. 


the  valley  of  the  Upper  Kuskoquim,  and  the  country  between  the 
two  rivers.  They  are  known  to  the  Russians  as  Ingaliks,  a  name 
of  which  I  have  not  been  able  to  trace  the  origin,  but  which  is, 
perhaps,  their  Innuit  appellation.  It  is  the  largest  tribe  in  the 
territory,  and  while  I  have  some  doubts  about  a  tribe  on  the  head- 
waters of  the  Kuskoquim,  called  "  Kolshina "  by  the  Russian 
traders,  yet  there  do  not  appear  to  be  any  divisions  in  all  this 
extent  of  country  of  tribal  value.  They  understand  one  another 
perfectly,  but  cannot  converse  with  the  Kutchi'n  tribes,  although 
the  dialects  are  very  similar,  as  is  evident  from  the  vocabularies. 
They  comprise  the  Inkiliken,  Ulukagniuts,  Takajakscn,  Jiigcl- 
miten,  Iiikalichljjiaten,  Thljcgojichotdna,  &c.,  of  Holmberg.  The 
names  which  he  uses  are  most  of  them  of  only  local  value,  and 
not  tribal  names.  The  "  Innokal'  "  T/i/jcgou,"  and  "  TatscJugno  " 
rivers,  of  which  Zagoskin  wrote,  are,  in  name  at  least,  emanations 
from  his  own  imagination.  He  never  visited  them,  and  no  white 
man  has  ever  been  where  they  are  laid  down  on  the  map.  In  this 
respect  they  resemble  the  Colvile,  Nnnatok,  Kowak,  and  other 
rivers,  of  which  the  mouths  alone  have  been  seen  by  the  whites, 
yet  which  are  spread  over  nine  degrees  of  latitude,  and  eight 
of  longitude  by  many  modern  geographers  ;  probably  for  the  pur- 
pose of  filling  up  the  blank  spaces  on  the  map,  and  thus  disguis- 
ing our  ignorance  of  them. 

This  completes  the  list  of  the  native  Innuit  and  Indian  tribes 
of  Alaska  and  the  territory  immediately  adjacent. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

Climate  and  Agricultural  Resources. 

ALASKA  may  be  divided  agriculturally  into  three  districts  ; 
each  differing  from  the  others  in  its  climate,  vegetation,  and 
physical  characteristics.  The  first  and  most  northern  district, 
which  I  have  termed  the  Yukon  Territory,  is  bounded  on  the 
south  by  the  Alaskan  Mountains,  on  the  east  by  the  British 
boundary  line,  and  on  the  north  and  west  by  the  Arctic  Ocean 
and  Bering  Sea. 

The  second  or  middle  district,  which  may  be  called  the  Aleu- 
tian District,  includes  that  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Aliaska, 
and  all  the  islands  west  of  the  one  hundred  and  fifty-fifth  degree 
of  longitude. 

The  third  or  southernmost,  which  will  be  designated  as  the 
Sitkan  District,  includes  all  our  possessions  on  the  mainland  and 
islands   south  and  east  of  the  peninsula  of  Aliaska. 

The  Yukon  Territory.  —  The  character  of  the  country  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Yukon  River  varies  from  low,  rolling,  and  some- 
what rocky  hills,  usually  easy  of  ascent,  to  broad  and  rather 
marshy  plains,  extending  for  miles  on  either  side  of  the  river, 
especially  near  the  mouth.  There  are,  of  course,  no  roads,  ex- 
cept an  occasional  trail,  hardly  noticeable  except  by  a  voyageur. 
The  Yukon  and  its  tributaries  form  the  great  highways  of  the 
country. 

The  rocks  vary,  the  greater  proportion  being  conglomerate, 
sienite,  quartzite,  and  sandstone.  Trachyte  and  lava  abound  in 
particular  districts.  The  superincumbent  soil  also  differs,  in  some 
localities  being  sandy,  and  in  others  clayey.  In  the  latter  case  it 
is  frequently  covered  with  growth  of  sphagnum,  which  causes  a 
deterioration  of  the  soil  below  it.  Over  a  large  extent  of  coun- 
try it  is  a  rich  alluvial,  composed  of  very  fine  sand,  mud,  and 
vegetable  matter,  brought  down  by  the  river,  and  forming  depos- 
28 


434         CLIMATE    AND    AGRICULTURAL   RESOURCES. 

its  of  indefinite  depth  ;  and  in  some  such  localities  fresh-water 
marl  is  found  in  abundance. 

The  soil  is  usually  frozen  at  a  depth  of  three  or  four  feet  in 
ordinary  situations.  In  colder  ones  it  remains  icy  to  within 
eighteen  inches  of  the  surface.  This  layer  of  frozen  soil  is  six  or 
eight  feet  thick  ;  below  that  depth  the  soil  is  destitute  of  ice, 
except  in  very  unusual  situations. 

This  phenomenon  appears  to  be  directly  traceable  to  want  of 
drainage,  combined  with  a  non-conductive  covering  of  moss,  which 
prevents  the  scorching  sun  of  the  boreal  midsummer  irom  thaw- 
ing and  warming  the  soil. 

In  places  where  the  soil  is.  well  drained,  and  is  not  covered 
with  moss,  as  in  the  large  alluvial  deposits  near  the  Yukon- 
mouth,  I  have  noticed  that  the  frozen  layer  is  much  farther 
below  the  surface,  and  in  many  places  appears  even  to  be  en- 
tirely wanting. 

I  have  no  doubt,  that,  in  favorable  situations,  by  draining  and 
deep  ploughing,  the  ice  could,  in  the  course  of  time,  be  wholly 
removed  from  the  soil.  * 

A  singular  phenomenon  on  the  shores  of  Escholtz  Bay, 
Kotzebue  Sound,  was  first  observed  and  described  in  the  voy- 
age of  the  Rurik  by  Kotzebue  and  Chamisso,  and  afterward 
in  the  Appendix  to  the  Voyage  of  the  Herald  by  Buckland  and 
Forbes. 

It  consists  of  bluffs  or  banks  (30  to  60  feet  high)  of  apparently 
solid  ice,  fronting  the  water,  which  washes  on  a  small  beach 
formed  by  detritus,  at  the  foot  of  the  bank.  These  continuous 
banks  of  ice,  strange  to  say,  are  covered  with  a  layer  of  soil  and 
vegetable  matter,  where,  to  use  the  words  of  the  renowned  bota- 
nist, Dr.  Seemann,  "herbs  and  shrubs  are  flourishing  with  a  lux- 
uriance only  equalled  in  more  favored  climes." 

Kotzebue's    account  is  exaggerated    and  highly  colored,  as  is 

*  Alton  (Treatise  on  Peat  Moss,  &c.,  see  Ed.  Ency.,  Vol.  XVL  p.  738)  has  ascribed 
the  cold  and  rainy  climate  of  Scotland  partly  to  the  accumulations  of  sphagnum. 
"Thirty-two  and  a  half  ounces  of  dry  moss  soil  will  retain  without  fluidity  eighteen 
ounces  of  water  ;  whilst  thirty-nine  ounces  of  the  richest  garden  mould  will  only 
retain  eighteen  and  a  half  ounces.  Moss  is  also  more  retentive  of  cold  than  any  other 
soil.  Frost  is  often  found  (in  Scotland)  to  continue  in  deep  mosses  titttil  after  the  middle 
of  Slimmer.  Hence  the  effect  of  mossy  accumulations  in  rendering  the  climate 
colder." 


CLIMATE    AND    AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES.  435 

everything  he  has  written  ;  but  the  facts  were  confirmed  by  Dr. 
Buckland  and  his  companions,  although  Captain  Beechey  had 
previously  reported  *  that  Kotzebue  had  been  deceived  by  snow, 
drifted  against  the  face  of  the  banks,  and  remaining  while  that  in 
other  localities  had  melted  away. 

Dr.  Buckland  and  his  party  not  only  examined  the  face  of 
these  bluffs,  but  at  various  points  on  the  top  of  the  bank,  more  or 
less  removed  from  the  shore,  and  found  in  every  instance  ice, 
nearly  pure  or  mixed  with  vegetable  matter,  at  a  short  distance 
below  the  surface.!  They  report  also  that  the  water  in  the  bay 
is  becoming  more  shallow,  by  the  fall  of  the  detritus,  as  the  ice 
melts  away,  and  the  formation  is  rapidly  disappearing.  As  no 
explanation  has  been  offered  of  this  singular  phenomenon,  I 
venture  to  suggest  that  it  may  be  due  to  essentially  the  same 
causes  as  the  subterranean  ice  layer,  which  is  found  over  a  great 
part  of  the  Yukon  Territory. 

It  is  quite  possible  to  conceive  of  a  locality  depressed  and  so 
deprived  of  drainage  that  the  annual  moisture  derived  from  rain- 
fall and  melting  snow  would  collect  between  the  impervious  clayey 
soil  and  its  sphagnous  covering,  congeal  during  the  winter,  and 
be  prevented  from  melting,  during  the  ensuing  summer,  by  the 
non-conductive  properties  of  that  mossy  covering,  which  would 
thus  be  gradually  raised  ;  the  process,  annually  repeated  for  an 
indefinite  period,  would  form  an  ice  layer  which  would  well 
deserve  the  appellation  of  an  "  ice-cliff,"  when  the  encroachments 
of  the  sea  should  have  worn  away  its  barriers,  and  laid  it  open  to 
the  action  of  the  elements. 

The  lesson  that  the  agriculturist  or  political  economist  may 
learn  from  this  curious  formation  is,  that  a  healthy  and  luxuriant 
vegetation  may  exist  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  permanent  ice, 
bearing  its  blossoms  and  maturing  its  seeds  as  readily  as  in  situ- 
ations apparently  much  more  favored.  Hence  we  may  infer  that 
a  large  extent  of  territory  long  considered  valueless  may  yet 
furnish  to  the  trader,  fisherman,  or  settler,  if  not  an  abundant 
harvest,  at  least  an  acceptable  and  not  inconsiderable  addition  to 
his  fare  of  fish,  venison,  and  game. 

*  Narrative  of  the  Voyage  of  the  Blossom  to  the  Pacific  and  Behring  Strait.  Lon- 
don, 1 83 1 

tSee  Narrative  of  the  Voyage  of  the  Herald,  also  the  Appendix.  London,  1845- 
1851.     Also  Osteology  of  the  Herald's  Voyage,  by  Prof.  E.  Forbes. 


436 


CLIMATE    AND    AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES. 


The  climate  of  the  Yukon  Territory  in  the  interior  (as  is  the 
case  throughout  Alaska)  differs  from  that  of  the  sea-coast,  even 
in  localities  comparatively  adjacent.  That  of  the  coast  is  tem- 
pered by  the  vast  body  of  water  contained  in  Bering  Sea,  and 
many  southern  currents  bringing  warmer  water  from  the  Pacific, 
making  the  winter  climate  of  the  coast  much  milder  than  that  of 
the  country,  even  thirty  miles  into  the  interior  ;  this,  too,  with- 
out any  high  range  of  mountains  acting  as  a  bar  to  the  progress 
of  warm  winds.  The  summers,  on  the  other  hand,  from  the  quan- 
tity of  rain  and  cloudy  weather,  are  cooler  and  less  pleasant  than 
those  of  the  interior.  The  months  of  May  and  June,  however, 
and  part  of  July,  are  delightful,  —  sunny,  warm,  and  clear.  To 
quote  Seemann  again,  on  the  northern  coast  "the  growth  of  plants 
is  rapid  in  the  extreme.  The  snow  has  hardly  disappeared  before 
a  mass  of  herbage  has  sprung  up,  and  the  spots  which  a  few 
days  before  presented  nothing  but  a  white  sheet  are  teeming 
with  an  active  vegetation,  producing  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit  in 
rapid  succession."  Even  during  the  long  Arctic  day  the  plants 
have  their  period  of  sleep,  —  short,  though  plainly  marked,  as  in 
the  tropics,  and  indicated  by  the  same  drooping  of  the  leaves  and 
other  signs,  which  we  observe  in  milder  climates.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  mean  temperature  of  the  seasons  :  At  St. 
Michael's,  on  the  coast  of  Norton  Sound,  in  lat.  63°  28'  ;  at  the 
Mission,  on  the  Yukon  River,  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from 
its  mouth,  in  lat.  61°  47'  ;  at  Nulato,  four  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
farther  up  the  river,  in  lat.  64°  40'  (approximate)  ;  and  at  Fort 
Yukon,  twelve  hundred  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and 
about  lat.  66°  34'. 


Means  for                   St.  Michael's. 

Mission. 

Nulato. 

Fort  Yukon. 

Spring       .          .          .           +290.3 
Summer        .         .         '      -(-53  .0 
Autumn   .         .         .          -t-26  .3 
Winter          .        .         |        -<-8  .6 

-f-I9°.62 

+59   -32 

+36   -05 

+0   .95 

+29°-3 
4-60  .0  ? 
+36  .0  ? 
-X4.0 

-f-I4°.22 

+59  -67 
-23  '.So 

Year         ...          +290.3 

4-260.48 

-t-27°.8 

4-160.92 

The    mean    temperature    of  Unalakli'k,  on    the    east  shore  of 
Norton  Sound,  lat.  63°  42'  was,  for  the  winter  of  1866-67,  +o°.33  ; 


CLIMATE    AND    AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES.         437 

but  for  that  of  1867-68  it  was  much  higher,  probably  about 
-f9°.o.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  Yukon  Territory, 
as  a  whole,  may  be  roughly  estimated  at  about  4-25°-0-  The 
greatest  degree  of  cold  ever  known  in  the  territory  was  seventy 
below  zero,  of  Fahrenheit  ;  but  such  cold  as  this  is  very  rare,  and 
has  little  effect  on  the  vegetation,  covered  with  six  or  eight  feet 
of  snow.  Open  water  may  be  found  on  all  the  rivers  in  the 
coldest  weather,  and  many  springs  are  not  frozen  up  throughout 
the  year. 

The  real  opportunity  for  agricultural  enterprise  in  a  country 
cannot  be  deduced  from  annual  mean  temperatures  alone,  but  is 
dependent  on  the  heat  of  the  summer  months  and  the  duration 
of  the  summer.* 

At  Fort  Yukon  I  have  seen  the  thermometer  at  noon,  not  in 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  standing  at  112°,  and  I  was  informed, 
by  the  commander  of  the  post,  that  several  spirit  thermometers, 
graduated  up  to  i20°.o,  had  burst  under  the  scorching  sun  of  the 
Arctic  midsummer  ;  which  can  only  be  thoroughly  appreciated 
by  one  who  has  endured  it.  In  midsummer  on  the  Upper 
Yukon  the  only  relief  from  the  intense  heat,  under  which  the 
vegetation  attains  an  almost  tropical  luxuriance,  is  the  brief  space 
during  which  the  sun  hovers  over  the  northern  horizon,  and  the 
voyageur  in  his  canoe  blesses  the  transient  coolness  of  the  mid- 
night air. 

The  annual  rainfall  cannot  be  accurately  estimated  from  want 
of  data.  At  Nulato  the  fall  of  snow  from  November  to  the  end 
of  April  will  average  eight  feet,  but  often  reaches  twelve.  It  is 
much  less  on  the  seaboard.  Partly  on  this  account,  and  also  be- 
cause it  is  driven  seaward  by  the  wind,  there  is  usually  in  spring 
very  little  snow  on  the  coasts  near  Norton  Sound.  In  the  interior 
there  is  less  wind,  and  the  snow  Hes  as  it  falls  among  the  trees. 
Toward  spring  the  ravines,  gullies,  and  brushwood  are  well  filled 
or  covered  up,  and  transportation  with  dogs  and  sleds  is  easy  and 
pleasant.  The  warm  sun  at  noon  melts  the  surface  of  the  snow, 
which  soon  freezes,  forming  a  hard  crust,  rendering  snowshoes 
almost  unnecessary. 

The  rainfall,  as  has  been  previously  remarked,  is  much  greater 
.n  summer  on  the  coast  than  in  the  interior.     The  months  of  May, 

*  More  extended  data  in  regard  to  the  meteorology  may  be  found  in  Appendi.x. 


438  CLIMATE   AND    AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES. 

June,  and  part  of  July,  bring  sunny,  delightful  weather;  but  the  re- 
mainder of  the  season,  four  days  in  a  week  at  least,  will  be  rainy 
at  St.  Michael's.  October  brings  a  change.  The  winds,  usually 
from  the  southw^est  from  July  to  the  latter  part  of  September, 
in  October  are  mostly  from  the  north,  and,  though  cold,  bring  fine 
weather.  They  are  interrupted  occasionally  by  gales,  the  most 
violent  of  the  season,  from  the  southwest  ;  piling  the  driftwood 
upon  the  shores,  where  it  lies  u-ntil  the  succeeding  fall,  unless  car- 
ried off  by  the  natives  for  fuel. 

The  valley  of  the  Lower  Yukon  is  somewhat  foggy  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  summer  ;  but  as  we  ascend  the  river  the  climate 
improves,  and  the  short  summer  at  Fort  Yukon  is  dry,  hot,  and 
pleasant,  only  varied  by  an  occasional  shower. 

The  climatic  law  which  governs  the  distribution  of  trees  also 
seems  to  limit  the  wanderings  of  the  aborigines.  The  Eskimo 
extend  all  along  the  coast  and  up  the  principal  rivers  with  the 
tundra.  The  Indians  populate  the  interior,  but  seldom  pass  the 
boundary  of  the  woods.  Neither  perform  any  agricultural  labor 
whatever,  unless  we  so  designate  the  work  of  picking  wild  berries, 
which  form  their  only  vegetable  food,  excepting  the  half-digested 
food  of  the  reindeer  ;  the  roots  of  Hcdysaruni  Mackcnzii,  the 
"  liquorice  root "  of  the  trappers  ;  Polygonmn  viviparnni ;  a  spe- 
cies of  Archangelica,  or  wild  parsnip  ;  and  the  leaf-stalks  of  a 
Ruviex,  or  wild  rhubarb. 

The  few  Russian  settlements  in  the  Yukon  territory,  pursuant 
with  the  charter  of  the  Russian  American  Company  enjoining 
them  to  "promote  agriculture,"  were  formerly  provided  with 
small  gardens  ;  but  little  interest  being  taken  by  the  officers  of 
the  Company  in  such  matters,  especially  during  the  last  governor- 
ship, none  of  them,  during  the  time  of  my  residence,  were  culti- 
vated, with  the  exception  of  those  at  St.  Michael's  and  the  Mis- 
sion. These  were  due  to  the  procuring  of  seed,  through  private 
hands,  by  the  Uprovali'sha  Sergei  Stepanotf  and  Father  Lar- 
riown,  the  missionary,  and  not  to  any  assistance  from  the  Com- 
pany. The  employes  of  the  Company  had  too  little  energy  and 
knowledge  of  agriculture  to  attempt  anything  of  the  kind. 

The  first  requisite  for  habitation,  or  even  exploration,  in  any 
country,  is  timber.  With  it  almost  all  parts  of  the  Yukon 
Territory  arc   well   supplied.     The   treeless  coasts   even    of  the 


CLIMATE   AND    AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES.  439 

Arctic  Ocean  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  an  exception,  as  they  are 
bountifully  supplied  with  driftwood  from  the  immense  supplies 
brought  down  by  the  Yukon,  Kuskoquim,  and  other  rivers,  and 
distributed  by  the  waves  and  ocean  currents. 

The  largest  and  most  valuable  tree  found  in  this  district  is 
the  white  spruce  {Abies  alba).  This  beautiful  conifer  is  found 
over  the  whole  country  a  short  distance  inland,  but  largest  and 
most  vigorous  in  the  vicinity  of  running  water.  It  attains  not 
unfrequently  the  height  of  fifty  to  one  hundred  feet,  with  a 
diameter  of  over  three  feet  near  the  butt ;  but  the  most  common 
size  is  thirty  or  forty  feet  and  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  at  the 
butt.  The  wood  is  white,  close,  and  straight-grained,  easily 
worked,  light,  and  yet  very  tough  ;  much  more  so  than  the  wood 
of  the  Oregon  pine  {Abies  Doiiglasii).  For  spars  it  has  no 
superior,  but  is  usually  too  slender  for  large  masts.  It  is  quite 
durable.  Many  houses  twenty  years  old,  built  of  this  timber,  con- 
tained a  majority  of  sound  logs;  but  when  used  green,  without 
proper  seasoning,  it  will  not  last  over  fifteen  years.  These  trees 
decrease  in  size,  and  grow  more  sparingly  near  Fort  Yukon,  but 
are  still  large  enough  for  most  purposes.  The  northern  limit  of 
this  tree,  according  to  Seemann,  whose  observations  were  con- 
fined to  the  coast,  is  66°  44'  ;  but  it  is,  doubtless,  found  to  the 
north  of  that  latitude,  in  the  interior,  on  the  banks  of  some  of 
the  northern  tributaries  of  the  Yukon.  It  is  abundant  at  Fort 
Yukon  in  lat.  66°  34'  (approximate).  The  unexplored  waters  of  the 
Tananah  River  bring  down  the  largest  logs  in  the  spring  freshets. 
The  number  of  these  discharged  annually  at  the  Yukon-mouth  is 
truly  incalculable.  The  freshet  does  not  last  more  than  three 
weeks,  yet  sufficient  wood  is  brought  down  to  supply  the  shores 
of  the  Arctic  coast,  Bering  Sea,  and  the  numerous  islands. 

Logs  of  all  sizes  are  cast  up  in  winrows  by  the  October  south- 
westers. 

The  tree  of  next  importance  in  the  economy  of  the  inhabitants 
is  the  birch  {Betula  glandiilosa).  This  tree  rarely  grows  over 
eighteen  inches  in  diameter  and  forty  feet  high.  On  one  occasion, 
however,  I  saw  a  water-worn  log  about  fifteen  feet  long,  quite 
decorticated,  lying  on  the  river-bank  near  Nuklukahyet  on  the 
Upper  Yukon  ;  this  log  was  twenty-four  inches  in  diameter  at 
one  end  and  twenty-eight  at  the  other.     This  is  the  only  hard- 


440  CLIMATE    AND    AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES. 

wood  tree  in  the  Yukon  territory,  and  everything  needing  a  hard 
and  tough  wood  is  constructed  of  birch.  The  black  birch  is  also 
found  there,  but  does  not  grow  so  large.  Unfortunately  for  the 
rising  generation,  there  are  no  schoolmasters  to  make  use  of  its 
pliable  twigs. 

Several  species  of  poplar  {Populiis  balsamifcra  and  P.  trami- 
loides)  abound,  the  former  along  the  water-side,  and  the  latter 
on  drier  uplands.  The  first-mentioned  species  grows  to  a  very 
large  size,  frequently  two  or  three  feet  in  diameter  and  forty 
to  sixty  feet  high.  The  timber,  however,  is  of  little  value,  but 
the  extreme  softness  of  the  wood  is  often  taken  advantage  of 
by  the  natives  with  their  rude  iron  or  stone  axes,  to  make 
small  boards  and  other  articles  for  use  in  their  lodges.  They 
also  rub  up  with  charcoal  the  down  from  the  seed-vessels,  for 
tinder. 

Willows  and  alders  are  the  most,  abundant  of  trees.  All  sizes 
of  the  former  may  be  found,  from  the  slender  variety  on  the  Lower 
Yukon,  which  grows  seventy  or  eighty  feet  high,  while  only  six 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  butt,  and  with  a  mere  wisp  of  straggling 
branches  at  the  extreme  tip,  to  the  dwarf  willows  of  the  Arctic 
coast,  crawling  under  the  moss  with  a  stem  no  bigger  than  a  lead- 
pencil,  and  throwing  up  shoots  only  a  few  inches  high.  "About 
Norton  Sound,  willows  {Sa/ix  spcciosd)  are  abundant.  The  alder 
{Aluiisviridis)  extends  as  far  as  Kotzebue,  where,  in  company  with 
willows,  it  forms  a  low  brushwood.  With  the  Arctic  Circle  the  al- 
der disappears.  Willows  {S.  speciosa,  Richardsoiiii,  and  villosa) 
extend  their  range  farther,  but  are  only  able  for  a  short  dis-tance 
to  keep  their  ground  ;  at  Cape  Lisburne  (lat.  6'^''  52')  they  are, 
in  the  most  favorable  localities,  never  higher  than  two  feet,  while 
their  crooked  growth  and  numerous  abortive  leaf-buds  indicate 
their  struggle  for  existence."  (Seemann.)  The  above  remarks 
must  be  understood  as  applying  especially  to  the  coast.  A  wil- 
low measured  by  the  botanists  of  the  Herald  was  found  to  be  but 
twenty  feet  high  and  five  inches  in  diameter  ;  yet  the  annual  rings 
showed  that  the  tree  had  reached  the  age  of  eighty  years.  The 
Arctic  coast  is  reported  by  Dr.  Seemann  to  be  a  vast  moorland, 
whose  level  is  only  interrupted  by  a  few  promontories  and  isolated 
mountains.  Willows  are  almost  invariably  rotten  at  the  heart, 
and  are  only  good  for  fuel. 


CLIMATE    AND    AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES.         44 1 

The  inner  bark  is  much  used  for  making  twine  for  nets  and 
seines  by  the  Indian  women,  and  the  Eskimo  of  Bering  Strait 
use  willow  and  alder  bark  to  tan  or  color  their  dressed  deer- 
skins. It  produces  a  beautiful  red  brown,  somewhat  Hke  Russia 
leather. 

The  other  species  rising  to  the  rank  of  trees  in  this  district  are 
the  larch  {Larix  daviwica  f),  which  is  found  of  small  size  on  roll- 
ing prairies,  another  birch  {Betula  nana),  and  several  alders  {A. 
viridis,  incana,  and  rubra).  A  species  of  pine  indigenous  in  Kam- 
chatka {Pimis  ccmbra)  has  been  erroneously  referred  to  as  from 
Kotzebue  Sound.  Pinus  contorta  is  found  near  Fort  Selkirk  at 
the  junction  of  the  Lewis  or  Tahco  River  with  the  Pelly  River.  It 
does  not  ascend  the  Yukon  any  farther  northward.  The  Hud- 
son Bay  men  at  Fort  Yukon  call  the  white  spruce  "  pine." 

The  treeless  coasts  of  the  territory,  as  well  as  the  lowlands  of 
the  Yukon,  are  covered  in  spring  with  a  most  luxuriant  growth 
of  grass  and  flowers.  Among  the  more  valuable  of  these  grasses 
(of  which  a  nearly  complete  list  may  be  found  in  the  Appen- 
dix) is  the  well-known  Kentucky  blue-grass  {Poa  pratensis), 
which  grows  luxuriantly  as  far  north  as  Kotzebue  Sound,  and  per- 
haps even  to  Point  Barrow.  The  wood  meadow-grass  {Poa  nemo- 
ralis)  is  also  abundant,  and  furnishes  to  cattle  an  agreeable 
and  fattening  pasturage.  The  blue  joint-grass  {Calamagrostis 
Canadensis)  also  reaches  the  latitude  of  Kotzebue  Sound,  and 
grows  on  the  coast  of  Xorton  Sound  with  a  truly  surprising  luxu- 
riance. It  reaches  in  very  favorable  situations  four  or  even  five 
feet  in  height,  and  averages  at  least  three  feet.*  Many  other 
grasses  enumerated  in  the  list  of  useful  plants  grow  abundantly, 
and  contribute  largely  to  the  whole  amount  of  herbage.  Two 
species  of  Eljmus  almost  deceive  the  traveller  with  the  aspect  of 
grain  fields,  maturing  a  perceptible  kernel,  which  the  field-mice 
lay  up  in  store. 

Grain  has  never  been  sown  to  any  extent  in  the  Yukon  Terri- 
tory. Barley,  I  was  informed,  had  once  or  twice  been  tried  at 
Fort  Yukon  in  small  patches,  and  had  succeeded  in  maturing 
the  grain,  though  the  straw  was  very  short.     The  experiment  was 

*  For  the  determination  of  these  and  other  species  of  plants,  I  am  indebted  to  the 
report  of  Dr.  J.  T.  Rothrock,  Professor  of  Botany  in  the  Agricultural  College  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  late  botanist  of  our  Scientific  Corps. 


442  CLIMATE   AND    AGRICULTURAL   RESOURCES. 

never  carried  any  farther,  however,  the  traders  being  obliged  to 
devote  all  their  energies  to  the  collection  of  furs.  No  grain  had 
ever  been  sown  by  the  Russians  at  any  of  the  posts. 

Turnips  and  radishes  always  flourished  extremely  well  at  St. 
Michael's,  and  the  same  is  said  of  Nulato  and  Fort  Yukon.  Po- 
tatoes succeeded  at  the  latter  place,  though  the  tubers  were  small. 
They  were  regularly  planted  for  several  years,  until  the  seed  was 
lost  by  freezing  during  the  winter.  At  St.  Michael's  they  did  not 
do  well. 

Salad  was  successful,  but  cabbages  would  not  head.  The  white 
round  turnips  grown  at  St.  Michael's  from  European  seed  were 
the  best  I  ever  saw  anywhere,  and  very  large,  some  weighing  five 
or  six  pounds.  They  were  crisp  and  sweet,  though  occasionally  a 
very  large  one  would  be  hollow-hearted.  The  Russians  preserved 
the  tops  also  in  vinegar  for  winter  use. 
•  There  appears  to  be  no  reason  why  cattle,  with  proper  winter 
I  protection,  might  not  be  successfully  kept  in  most  parts  of  the 
\  Yukon  Territory.  Fodder,  as  previously  shown,  is  abundant. 
\  A  bull  and  cow  were  once  sent  to  Fort  Yukon  by  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company.  They  did  well  for  some  time,  but  the  cow,  while 
grazing  on  the  river-bank,  was  precipitated  upon  a  rock,  by  the 
giving  way  of  the  soil,  and  killed.  Due  notice  was  given  of  the 
accident,  but  for  several  years,  in  the  annual  supply  of  goods  for 
Fort  Yukon,  the  small  quantum  of  butter  usually  sent  was  with- 
held, on  the  ground  that  there  were  "  cattle '"  at  that  post,  f^inal- 
ly,  the  commander  killed  the  bull,  determined  if  he  could  not  have 
butter  that  he  would  at  least  have  beef  I 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  trading-post  is  north  of  the 
Arctic  Circle,  and  the  most  northern  point  in  Alaska  inhabited  by 
white  men. 

There  are,  as  might  be  supposed,  no  tree  fruits  in  the  Yukon 
Territory  suitable  for  food.  Small  fruit  abounds  in  the  greatest 
profusion.  Among  the  various  kinds  may  be  noted  red  and  black 
currants,  gooseberries,  cranberries,  raspberries,  thimbleberries,  sal- 
mon berries,  killikinick  berries,  blueberries,  bearberries,  twinber- 
ries,  dewberries,  service  berries,  mossberries,  and  roseberries.  The 
latter,  the  fruit  of  Rosa  cinnaniomea,  when  touched  by  the  frost, 
form  a  pleasant  addition  to  the  table,  not  being  dry  and  woolly,  as 
in  our  climate,  but  sweet  and  juicy.     All  these  berries,  but  espe- 


CLIMATE    AND   AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES. 


443 


cially  the  salmon  berry  or  niorosky  of  the  Russians,  are  excellent 
anti-scorbutics.  From  many  of  them  the  most  piquant  and  deli- 
cious preserves  are  prepared  by  the  Russians,  and  they  form  a 
very  acceptable  addition  to  the  eternal  diet  of  fish,  bread,  and  tea, 
usual  in  the  country. 

The  Almtian  District. — This  comprises  the  Aleutian  Islands, 
and  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Ahaska.  From  the  presence  of 
trees,  the  island  of  Kadiak  and  those  adjacent  to  it  belong  rather 
to  the  Sitkan  District.  These  islands  contain  many  high  moun- 
tains, many  of  them  volcanic,  some  still  evincing  activity  by 
smoking  or  emitting  steam.  Between  them  and  the  sea  are  roll- 
ing and  moderately  inclined  hills  and  meadows.  The  soil  is  much 
of  it  rich,  consisting  of  vegetable  mould  and  dark-colored  clays, 
with  here  and  there  light  calcareous  loam  formed  of  decom- 
posed rocks,  rich  in  tertiary  fossils.  In  many  places  the  growth 
of  sphagnum,  indicating  insufficient  drainage,  prevails  over  the 
perennial  grasses  natural  to  the  soil,  but  the  remedy  is  self- 
evident.  In  some  places  the  soil  is  composed  of  decayed  volcanic 
products  such  as  ash  and  pumice  ;  this  is  much  of  it  rich  and 
productive. 

The  climate  of  the  district  is  moist  and  warm.  The  snow  line, 
according  to  Chamisso,  is  3,510  feet  above  the  sea.  The  greatest 
cold  recorded  (on  the  island  of  Unalashka)  by  Father  Veniam- 
inofif  was  zero  of  Fahrenheit.  The  highest  point  reached  by  the 
mercury  during  the  same  period  was  seventy-seven.  The  follow- 
ing abstract  will  show  the  range  of  the  thermometer,  and  the  rela- 
tive frequency  of  good  and  bad  weather  during  five  years,  includ- 
ing 1834:  — 


Means  of  the  Thermometer,  for  Five  Years. 


Year. 

7  A.  M. 

I  P.  M. 

9  P.  jNI. 

Ex.  heat. 

Ex.  cold. 
0 

Range. 

1830       .      . 

h 

38 

34 

11 

11 

183I       .      . 

36 

40 

34 

64 

7 

57 

1832       .      . 

39 

42 

38 

11 

7 

70 

1833       •      • 

38 

41 

36 

76 

5 

71 

Average  for 
'         five.     . 

}  37 

40-5 

36 

77 

0 

11 

444  CLIMATE    AND    AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES. 

Weather,  Average  of  Seven  Years. 


Days. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Total. 

All  clear  .     . 

II 

9 

^ 

4 

2 

6 

0 

S 

2 

2 

si 

6 

53 

Half  clear    . 

III 

86 

112 

104 

los 

9S 

118 

106 

107 

IIS 

116 

126s 

All  cloudy    . 

95    103 

102 

102 

104 

109 

99 

106 

lOI 

100 

119 

95 

1235 

These  observations  were  made  at  Iliuluk,  Unalashka,  by  the 
Rev.  Father  Innocentius  Veniami'nofF.  He  states  that  from  Octo- 
ber to  April  the  prevalent  winds  are  from  the  north  and  west,  and 
from  April  to  October  from  the  south  and  west.  The  thermom- 
eter is  lowest  in  January  and  March,  and  highest  in  July  and 
August. 

The  greater  number  of  clear  and  pleasant  days  occur  in  Janu- 
ary, February,  and  June,  and  usually  follow  a  northerly  wind. 
The  barometer  ranges  from  27,415  to  29,437  inches,  and  on  the 
whole  is  highest  in  December  and  lowest  in  July,  rising  with  a 
north  and  falling  with  a  south  wind. 

At  this  point  it  may  not  be  irrelevant  to  make  a  comparison 
between  this  portion  of  Alaska  and  a  very  similar  country,  which 
has,  however,  been  for  centuries  under  cultivation.  It  will  serve 
to  show  what  human  industry,  aided  by  careful  application  of  ex- 
perience, may  do  with  a  country  more  barren,  and  nearly  as  cold 
and  rainy  as  the  Aleutian  District  of  Alaska.  I  refer  to  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland  and  the  adjacent  islands,  whose  Scotch 
mists  have  become  proverbial. 

Dr.  Graham,  of  Aberfoyle,*  referring  to  the  western  district  of 
Scotland,  says  that  Ayreshire  is  very  moist  and  damp,  with  a  mild 
and  temperate  climate.  Renfrewshire  is  visited  with  frequent 
and  heavy  rains.  Dumbartonshire  has  the  same  character.  Ar- 
gyllshire is  considered  the  most  rainy  county  of  Scotland. 

"  The  vapors  of  the  ocean  are  attracted  by  its  lofty  mountains, 
and  the  clouds  discharge  themselves  in  torrents  on  the  valleys. 
The  winters  are  for  the  most  part  mild  and  temperate,  but  the 
summers  are  frequently  rainy  and  cold.  The  climate  of  the  Zet- 
land Islands  resembles  in  most  respects  that  of  the  Orkneys. 
Though  the  sky  is  inclement  and  the  air  moist,  it  is  far  from  un- 
healthy. The  rain  continues  not  only  for  hours  but  for  days,  nay^ 
even  for  weeks,  if  the  wind  blow  from  the  west,"  &c. 

*  See  Edinburgh  Encyclopedia,  art.  Scotland,  Vol.  XVI.,  p.  y^S  et  sft/. 


CLIMATE   AND   AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES. 


445 


This  description  would  answer  very  well  for  the  most  rainy 
portion  of  Alaska, 

The  mean  annual  temperature  of  Northern  Scotland  varies  from 
42°  to  48°.  That  of  Alaska  in  the  Aleutian  District,  from  36°  to 
40°.  Orkney  and  Zetland  differ  considerably,  both  in  mean  tem- 
perature and  in  amount  of  rainfall,  the  Shetland  Islands  having 
a  less  genial  climate  and  a  greater  degree  of  humidity.  The  fol- 
lowing abstract  shows  the  mean  temperature  of  Inverness  on  the 
east  coast  of  Scotland.  This  is  one  of  the  most  sheltered  and 
protected  points  in  Northern  Scotland.  Its  latitude  is  precisely 
that  of  Kadiak. 


Year. 

Annual. 

Winter. 

Spring. 

Summer. 

Fall. 

1821. 
1822. 

47-83 
4S.02 

39-59 
39-44 

44-93 
47.22 

55-34 
57-79 

49-90 
47-59 

The  following  shows  the  annual  means  of  temperature  in  the 
Orkneys,  also  the  means  for  each  season,  the  barometer,  and  the 
hygrometer,  taken  from  observations  extending  over  seventeen 
years. 


Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter.              Year. 

Barometer. 

Rainfall. 

47°.87 

54-33 

47°.  62 

39.21             46'.26 

29.762  in. 

36.66  in. 

The  annual  rainfall  at  Glasgow  is  forty  inches  ;  of  Ayreshire, 
forty-two  ;  Whitehaven,  forty-eight ;  Rest  wick,  sixty-seven  ;  and 
Easthwaite,  eighty-six  (Enc.  Br.).  At  Drymen,  in  Stirlingshire, 
on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  two  hundred  and  five  days  during 
the  year  were  found,  in  an  average  of  fourteen  years,  to  be  more 
or  less  rainy.  In  Unalashka,  in  seven  years,  the  average,  from 
Veniaminoff 's  observations,  is  one  hundred  and  fifty  days,  on  which 
he  states  only  twenty-seven  inches  of  rain  fell.  This  is  probably 
too  low,  and,  judging  from  the  amount  of  rain  falling  in  other 
parts  of  Alaska,  I  venture  to  estimate  the  probable  rainfall  at 
about  forty  inches.  The  average  rainfall  in  Stirlingshire  is  about 
forty-three  inches  ;  in  Inverness,  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland, 
there  are  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  rainy  days,  and  the  aver- 


446  CLIMATE    AND    AGRICULTURAL   RESOURCES. 

age  rainfall  is  about  thirty  inches,  while  in  Bute,  on  the  west 
coast,  an  average  of  seven  years  gave  over  forty-six  and  a  half 
inches. 

Let  us  now  examine  the  productions  of  this  country,  which 
agrees  so  nearly  in  temperature  and  rainfall  with  what  we  know 
of  the  Aleutian  District.  It  may  reasonably  prove  an  approxi- 
mate index  to  what  time  may  bring  to  pass  in  our  new  territory. 

On  the  opposite  page  will  be  found  statistics  of  the  agricultural 
productions  of  the  Highlands  and  adjacent  islands  of  Scotland. 
These  formed  the  principal  support  of  over  two  millions  of  stock 
beside  the  farming  and  other  population. 

These  figures  show  notably,  that  the  quantity  of  potatoes,  and 
also  the  quantity  of  wheat,  is  small,  when  compared  with  the 
other  root  crops  or  cereals. 

The  small  Highland  cattle  are  well  known,  and,  like  the  small 
Siberian  stock,  admirably  suited  to  such  a  climate  and  country. 
They  produce  tender,  well-flavored  beef,  and  extremely  rich  cream 
and  butter,  as  I  can  testify  from  personal  observation. 

The  climate  of  Scotland  furnishes  a  very  complete  parallel 
with  that  of  the  Aleutian  district  of  Alaska.  The  eastern  coast, 
defended  from  the  vapors  of  the  Atlantic  by  its  sheltering  moun- 
tains, is  much  drier,  and  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  more 
marked,  than  in  the  western  portion  or  the  islands.  This  eastern 
coast  resembles  the  eastern  part  of  Cook's  Inlet  in  this  respect, 
and  the  interior  of  Alaska  generally. 

The  inhabitants  of  this  district,  principally  Aleuts,  are  faithful 
and  docile,  but  indolent  and  improvident.  They  make  good  sail- 
ors but  poor  farmers  ;  and  their  attempts  at  farming  have  been 
principally  under  the  direction  of  Russian  masters. 

There  is  no  timber  of  any  kind,  larger  than  a  shrub,  on  these 
islands  ;  but  there  is  no  prima  facie  reason  why  some  trees,  if 
properly  planted  and  drained,  should  not  flourish.  A  few  spruce 
were  transplanted  from  Sitka  in  1805  to  Unalashka.  Most  of 
them  lived,  but  were  not  cared  for,  and  the  situation  was  unfavor- 
able, so  at  the  time  of  Kotzebue's  visit  they  had  not  increased  in 
size,  and  were  looking  very  poorly,  according  to  Chamisso. 

The  grasses  in  this  climate,  warmer  than  that  of  the  Yukon 
Territory,  and  drier  than  the  Sitkan  District,  attain  an  unwonted 
luxuriance. 


CLIMATE   AND    AGRICULTURAL   RESOURCES.  447 


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448  CLIMATE    AND    AGRICULTURAL   RESOURCES. 

For  example,*  "  Unalashka,  in  the  vicinity  of  Captain's  Harbor, 
abounds  in  grasses,  with  a  climate  better  adapted  for  haying  than 
that  of  the  coasts  of  Oregon.  The  cattle  were  remarkably  fat, 
and  the  beef  very  tender  and  delicate,  rarely  surpassed  by  any 
well-fed  stock.  Milk  was  abundant.  The  good  and  available 
arable  land  lies  chiefly  near  the  coast,  formed  by  the  meeting  and 
mingling  of  the  detritus  from  mountain  and  valley  with  the  sea 
sand,  which  formed  a  remarkably  rich  and  genial  soil,  well  suited 
for  garden  and  root-crop  culture.  It  occurs  to  us  that  many 
choice  sunny  hillsides  here  would  produce  good  crops  under  the 
thrifty  hand  of  enterprise.  They  are  already  cleared  for  the 
plough.  Where  grain-like  grasses  {Elymus)  grow  and  mature 
well,  it  seems  fair  to  infer  that  oats  and  barley  would  thrive,  pro- 
vided they  were  fall-sown,  like  the  native  grasses.  This  is  abun- 
dantly verified  by  reference  to  the  collections.  Several  of  these 
grasses  had  already  (September)  matured  and  cast  their  seed  be- 
fore we  arrived,  showing  sufficient  length  of  season.  Indeed, 
no  grain  will  yield  more  than  half  a  crop  of  poor  quality  (on 
the  Pacific  slope)  when  spring-sown,  whether  north  or  south." 
(Kellogg.) 

The  Russians  affirm,  with  confirmation  by  later  visitors,  that 
potatoes  are  cultivated  in  almost  every  Aleutian  village,  and 
Veniami'nofif  states  that  (up  to  1837)  at  the  village  in  False  Pass 
or  Isanotski  Strait  they  have  raised  them,  and  preserved  the 
seed  for  planting,  since  the  beginning  of  this  century,  without 
interruption  ;  the  inhabitants  of  this  village,  by  so  doing,  having 
escaped  the  effects  of  several  severe  famines  which  visited  their 
less  provident  and  industrious  neighbors. 

Wild  pease  grow  in  great  luxuriance  near  Unalashka  Bay,  and, 
according  to  Mr,  Davidson,  might  be  advantageously  cultivated. 
This  species,  the  Lathynis  niaritimus  of  botanists,  grows  as  far 
north  as  latitude  64°. 

The  productions  of  all  the  islands  to  the  westward  resemble 
those  of  Unalashka.  In  September,  says  Dr.  Kellogg,  the  turnips 
here  were  large  and  of  excellent  quality  ;  carrots,  parsnips,  and 
cabbages  lacked  careful  attention,  but  were  good.  Wild  pars- 
nips {ArcJiangelica  officinalis)  are  abundant  and  edible  through  all 

*  See  Report  of  Dr.  Kellogg,  Botanist  to  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  E.xplor- 
ing  Party.     Ho.  Ex.  Doc.  177.     XL.  Congress,  IL  Session,  p.  218. 


CLIMATE   AND    AGRICULTURAL  RESOURCES.  449 

these  islands.  At  the  height  of  2,450  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  according  to  the  Chamisso,  most  vegetation  ceases.  From 
the  reports  of  Dr.  Kellogg  and  others,  there  appears  to  be  no 
doubt  that  cattle  may  be  advantageously  kept  in  the  Aleutian 
District,  provided  competent  farmers  will  take  the  matter  in  hand. 
The  winter  climate  is  as  mild  as  that  of  the  Highlands  of  Scot- 
land, or  the  Orkneys,  where  stock  has  been  successfully  kept  from 
time  immemorial.* 

Indeed,  even  in  Iceland,  where  the  temperature  in  winter  some- 
times gets  as  low  as  thirty-five  below  zero,  we  learn  from  Sir 
George  Mackenzie  that  four  fifths  of  their  entire  population  of 
seventy  thousand  derive  their  maintenance  from  agriculture. 
Grain  does  not  mature,  but  the  grass  lands  (with  their  fisheries) 
are  their  greatest  wealth,  as  they  pasture  their  flocks  of  sheep 
and  cattle,  which  form  their  chief  means  of  subsistence  and  most 
important  articles  of  commerce.  The  number  of  sheep  in  Ice- 
land is  estimated  at  600,000;  there  are  about  25,000  cattle  and 
30,000  horses.  The  export  of  wool  in  1864  was  2,229,504  pounds, 
besides  the  amount  consumed  in  the  country,  f  After  this,  in 
the  Aleutian  District,  where  the  cold  is  never  greater  than  zero, 
we  may  look  at  least  for  results  as  favorable. 

Golovin  states  that  at  one  time,  being  called  upon  by  the  terms 
of  their  charter  to  "  promote  agriculture,"  the  Russian  American 
Company  proposed  to  supply  the  Aleuts  with  stock,  gratis,  hop- 
ing also  to  prevent  the  famines  caused  by  taking  them  off  to  hunt 
sea-otter  during  the  fishing  season. 

The  Aleuts,  totally  ignorant  of  the  management  of  cattle,  did 
not  succeed  very  well.     Confined   at  night  in  the  low  buildings, 

*  While  these  sheets  are  passing  through  the  press,  I  am  pleased  to  be  able  to 
record  the  complete  confirmation  of  the  above  opinion,  by  practical  tests.  The  agent 
of  one  of  the  trading  companies  upon  the  Island  of  St.  Paul,  Bering  Sea  (160  miles 
north  of  the  Aleutian  chain),  in  the  fall  of  1868,  introduced  cows,  sheep,  and  goats. 
The  Aleuts  had  been  requested  to  provide  hay,  but,  not  knowing  how  to  cure  it,  the 
whole  was  spoiled.  On  the  arrival  of  the  cattle,  early  in  the  winter,  there  was  nothing 
for  them  to  eat.  They  were,  therefore,  as  the  only  resort,  sheltered  at  night,  and 
turned  out  to  shift  for  themselves  daily  during  the  winter.  They  found  abundant 
forage  in  the  native  wild  barley  (Elymiis),  and  not  only  were  well  fed,  but  became  (on 
the  authority  of  an  eye-witness)  exceedingly  sleek  and  fat.  The  calves  and  lambs  did 
well.  The  stock  is  now  considerably  increased,  and  has  every  prospect  of  flourishing 
in  future. 

t  See   Report  to  United  States  State  Department,  on  the  Resources  of  Iceland 
and  Greenland,  by  B.  M.  Peirce.     Washington,  1868. 
29 


450  CLIMATE    AND    AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES. 

where  the  dry  fish  is  hung  up,  the  cows  knocked  it  down  and 
trampled  on  it,  while  their  new  masters  did  not  know  how  to  milk 
them.  The  hogs  committed  depredations  in  the  garden  patches, 
and  annoyed  the  women  by  their  grunting  and  squealing.  The 
summer  residences  of  the  Aleuts  consisted  chiefly  of  tents,  and 
the  goats  appeared  to  take  pleasure  in  jumping  upon  and  knock- 
ing down  these  tents  in  the  night,  to  the  great  discomfort  of  the 
sleeping  family  ;  so  they  were  very  soon  tired  of  them,  and  glad 
to  get  rid  of  them.  In  Cook's  Inlet  the  natives  were  more  intelli- 
gent, or  had  more  experience,  and  their  cattle  did  much  better. 
Hogs  were  placed  on  a  low  island  near  the  Churnobour  Reef,  in 
1825,  and  multiplied  exceedingly,  living  on  the  wild  parsnips 
and  other  native  plants  ;  but  they  were  destroyed  by  a  tidal  wave 
which  swept  over  the  island  during  the  eruption  of  the  volcano 
on  the  neighboring  island  of  IJnimak,  two  years  after. 

TJie  Sitkan  District.  —  This  district  extends  from  the  southern 
boundary,  including  the  mainland  and  islands,  to  the  peninsula  of 
Aliaska,  and  also  Kadiak  and  the  adjacent  islands. 

The  surface  of  this  part  of  the  territory  is  rugged  and  moun- 
tainous in  the  extreme.  The  northern  part  alone  furnishes  any 
appreciable  amount  of  arable  land,  level  and  suitable  for  cultiva- 
tion. Small  patches  occur  in  the  southern  part  here  and  there, 
where  small  farms  might  be  located  ;  but  as  a  rule  the  mountains 
descend  precipitously  into  the  sea  with  their  flanks  covered  with 
dense  and  almost  impenetrable  forests.  These  rise  to  an  altitude 
of  about  fifteen  hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  Here  and  there  a 
white  streak  shows  where  an  avalanche  has  cut  its  way  from  the 
mountain-top,  through  the  forest,  to  the  water-side  ;  and  occasion- 
ally the  shining  front  of  a  glacier  occupies  some  deep  ravine,  con- 
trasting curiously  with  the  dense  foliage  on  either  side. 

The  canals  and  channels  of  the  Alexander  Archipelago  form 
the  highways  of  the  country,  and  so  intricate  and  tortuous  are 
they  that  they  aftbrd  access  to  almost  every  part  of  it  without  the 
necessity  for  setting  foot  on  shore. 

The  soil  is  principally  vegetable  mould,  with  substrata  of  gravel 
or  dark-colored  clay.  The  soil  of  Cook's  Inlet  and  Kadiak  is  of 
a  similar  character ;  but,  from  an  admixture  of  volcanic  sand 
thrown  up  by  the  waves,  and  abundant  sandstone  strata,  it  is 
lighter,  drier,  and  better  adapted  for  cultivation. 


CLIMATE    AND    AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES. 


451 


The  climate  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  district  is  very  mild, 
but  intolerably  rainy.  The  annual  rainfall  at  Sitka  varies  from 
sixty  to  ninety-five  inches  (which  is,  however,  about  the  same  as 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia),  and  the  annual  number  of  more 
or  less  rainy  days  varies  from  one  hundred  and  ninety  to  two 
hundred  and  eighty-five.  In  Unalashka  the  annual  number  of 
rainy  days  is  about  one  hundred  and  fifty,  and  the  annual  fall 
of  rain  and  melted  snow  is  nearly  forty  inches.  This  last  estimate 
is  probably  not  too  low  for  the  island  of  Kadiak,  and  the  eastern 
part  of  Cook's  Inlet. 

The  annual  means  of  the  temperature  about  Sitka  are  by  no 
means  low,  in  spite  of  the  rainy  summers.  The  following  table 
will  indicate  the  means  for  the  several  seasons  during  the  year 
ending  October  31,  1868,  from  the  report  of  the  United  States 
Coast  Survey  observers  :  — 

Meteorological  Abstract,  Sitka. 


Season. 

Mean  temp. 

Rainfall. 

Fair  days. 

Cloudy  days. 

Rainy  days. 

Snowy  days. 

Spring .     . 
Summer    . 
Autumn    . 
Winter.     . 

42°.6 
55  -7 
45  -9 
31  -9 

in. 
14.64 
10.14 
28.70 
1459 

22 
21 
19 

44 

70 

71 

72 

47 

f6 

44 

15 
0 

1 

Year     .     . 

44.07 

68.07 

106 

260 

134 

.6 

The  minimum  temperature  for  the  year  was  11°,  the  maximum 
71°,  giving  the  thermometer  a  range  of  sixty  degrees.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  the  average  temperature  of  the  winter  is  hardly  below 
the  freezing-point,  the  greatest  degree  of  cold  being  eleven  above 
zero.  The  average  of  many  years'  observation  places  the  mean 
winter  temperature  about  thirty-three  Fahrenheit,  which  is  nearly 
that  of  Mannheim  on  the  Rhine,  and  warmer  than  Munich, 
Vienna,  or  Berlin.  It  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  Washington 
(1,095  miles  farther  south),  and  warmer  than  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, or  Baltimore.*  The  cloudiness  and  rain  of  the  summer  sea- 
son, however,  prevent  it  from  being  nearly  as  warm  as  at  any  of 
the  places  above  mentioned.  Very  little  ice  is  made  at  Sitka  ;  the 
snow,  or  rather  slush,  lies  only  for  a  few  days  in  the  street,  and  a 

*  See  Report  of  Professor  Lorin  Blodgett  in  the  Report  of  House  Committee  on 
Foreign  Affairs,  XL.  Congress,  IL  Session,  p.  T,6etseq. 


452  CLIMATE    AND    AGRICULTURAL   RESOURCES. 

small  species  of  humming-bird  {SdaspJiorus  ntfiis)  breeds  there  in 
abundance. 

The  Indians  inhabit  the  Alexander  Archipelago  and  the  coast 
nearly  to  Prince  William  Sound.  North  of  this  the  Innuit  are 
found  on  the  coast  and  the  Indians  only  in  the  interior.  The 
former  have  made  some  progress  in  agriculture  in  Cook's  Inlet  and 
on  Kadiak  and  the  south  shore  of  Aliaska.  The  remainder  of 
the  native  population  perform  no  agricultural  labor  whatever,  ex- 
cept in  collecting  indigenous  roots  and  berries  for  food. 

In  the  southern  part  of  this  district  there  is  little  beside  the 
timber,  from  an  agricultural  point  of  view.  Near  Fort  Simpson, 
and  at  Sitka,  Dr.  Kellogg  describes  timothy,  white  clover,  and  med- 
ick,  or  burr  clover,  as  flourishing  in  great  luxuriance.  Dr.  Roth- 
rock  says  the  same  of  the  native  grasses  in  the  interior  ;  but  south 
of  Prince  William  Sound  there  is  so  little  lowland  or  prairie  that 
there  is  no  good  opportunity  for  raising  fodder,  and  the  climate 
would  render  its  preservation  extremely  precarious.  The  charac- 
ter of  the  country  is  so  rugged  that  it  would  hardly  be  advisable 
to  keep  many  cattle,  and  cereals,  on  acccount  of  the  moisture,  are 
not  to  be  thought  of. 

At  Sitka  some  vegetables  do  very  well.  Turnips,  beans,  pease, 
carrots,  beets,  lettuce,  and  radishes  are  successful.  Potatoes  are 
small  and  watery,  from  want  of  sun  and  excess  of  moisture.  Cab- 
bages are  thrifty,  but  will  not  head.  Cereals  fail.  Some  few  cat- 
tle are  kept.  The  milk  and  cream  are  very  good.  Pork  has  a  dis- 
ageeable  flavor  from  being  fed  on  fish  entrails,  &c.  There  was,  in 
1865,  one  old  horse  who  had  evidently  seen  better  days.  Poultry 
has  not  succeeded  well.  Liitke  says  that  the  crows,  who  are  ex- 
tremely rapacious,  devour  all  the  young  chickens,  and  also  deprive 
the  sucking  pigs  of  their  tails ! 

To  the  northern  part  of  this  district  the  above  remarks  do  not 
apply.  Kadiak  and  Cook's  Inlet,  northeast  of  Fort  Alexander, 
have  comparatively  colder  winters  and  drier  and  warmer  sum- 
mers than  the  islands  and  coast  to  the  west  or  south  of  them. 
Haying  can  be  successfully  carried  on,  the  native  grasses  being 
valuable  for  fodder,  green  or  dry.  Barley  and  oats  have  been  suc- 
cessfully raised  near  the  settlement  of  St.  Nicholas  on  Cook's 
Inlet. 

There  is  no  want  of  wood,  while  it  does  not  encroach   on  the 


CLIMATE    AND    AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES.         453 

lowland,  which  is  clear  of  underbrush  and  trees.  Among  the  an- 
nual productions  of  the  colony,  in  the  official  report  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  the  Colonies  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1863)  are  enumerated  108,000  pounds  of  salted  meat,  170 
casks  of  potatoes,  150  of  turnips,  and  180  casks  of  berries.  Dr. 
Kellogg  says  of  Kadiak :  "  Various  herbs  and  grasses  clothe  the 
mountains  to  their  summits.  The  summer  climate  here,  unlike 
that  of  Sitka,  is  sufficiently  fine  for  haying.  We  saw  many  mown 
valleys,  from  which  a  good  supply  of  hay  from  the  native  grasses 
had  been  secured.  The  cattle  were  fat,  and  milk  was  abundant. 
The  butter  was  yellow  and  appeared  remarkably  rich,  though  of  a 
disagreeable  flavor,  which  might  be  owing  to  the  manner  of  mak- 
ing." The  potatoes  were  better  than  at  Sitka,  but  do  not  attain 
a  very  large  size.  It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the  cattle 
distributed  to  the  natives  by  the  Russian  American  Company 
did  very  well  in  Cook's  Inlet.  The  Inlet  freezes  in  winter  as  far 
west  as  the  mouth  of  Chugachik  Bay. 

The  great  agricultural  staple  of  the  southern  Sitkan  district  is 
timber.      I  enumerate  the  forest  trees  in  the  order  of  their  value. 

Yellow  Cedar  (C.  Niitkatensis,  Spach,).  —  This  is  the  most  valu- 
able wood  on  the  Pacific  coast.  It  combines  a  fine,  close  texture 
with  considerable  hardness,  extreme  durability,  and  pleasant  fra- 
grance. "  For  boat-building  it  is  unsurpassed,  from  its  lightness, 
toughness,  ease  of  workmanship,  and  great  durability."  (Kel- 
logg). 

The  forests  of  Puget  Sound,  which  have  been  mentioned  as 
more  accessible  than  the  Alaskan  timber,  are  rapidly  falling  under 
the  axe  of  the  woodsman.  Most  of  the  more  adjacent  timber 
is  already  cut,  and  logs  have  now  to  be  hauled  some  distance  to 
the  mills.  The  Puget  Sound  timber,  as  ship-building  material,  is 
far  inferior  to  the  yellow  cedar.  The  latter  is  peculiar  to  Alaska, 
and  the  only  good  ship-timber  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  high 
rates  and  short  terms  of  insurance,  on  vessels  built  of  Oregon 
pine,  show  its  inferiority  better  than  any  amount  of  argument. 
The  cedar  somewhat  resembles  boxwood  in  texture  and  color,  and 
has  an  agreeable  odor.  It  is  familiar  to  many,  under  the  name 
of  "camphor  wood,"  in  the  shape  of  Chinese  boxes. 

"  After  ascending  for  some  distance  the  mountain-side  of  the 
island  of  Sitka,"  says  Mertens,  the  botanist,  in  a  letter  to  a  friend 


454  CLIMATE    AND    AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES. 

at  St.  Petersburg,  "  the  wood,  which  appears  in  increased  dense- 
ness  before  us,  consists  particularly  of  a  noble  cedar.  This  is  the 
timber  most  valued  here.  It  occurs  farther  down,  where  the  more 
predominant  spruce-trees  conceal  it  from  view ;  but  here  it  con- 
stitutes almost  the  entire  timber."  From  its  agreeable  perfume, 
it  is  known  to  the  Russians  as  "  dushnik"  or  scent-wood.  This 
is  the  wood  formerly  exported  to  China,  and  returned  to  us  famous 
for  excluding  moths,  &c.  In  repairing  old  Fort  Simpson,  a  stick 
of  this  cedar,*  among  the  spruce  timbers  used  for  underpinning, 
was  found  to  be  the  only  sound  log,  after  twenty-one  years'  trial. 
A  wreck  on  the  beach  at  Sitka,  originally  constructed  of  this 
timber,  thirty-two  years  after  is  as  sound  as  the  day  it  was  built ; 
even  the  iron  bolts  are  not  corroded.  A  piece  of  this  wreck  is 
now  in  the  office  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  at  Wa.^hing- 
ton. 

Sitka  Spruce  or  White  Pine  {Abies  Sitkensis,  Bong.).  —  This 
tree  is  well  known  in  the  lumber  trade  of  the  coast,  attains  a 
large  size,  and  is  noteworthy  from  its  straight  and  tapering  trunk. 
The  wood  is  not  so  durable  as  the  last-named,  but  is  available  for 
many  purposes.  It  is  found  near  the  water's  edge  in  great  pro- 
fusion throughout  the  Alexander  Archipelago. 

Hemlock  {Abies  Mertensiana,  Bong.).  —  The  timber  of  this 
species  is  often  confounded  with  that  of  the  preceding  and  more 
durable  spruce,  by  lumber  dealers,  who  style  them  both  "  Sitka 
pine."  It  is  much  larger  in  its  growth  than  the  next  species,  but 
has  been  considered  a  variety  by  some  botanists. 

Balsam  Fir  {Abies  Canadensis,  Michx.).  —  The  timber  of  this 
tree  is  almost  valueless,  but  the  bark,  with  that  of  the  last- 
named,  is  used  in  tanning,  and  the  balsam  in  medicine  and  the 
arts. 

Sci'tib  Pine  {Pinns  contorta,  Dougl.).  —  This  pine  seldom 
grows  more  than  forty  feet  clear  trunk,  and  eighteen  inches  in 
diameter.  It  passes  north  in  the  interior  only  to  the  junction  of 
the  Lewis  or  Tahco  and  the  Pelly  Rivers. 

Other  trees,  such  as  the  juniper,  wild  pear,  and  the  like,  may 
be  of  some  use,  but  from  their  small  size  or  scarcity  are  of  little 
economical  value. 

*  This  cedar  sometimes  reaches  a  diameter  of  eight  feet,  but  a  coimtion  size  is  three 
to  five  feet. 


CLIMATE    AND    AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES.  455 

In  Kadiak,  Dr.  Kellogg  found  the  growth  of  timber  {A.  Sif- 
h'/isis)  confined  to  the  eastern  valleys  and  slopes  of  the  island. 
The  largest  seen  were  three  feet  in  diameter  and  ninety  to  one 
hundred  feet  high.  In  the  governor's  yard  were  masts  and 
spars  over  one  hundred  feet  in  length  scarcely  tapering  two 
inches  in  thirty  or  forty  feet ;  these  were  from  Kadiak,  but 
many  are  brought  in  rafts  from  Spruce  Island,  ten  or  fifteen  miles 
off.  The  wooded  district  comprises  the  whole  Alexander  Archi- 
pelago and  the  mainland  north  to  Lituya  Bay  ;  from  this  point  to 
Prince  William  Sound  little  is  known  of  the  character  or  quan- 
tity of  the  timber,  but  in  the  latter  locality,  Cook's  Inlet,  and  the 
entire  interior,  timber  abounds,  extending  westward  ort  to  the 
peninsula  of  Aliaska  and  Kadiak  and  other  islands  of  the  Kadiak 
Archipelago. 

General  Snimnary.  —  While  in  the  Yukon  Territory  we  can- 
not look  for  self-supporting  agricultural  districts,  nor  reasonably 
expect  any  one  to  obtain  a  subsistence  by  farming  alone  ;  still,  the 
settler  called  there  to  develop  the  resources  of  the  country,  be 
they  lumber,  fish,  or  furs,  may  have  milk  in  his  tea,  and  fresh 
vegetables  on  his  table,  if  he  possess  the  energy  and  knowledge 
to  make  the  most  of  his  opportunities.  It  will  not  be  necessary 
for  him  to  rely  on  the  products  of  the  chase  alone,  if  he  will  but 
take  the  necessary  care  to  provide  shelter  for  his  cattle,  and  to 
cut  and  gather  for  their  winter  fodder  the  perennial  grasses  which 
cover  the  prairies  and  lowlands. 

In  the  Aleutian  District  is  situated  the  larger  proportion  of  the 
arable  land  of  the  territory  of  Alaska.  In  this  and  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  Sitkan  District  the  climatic  conditions  are  the 
most  favorable  for  agriculture  in  the  territory.  Their  resem- 
blance to  the  conditions  which  prevail  in  Northwestern  Scotland 
and  its  islands  has  been  already  demonstrated  at  length  ;  and  the 
capability  of  this  district  for  agriculture  may  therefore  be  reason- 
ably inferred.  Oats  and  barley,  possibly  wheat  and  rye,  may  suc- 
ceed on  these  islands.  Their  abundant  capacity  for  producing 
root  crops  of  good  quality,  except  perhaps  potatoes,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  settled.  That  cattle  will  do  well  there,  there  is  no 
doubt,  and  the  Pacific  slope  may  yet  derive  its  best  butter  and 
cheese  from  J#ie  Aleutian  and  northern  Sitkan  districts.  Sheep, 
goats,  and  swine  have  not  been  thoroughly  tried  as  yet,  but  the 


456         CLIMATE   AND   AGRICULTURAL   RESOURCES. 

inference  is  that  they  also  would  succeed.  Most  of  the  berries 
found  in  the  Yukon  Territory  are  also  common  to  the  Aleutian 
District,  and  the  climate,  unless  from  its  moisture,  presents  no 
obstacles  to  the  success  of  some  kinds  of  fruit-trees.  It  is  to  be 
hoped,  at  least,  that  some  one  will  try  the  experiment. 

These  islands,  Kadiak,  and  Cook's  Inlet  are  unquestionably  the 
best  agricultural  country  in  our  new  possessions. 

The  resources  of  the  southern  Sitkan  District  lie  apparently 
entirely  in  its  timber.  This  is  unquestionably  needed  on  the  Pa- 
cific coast,  and  a  most  valuable  acquisition.  No  better  lumbering 
district  can  be  imagined,  with  water  transportation  everywhere, 
and  mountain-sides  so  steep  that  a  shde  —  easily  made,  of  the  least 
valuable  timber — will  conduct  the  logs  directly  to  the  water-side. 
Some  vegetables,  in  the  future  as  in  the  past,  will  be  raised,  and 
some  stock  kept  in  this  part  of  Alaska,  but  probably  nev^er  to 
any  great  extent. 

Many  reports  may  be  found  in  circulation,  even  in  official  docu- 
ments, in  regard  to  Alaska,  having  very  little  foundation.  While 
Massachusetts,  since  her  settlement,  has  never  exported  any  pro- 
ducts of  her  soil  except  granite  and  ice,  we  may  look  in  less  than 
two  hundred  and  fifty  years  to  receive  from  Alaska  supplies  of 
ship-timber,  butter,  cheese,  wool,  mutton,  and  beef;  and  perhaps 
more  palatable  fruits  may  take  the  place  of  the  well-flavored  cran- 
berries which  have  already  found  their  way  to  San  Francisco 
markets. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Geology  and  Mineral  Resources. 

UNTIL  a  very  recent  date  all  the  known  facts  in  regard  to  the 
geology  and  mineralogy  of  Alaska  were  presented  in  the 
admirable  work  of  Grewingk,  and  were  due  to  the  researches  of 
the  naturalists  connected  with  the  various  exploring  expeditions, 
or  to  the  collections  of  Doroshin,  Wossnessensky,  and  others  em- 
ployed by  the  Russian  authorities.  Owing  to  the  recent  investi- 
gations of  Whitney,  Newberry,  Heer,  Kennicott,  and  the  Scien- 
tific Corps  of  the  Telegraph  Expedition,  our  knowledge  has  been 
much  increased,  though  a  wide  field  still  remains  open  for  further 
investigation. 

Much  light  has  been,  and  doubtless  will  continue  to  be,  thrown 
on  the  geology  of  the  extreme  northwest,  from  explorations  in 
more  southern  latitudes,  as  a  considerable  parallelism  must  exist 
if  we  assume  the  coeval  elevation  of  the  northern  and  the  southern 
portions  of  the  different  ranges. 

Most  geologists  agree  in  referring  the  elevation  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  to  the  Triassic  period.  There  seems  to  be  no  reason 
why  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  ranges  should  not  be  in- 
cluded in  this  generalization. 

On  the  banks  of  the  Porcupine  River,  near  the  boundary  line, 
Robert  Kennicott  and  the  Rev.  W.  W.  Kirkby  obtained  fossil 
corals  and  molluscan  remains,  referred  by  Mr.  F.  B.  Meek  to 
the  Devonian  age  (Hamilton  group).  On  the  Arctic  coast  the 
summit  of  Cape  Lisburne  afforded  Tnbiporites  and  Encrinitcs, 
referred  to  the  Carboniferous  age  by  Buckland.  Cape  Thompson, 
on  the  same  authority,  contained  madrepores  and  other  corals, 
polyzoa,  Prodiichis,  and  other  molluscan  remains.  The  Carbon- 
iferous limestone  from  this  locality,  according  to  Grewingk,  is  al- 
most entirely  composed  of  the  encrinites.  At  Cape  Beaufort  a 
vein  of  true  Carboniferous  coal  was  discovered  near  the  shore.    In 


458       GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES. 

the  Bay  of  Katmai,  on  the  south  coast  of  Aliaska,  Wossnessensky 
obtained  Jurassic  ammonites  and  fragments  of  belemnites.  It  is 
possible  that  the  sulphuret  of  copper,  reported  from  the  north 
shore  of  AHaska,  may  be  contained  in  rocks  of  similar  age.  This 
completes  the  list  of  known  localities  of  rocks  older  than  the  Cre- 
taceous in  Alaska. 

Early  in  the  Cretaceous  period  the  Cascade  Ranges  and  their 
analogues  to  the  north  were  washed  by  the  waves  of  the  great 
Cretaceous  sea.  Later  in  the  same  epoch  the  Coast  Ranges  were 
uplifted  by  plutonic  force.  To  the  immense  convulsions  which 
elevated  the  great  volcanic  peaks  of  these  ranges  is  probably  due 
that  immense  system  of  canals,  islands,  fiords,  and  inlets  which  are 
so  conspicuous  on  the  northwest  coast.  Most  of  the  Aleutian 
Islands  are  probably  of  later  elevation. 

Some  portions  of  the  sea-bed,  having  been  simultaneously 
elevated,  became  covered  with  dense  forests.  From  these  the 
important  beds  of  Cretaceous  lignites  on  the  west  coast  were 
formed.  Gradual  elevation  of  the  coast  continued.  In  the  early 
Miocene  (Eocene  ?  of  Foster,  Mississippi  Valley,  p.  322)  the 
climate  of  Greenland,  Spitzbergen,  the  Arctic  Islands,  the  north- 
ern part  of  America  and  Europe,  was  genial  and  temperate. 
Immense  forests  of  trees,  now  confined  to  far  more  southern 
latitudes,  existed  all  over  the  north.  In  the  valley  of  the  Yukon 
sycamores  {Platanus)  were  abundant.  On  the  shores  of  Cook's 
Inlet,  pines  {Piinis),  redwoods  {Sequoia),  elms  {Ulmjis),  four  species 
of  oaks  {Qiierais),  three  of  walnuts  {yuglans),  ilex,  maple,  liquid- 
ambar,  taxodium,  and  many  other  trees  of  the  temperate  zone, 
beside  Myrica  and  Spircea,  grew  in  profusion.  From  this  locality 
fifty-two  species  of  fossil  plants  are  described,  of  which  twenty- 
two  are  common  to  beds  of  the  same  age  in  Northern  Europe, 
and  a  smaller  number  to  Northern  Asia,  Greenland,  Spitzbergen, 
Vancouver  Island,  and  Oregon.  Species  of  Sequoia,  Corylus,  and 
Pecopteris,  have  been  obtained  from  Kake  Strait.  The  debris  of 
these  forests  forms  the  great  lignite  beds  of  Fort  Union,  Nebras- 
ka, as  well  as  most  of  the  beds  of  northern  lignite.  A  depression 
of  this  part  of  the  continent  then  began  ;  the  sea  covered  the  site 
of  the  sycamore  groves  of  the  Yukon,  and  in  the  highest  rocks 
(the  brown  sandstones  of  Nulato)  of  that  valley  we  find  the  re- 
mains of  Ostrca  and  other  marine  shell-fish.     The  last  and  still 


GEOLOGY  AND    MINERAL    RESOURCES.  459 

uninterrupted  era  of  elevation  then  commenced,  probably  at- 
tended at  first  with  great  volcanic  activity.  It  is  to  this  period 
that  the  elevation  of  many  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  must  be  re- 
ferred. In  the  Tertiary  beds,  which  lie  horizontally  on  their 
flanks,  shell-fish,  still  living  in  the  adjacent  waters,  are  abundant. 
A  colder  era  then  set  fn,  during  which  the  arctic  vegetation 
spread  far  southward  of  its  present  limit.  For  this  change  of 
temperature  science  has  yet  found  no  satisfactory  solution.  One 
of  the  most  novel  of  the  many  theories  proposed  is  that  of  Dr. 
Oswald  Heer,  who  has,  more  than  any  other  naturalist,  inves- 
tigated the  fossil  flora  of  the  temperate  period. 

It  is  known  to  astronomers  that  the  solar  system  passes 
through  a  vast  orbit  around  some  distant  centre,  and  that  it  is 
constantly  entering  new  regions  of  space.  We  come  from  the 
unknown,  and  plunge  into  the  unknown  ;  but  so  much  is  cer- 
tain, that  at  present  the  solar  system  is  in  a  region  thinly 
peopled  with  stars.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  it  may 
once  have  wandered  through  one  of  those  celestial  provinces 
where,  as  the  telescope  reveals,  constellations  are  far  more  dense- 
ly clustered.  But,  as  every  star  is  a  blazing  sun,  the  greater  or 
lesser  number  of  these  heavenly  bodies  must  evidently  have  a 
proportionate  influence  upon  the  temperature  of  space,  and  thus 
we  may  suppose  that  durmg  the  warm  Miocene  period  the  earth, 
being  in  a  populous  sidereal  region,  enjoyed  the  benefits  of  a 
higher  temperature,  which  clothed  even  its  poles  with  verdure. 
In  the  course  of  ages  the  sun  conducted  his  herd  of  planets  into 
more  lonely  and  colder  regions,  which  caused  the  warm  Miocene 
era  to  be  succeeded  by  the  glacial  period,  and  finally  the  sun 
emerged  into  a  space  of  an  intermediate  character,  which  deter- 
mines the  present  condition  of  the  cHmate  of  our  globe.* 

At  the  commencement  of  the  cold  period,  huge  animals,  covered 
with  hair  to  resist  the  severe  temperature,  sprung  into  being. 
The  elephant  roamed  over  the  tundri  of  North  America  and 
Asia.  Later  the  reindeer  and  musk-ox  followed  the  arctic 
vegetation  as  it  spread  southward.  The  northeastern  portion  of 
the  United  States  was  covered,  as  Greenland  is  now,  with  a  near- 
ly, if  not  quite,  continuous  glacier  sheet.  From  the  evidences  be- 
fore us  we  are  unable  to  declare  that  this  "  general  "  ice  sheet 
extended  to  Siberia,  Alaska,  or  the  entire  west  coast  of  America. 

*  See  Hartwig,  Polar  World,  p.  14. 


460       GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES. 

The  causes  which  produced  the  extinction  of  the  elephant  arc 
unknown.  It  is  more  probable  that  it  was  due  rather  to  the 
increased  cold  of  the  climate  beyond  what  they  were  fitted  to 
endure,  than  to  a  change  for  the  warmer,  as  has  been  suggested 
by  some  authors.  In  the  latter  case,  migration  northward  would 
have  been  open  to  them,  and  they  would  hardly  be  found  pre- 
serv^ed  entire  in  masses  of  ice,  as  has  been  the  case  in  Siberia.  It 
is  probable  that  the  musk-ox  and  reindeer  were  long  posterior  to 
the  elephant  in  their  appearance  on  the  earth.  In  the  Yukon 
Valley  the  remains  of  the  elephant  are  everywhere  found  on  the 
surface,  except  when  recently  buried  by  fluviatile  action  ;  yet  they 
are  thoroughly  fossilized  and  destitute  of  animal  matter,  except  in 
the  very  interior  of  the  tusks.  On  the  other  hand,  the  remains  of 
the  musk-ox  found  in  similar  localities  still  preserve  an  animal 
odor,  and  sometimes  even  slight  remnants  of  the  sinews. 

During  the  period  of  most  intense  cold,  large  glaciers  were 
formed  in  the  gorges  and  ravines  of  the  Coast  Ranges.  As  the 
climate  grew  warmer,  they  diminished  in  size,  and  most  of  the 
more  southern  glaciers  disappeared  entirely.  Whitney  says,* 
"  The  explorations  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  California  have 
demonstrated  that  there  is  no  true  Northern  Drift  within  the 
limits  of  this  State.  Our  detrital  materials,  which  often  form 
deposits  of  great  extent  and  thickness,  are  invariably  found  to 
have  been  dependent  for  their  origin  and  present  condition  on 
causes  similar  to  those  now  in  action,  and  to  have  been  deposited 
on  the  flanks  and  at  the  bases  of  the  nearest  mountain  ranges,  by 
currents  of  water  rushing  down-  their  slopes.  While  we  have 
abundant  evidence  of  the  former  existence  of  extensive  glaciers 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  ice 
was  to  any  extent  an  effective  agent  in  the  transportation  of  the 
superficial  deposits  now  resting  on  the  flanks  of  the  mountains. 
The  glaciers  were  confined  to  the  most  elevated  portions  of  the 
mountains,  and,  although  the  moraines  which  they  have  left  as 
evidences  of  their  former  extension  are  often  large  and  conspicu- 
ous, they  are  insignificant  in  comparison  with  the  detrital  masses 
formed  by  aqueous  erosion.  There  is  nothing  anywhere  in  Cali- 
fornia which  indicates  a  general  glacial  epoch,  during  which  ice 
covered  the  whole  country,  and  moved  bodies  of  detritus  over  the 

*  Proceedings  California  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Vol.  Ill-,  p.  272. 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES.       46 1 

surface,  independently  of  its  present  configuration,  as  is  seen 
throughout  the  Northeastern  States." 

The  same  is  eminently  true,  as  far  as  we  know,  of  Alaska. 

For  opportunities  of  studying  the  phenomena  of  glaciation, 
American  students  need  no  longer  turn  to  the  Alps.  From  Bute 
Inlet  to  Unimak  Pass  almost  every  deep  gorge  of  considerable 
size  between  the  high  mountains,  for  which  this  coast  is  so  re- 
markable, has  at  its  head  a  glacier,  or  the  remains  of  one.  Some 
of  these  glaciers  are  of  extraordinary  size  and  grandeur.  The 
ice,  broken  from  their  overhanging  terminations,  has  given  rise  to 
such  names  as  Icy  Strait  and  Icy  Bay ;  and  smaller  fragments, 
concealed  by  the  adherent  mud  and  stones,  have  in  several  in- 
stances been  taken  for  permanent  rocks  by  the  earlier  navigators. 
The  question  naturally  arises.  To  what  extent  have  the  glaciers 
aided  in  producing  the  extraordinary  system  of  fiords  which  char- 
acterizes this  coast  ^  Or  is  that  system  entirely  due  to  other 
causes,  and  are  the  glaciers  merely  incidental  ? 

If  the  excavation  of  these  innumerable  channels  and  inlets  be 
due  to  glacial  action,  we  shall  naturally  look  for  unmistakable  evi- 
dences of  the  fact  in  the  grinding  and  polishing  of  the  harder 
rocks  which  remain,  the  denudation  in  great  part  of  the  softer 
and  more  friable  ones,  the  transportation  of  large  quantities  of 
material,  and  its  deposition  off  the  present  coast-line,  in  sub- 
marine moraines,  of  which  the  soundings  should  give  evidence. 
The  ice  power  which  would  excavate  a  channel  fifty  fathoms  deep 
would  leave  no  uncertain  or  dubious  evidences  behind  it.* 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  do  not  look  to  glacial  action  for  a 
solution  of  the  problem,  we  may  suggest  the  hypothesis,  that  the 
same  power  which  raised  the  Coast  Ranges  to  their  stupendous 
height,  which  lifted  up  the  peaks  of  Crillon,  Fairweather,  and  St. 
Elias,  at  the  same  time  upheaved  the  strata  on  either  side  of  the 
main  line  of  elevation,  and  nearly  parallel  with  it,  thus  producing 
deep  incised  valleys  and  precipitous  mountains,  gorges,  and  ra- 
vines, of  which  the  submarine  portion,  by  its  position,  became  an 
archipelago  ;  while  that  above  the  sea,  of  a  similar  character,  in  a 

*  It  is  probable  that  glaciers  seldom  excavate.  They  erode  and  denude,  but  rarely 
scoop  out  material.  I  can  find  no  record  of  any  excavations  more  than  two  feet  deep 
due  to  the  action  of  ice  alone.  The  torrents  which  flow  from  under  glaciers  do  a  far 
greater  amount  of  excavating  than  the  ice  itself  The  term  "  excavate  "  has  been 
very  loosely  used  in  connection  with  ice. 


462       GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES. 

latitude  and  under  climatic  influences  which  produced  a  greater 
deposition  (in  the  form  of  snow)  than  evaporation,  became,  through 
its  physical  conformation,  the  nurse  of  glaciers. 

The  weight  of  available  evidence  does  not  seem  to  support  the 
first  view  of  the  case.  The  lower  summits  of  gneiss,  granite,  and 
dolorite,  which  must  have  been  covered  in  past  time  with  the 
superincumbent  ice  sheet,  if  it  existed,  and  to  which  one  would 
look  for  such  evidences  as  polishing,  striation,  and  grinding  down, 
offer  none.  Their  outlines,  and  the  rocks  of  which  they  are 
composed,  are  sharp,  and  exhibit  no  evidences  of  abrasion  or  ero- 
sion. 

The  absence  of  terraces,  of  any  extent,  has  been  noticed  by 
Professor  Blake,  in  his  account  of  the  glaciers  of  the  Stiki'ne 
River.  Wossnessensky  describes  none,  nor  does  Whymper,  in  his 
description  of  the  immense  glaciers  of  Bute  Inlet.  Nor  in  my 
own  observations  in  the  vicinity  of  Sitka,  and  the  peninsula  of 
Aliaska,  have  I  met  with  any  cases  of  this  most  characteristic 
phenomenon  of  general  glacial  action.  If  the  glacier  field  once 
extended  over  the  entire  coast,  previous  to  the  formation  of  the 
archipelago,  we  may  conclude  that  the  more  northern  portions  of 
the  territory,  north  of  the  Alaskan  Mountains,  would  not  have 
been  exempt  from  glacial  action.  Three  years'  exploration,  with 
a  strong  disposition  to  develop  the  facts  of  the  case,  failed  to 
obtain  on  the  shores  of  Norton  Sound,  or  in  the  valley  of  the 
Yukon,  any  evidence  whatever  of  such  action.  Once  only  were 
polished  rocks  met  with,  and  they  proved  on  examination  to  be 
"  slicken-sides "  ;  while  no  instances  of  transported  materials, 
scratches,  boulders,  or  moraines,  were  anywhere  met  with.  The 
roUing  and  moderately  elevated  character  of  the  country  does  not 
favor  the  development  of  local  glaciers,  such  as  now  exist  on  the 
more  southern  coasts  of  Alaska. 

Thomas  Simpson  especially  remarks  the  absence  of  drift  boul- 
ders on  the  Arctic  coast,  west  of  Return  Reef  of  Franklin.  These 
most  characteristic  evidences  of  glacial  action,  which  a  child  could 
not  overlook,  are  quite  absent  in  the  valley  of  the  Yukon. 

The  soft  Tertiary  strata  everywhere,  though  broken,  contorted, 
and  sometimes  metamorphosed,  are  not  denuded,  except  from  the 
evident  local  action  of  local  glaciers. 

We  may  assume  that,  first,  the  general  course  of  a  continental 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES.       463 

or  continuous  coast  glacier  will  be  parallel  with  the  general  slope 
of  the  coast,  irrespective  of  local  topography  to  any  material 
extent.  Second,  that  as  the  excavations,  rock,  scratches,  trans- 
portation of  material,  and  so  on,  of  course,  will  trend  in  the  same 
line,  consequently  the  terminal  and  other  moraines,  if  any  exist, 
will  be  found  to  cross  the  line  of  general  movement  at  right 
angles.  Third,  it  has  also  been  noticed  that  the  smaller  hills,  or 
mountains,  which  lay  in  the  path  of  the  New  England  glacier 
sheet,  according  to  Vose  and  other  geologists,*  always  have  the 
side  of  the  longest  slope  facing  the  direction  from  which  the  ice 
sheet  came. 

Glancing  on  the  chart  of  the  Alexander  Archipelago,  let  us 
examine  this  assemblage  of  islands,  inlets,  and  canals,  which,  by 
superficial  observers,  has  been  referred  to  the  action  of  ice. 

We  find  the  first  assumption  directly  contradicted.  The  line 
of  "  excavation,"  if  we  still  feel  disposed  to  use  that  term,  is  at 
right  angles  to  the  watershed,  to  the  general  slope  of  the  coast 
mountains,  and  to  the  course  of  many  of  the  existing  local 
glaciers. 

Assuming  against  reason,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  that  this 
was  the  line  of  movement  of  the  glacier  sheet  (as  it  must  have 
been,  if  any  existed),  we  should,  under  the  second  assumption, 
look  to  find  across  the  canals,  at  intervals,  or  at  least  in  solitary 
instances,  bars  or  submarine  moraines,  composed  of  the  detritus 
from  the  glacial  sheet,  at  a  time  when  the  rate  of  melting  was  equal 
to  its  rate  of  progress,  the  termination  and  point  where  the  detri- 
tus was  deposited  consequently  remaining  nearly  stationary.  If 
any  such  exist,  which  under  the  circumstances  we  may  reasonably 
doubt,  the  soundings  would  give  unequivocal  evidences  of  it.  It 
is,  perhaps,  needless  to  say,  that  as  yet  we  have  no  such  informa 
tion.  In  regard  to  the  third  point,  Mr.  Davidson  mentions  in 
his  report  the  fact  that  the  abrupt  side  of  the  mountains  is 
almost  invariably  the  east  or  northeast  side,  which  excludes  the 
idea  of  a  glacier  sheet  from  any  direction,  except  from  the  sea, 
but  agrees  well  with  the  hypothesis  of  an  upheaval  coeval  and 
parallel  with  that  of  the  Coast  Ranges. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the  deposition  of  detritus, 
in  the  form  of  shoals,  off"  the  largest  known  glaciers  of  this  coast, 

*  Memoirs  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History. 


464       GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES. 

is  very  small,  especially  when  contrasted  with  that  deposited  by 
even  the  smaller  rivers.  The  excavation  of  such  immense  inlets 
and  channels  by  ice  action  would  necessarily  form  large  quanti- 
ties of  eroded  material,  which  must,  by  its  specific  gravity,  have 
been  deposited  somewhere  near  the  coast. 

It  is  therefore  considered  unnecessary  to  pursue  the  subject  of 
a  general  glacier  sheet  any  further,  and  it  only  remains  to  discuss 
the  indications  by  which  we  may  determine  the  former  extent 
and  amount  of  influence  of  the  local  glaciers. 

But  little  has  been  learned  so  far  in  regard  to  the  rate  of  mo- 
tion, and  other  circumstances  connected  with  the  magnificent 
glacier  system  of  the  coast  ranges  of  British  Columbia  and 
Alaska.  A  road,  built  across  one  of  the  glaciers  of  Bute  Inlet 
by  Mr.  Waddington,  of  Victoria,  was  noticed  to  have  moved 
some  ten  feet  out  of  line  during  the  winter  season,  when  the  road- 
builders  returned  in  the  spring.  No  regular  observations  have 
been  made,  however. 

That  the  majority  of  the  glaciers  are  decreasing  in  size,  and 
hence  that  the  climate  is  becoming  drier  or  warmer,  is  evident. 
The  glaciers  of  Bute  Inlet  and  the  Stiki'ne  have  notably  receded, 
leaving  their  tracks  unmistakable.  The  erosive  action  of  the 
glaciers  is  comparatively  small  ;  from  some  of  them  issue  streams 
of  water  nearly  pure,*  and  they  do  not  give  rise  to  any  very 
extensive  shoals  off  the  coast. 

The  case  is  quite  different  with  the  rivers.  The  Stiki'ne,  the 
Copper,  the  Suchitno,  all  bring  down  quantities  of  detritus,  annu- 
ally altering,  to  some  extent,  the  coast  line  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  their  embouchments. 

North  of  the  peninsula  of  Aliaska  this  river  action  is  going 
on  in  a  far  grander  manner.  The  Nushergak,  Kuskoqiiim,  and 
Yukon  rivers  annually  discharge  from  their  mouths  immense 
quantities  of  earthy  matter,  which  is  deposited  in  fine  mud,  and 
replaces,  in  Bering  Sea,  the  black  volcanic  sand  which  comes 
up  on  the  lead,  w^hen  south  of  the  islands.  This  mud  has  formed 
the  largest  submarine  plateau  (with  so  slight  a  depth  of  water)  in 
the  world,  covering  two  thirds  of  Bering  Sea,  and  even  extending 
for  an  indefinite  distance  through  and  beyond  Bering  Strait.  A 
deep  sea  valley  exists,  however,  on  the  west  side  of  Bering  Sea, 

*  See  Whymper,  p.  27. 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES.       465 

between  the  Alaska  plateau  and  the  shoals  of  Anadyr  Gulf,  cul- 
minatmg  in  the  mouth  of  Plover  Bay,  Eastern  Siberia.* 

When  the  spring  freshets  of  the  Yukon  come  down,  the  water 
is  laden  with  blocks  of  ice,  each  of  which  transports  its  share  of 
pebbles,  earth,  and  sand  ;  the  current,  twelve  to  twenty  fathoms 
deep,  in  places,  tears  away  with  resistless  violence  alluvial  banks 
formed  years  before,  and  carries  them  along,  depositing  them 
little  by  Httle,  thus  changing  annually  its  channel  and  depth  of 
water,  cutting  av^ay  islands  and  forming  new  ones,  and  lessening 
slowly,  but  surely,  the  depth  of  water  in  Bering  Sea.  I  have 
noticed,  on  exposed  banks,  one  hundred  and  thirty  annual  layers 
of  earth  and  vegetable  matter,  in  a  depth  of  alluvium  of  only  six 
feet. 

There  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  the  whole  of  the  peninsular 
portion  of  Alaska,  west  of  the  150th  degree  of  longitude,  is  under- 
going gradual  elevation.  This  is  accelerated  occasionally  by 
volcanic  action  in  localities  of  limited  extent.  A  single  instance 
is  known  in  Chalmers  Bay,  Prince  William  Sound,  of  subsidence 
of  a  low  point  formerly  covered  with  trees,  whose  stumps  are 
now  far  below  the  lowest  tide  level.  But  this,  in  the  absence  of 
further  information,  must  be  regarded  as  a  merely  local  phenome- 
non.    The  coast  of  Eastern  Siberia  is  also  undergoing  elevation. 

The  facts  in  support  of  the  above  hypothesis  are  many.  On 
the  neck  of  land  between  Norton  Bay  and  Kotzebue  Sound  the 
shores  are  strewn  with  driftwood  piled  in  winrows  by  the  fall 
storms,  and  derived  originally  from  the  spring  freshets  of  the 
Yukon  and  the  Kuskoqiiim.  Far  above  the  level  which  the 
most  severe  storms  and  the  highest  tides  now  attain,  lie  regular 
rows  of  wood,  much  decayed,  but  still  preserving  its  shape,  and 
evidently  brought  there  by  the  waves.  This  may  also  be  noted 
on  the  southeast  end  of  St.  Michael's  Island,  Norton  Sound.  In 
the  mouth  of  the  Canal,  or  passage  between  St.  Michael's  and 
the  mainland,  not  far  from  the  fort  of  the  trading  company,  lie  a 
cluster  of  basaltic  rocks,  full  of  amygdaloidal  cavities.  The 
upper  portion  of  these  rocks  is  at  least  fifteen  feet  above  the 
level  of  high  water,  and  a  little  grass  grows  there,  but  in  the 
cavities  can  still  be  found,  in  situ,  portions  of  the  shelly  covering 

*  Captain  Fish,  of  the  whaling  brig  Victoria,  reports  here  y^y  in  the  mouth  of  the 
bay ;  and  -^  was  obtained  farther  in,  by  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Expedition. 
30 


466       GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES. 

of  a  species  of  barnacle  {balamis),  which  must  have  lived  there 
when  it  was  daily  covered  by  the  tide.  The  flanks  of  the  Aleu- 
tian Islands  in  many  localities  bear  nearly  horizontal  Tertiary 
strata,  which  contain  fossil  shells,  undoubtedly  identical  as  to 
species  with  living  forms  now  abundant  in  the  waters  which 
surround  them,  showing  that  they  have  been  elevated  within  a 
comparatively  short  (geological)  time. 

The  lagoon  of  Isanotski,  long  marked  from  French  surveys  in 
the  last  century  as  a  navigable  though  dangerous  passage,  is  now 
an  impassable  cul-de-sac.  This,  however,  may  be  due  to  imper- 
fections in  the  original  survey,  and  not  to  subsequent  elevation. 

Captain  Riedell,  of  the  bark  Constantine,  states  that  in  the 
inner  portion  of  the  south  harbor  of  Unga  Island,  one  of  the 
Shumagins,  where  he  had  previously  obtained  four  fathoms, 
muddy  bottom,  after  the  slight  earthquake  shock  of  May,  1868, 
he  sounded,  obtaining  only  four  feet  in  the  same  place.  The 
lower  portion  of  the  harbor  retained,  however,  abundance  of 
water.  Careful  and  exact  charts  of  given  localities  are  needed 
to  determine  with  accuracy  the  rate  of  the  gradual  elevation. 

Should  the  elevation  of  the  land  and  the  annual  deposition  of 
earthy  material  continue,  geologically  the  time  is  not  far  distant 
when  a  great  part  of  Bering  Sea  may  become  dry  land,  and  Asia 
be  joined  unto  America. 

Plutonic  forces  have  been  more  or  less  active  in  Alaska  since 
the  end  of  the  Miocene  period.  Their  violence  appears  to  have 
diminished  during  historical  times.  Many  formerly  active  vol- 
canoes have  become  quiet  or  extinct,  earthquake  shocks  are  less 
frequent  and  less  violent  than  formerly,  and  no  remarkable  erup- 
tion has  taken  place  for  many  years.  The  following  information 
in  regard  to  igneous  action  is  derived  from  Grewingk. 

1690.    A  crater  was  formed  on  the  mountain  called  Khaginak  in 

the  island  of  Unimak. 
1700  to  1 7 10.    The  volcano  on  Amak  Island  and  two  others  were 

active.     (At  present  Amak  volcano  is  entirely  extinct.) 
1741.    Iliamna  volcano  became  quiet. 
1760.    Adakh,  Goreloi,  Chech I'tno,  and  Atka  volcanoes  smoked  for 

the  first  time  in  history.     Koniushi  Island  rose. 
1762.    Pavlofif  volcano  on  Aliaska  showed  signs  of  activity. 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES.       467 

1763.    Tanaga  Peak  became  active,  and  continued  so  until  1770. 

Solfataras  appeared  upon  Kanaga. 
1768.    Two  volcanoes  were  active  on  Unalashka.     Medviednikoff 

and  Walrus  peaks  on  Aliaska  became  active. 
1770.    Amukhta  volcanoes  became  quiet. 
1772.    Semi-sopochnoi  Islands  lost  their  activity. 

1774.  One  of  the  islands  of  the  Four  Craters  became  active. 

1775.  Mount  Calder,  on  Prince  of  Wales  Island,  became  active, 
and  one  of  the  Unimak  volcanoes  emitted  fire  occasionally 
until  1778. 

1776.  Si'tignak  emitted  flames  in  July. 

1778.  Iliamna  resumed  and  has  since  kept  in  a  state  of  activity. 
Shishaldin  smoked. 

1784.  Vsevidofif  volcano  smoked.  An  eruption  took  place  from 
the  Chechi'tno  peak  in  July. 

1786.  Seguam  and  Amukhta  volcanoes  became  active  ;  the  former 
rested  in  1790,  and  the  latter  the  following  year.  Kanaga 
emitted  flames.  The  northern  crater  of  Pavloff  Peak  became 
active.  It  fell  in,  and  after  a  violent  earthquake  its  activity 
ceased. 

1788.  An  earthquake,  attended  with  a  tidal  wave,  visited  the 
Shiimagins.  On  the  27th  of  July  the  water  overflowed  San- 
nak  Island,  destroying  the  hogs  which  had  been  placed  there. 
From  this  point  the  inundation  extended  to  Aliaska. 

7790.  Akutan  smoked.  Vsevidoff",  Kanaga,  and  Semi-sopochnoi 
were  active.  Makushin  on  Unalashka  had  active  periods 
occasionally  from  this  time  to  1 792,  and  Shishaldin  on  Uni- 
mak until  1825.     An  eruption  occurred  near  Chiigach  Gulf 

1791.  In  June,  Tanaga  and  Kanaga  smoked. 

1792.  Great  Sitkin  and  Goreloi  emitted  fire  until  the  end  of  May. 
On  the  1st  of  June  Semi-sopochnoi  smoked. 

1795.  A  small  volcano  on  the  southwest  end  of  Unimak  exploded, 
and  fell  in  with  a  fearful  noise.  The  phenomenon  was  at- 
tended by  dense  clouds  of  white  ashes.  West  of  that  point 
there  are  hot  marshes. 

1796.  Edgecumbe  is  said  to  have  smoked  for  the  only  time  in 
history.  On  the  ist  of  May,  according  to  Baranoft',  a  storm 
arose  near  Umnak,  and  continued  for  several  days.  It  was 
very  dark  all  this  time,  and  low  noises  resembling  thunder 


468 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES. 


1796.  were  continually  heard.  On  the  third  day  the  sky  became 
clear  very  early,  and  a  flame  was  seen  arising  from  the  sea 
between  Unalashka  and  Umnak.  North  of  the  latter,  smoke 
was  observed  for  ten  days.  At  the  end  of  this  time,  from 
Unalashka  a  round  white  mass  was  seen  rising  out  of  the  sea. 
During  the  night  fire  arose  in  the  same  locality,  so  that  ob- 
jects ten  miles  off  were  distinctly  visible.  An  earthquake 
shook  Unalashka,  and  was  accompanied  by  fearful  noises. 
Rocks  were  thrown  from  the  new  volcano  as  far  as  Umnak. 
With  sunrise  the  noises  ceased,  the  fire  diminished,  and  the 
new  island  was  seen  in  the  form  of  a  black  cone.  It  was 
named  after  St.  John  the  Theologian  {Joanna  Bogoslova). 
A  month  later  it  was  considerably  higher,  and  emitted  flames 
constantly.  It  continued  to  rise,  but  steam  and  smoke  took 
the  place  of  fire.  Four  years  after  no  smoke  was  seen,  and 
in  1804  the  island  was  visited  by  hunters.  They  found  the 
sea  warm  around  it,  and  the  soil  in  many  places  too  hot  to 
walk  on.  It  was  said  to  be  two  miles  and  a  half  around,  and 
three  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high.  The  soil  emitted  an  odor 
of  bitumen.  It  is  forty-five  versts,  or  nearly  thirty-four  miles, 
due  west  from  the  north  point  of  Unalashka.  In  1806  lava 
flowed  from  the  summit  into  the  sea  on  the  north  side.  Fis- 
sures appeared,  lined  with  crystals  of  sulphur.  Veniami'noff 
says  that  it  ceased  to  enlarge  in  1823,  when  it  was  of  a  py- 
ramidal form,  and  about  fifteen  hundred  feet  high.  There  are 
many  strong  currents  about  it,  and  a  reef  extends  from  a  rock 
west  of  it  to  Umnak. 

From  this  time  to  1800  the  Four  Craters  remained  active. 
The  crater  of  Amak  was  unquiet. 

1802.  Makushin  emitted  flames  with  great  vigor.  Shocks  of 
earthquake  were  felt  in  Unalashka. 

181 2.  The  Sarychefif  volcano  in  Atka  was  in  violent  eruption. 
The  earthquakes  were  most  violent,  and  terrified  the  in- 
habitants. 

181 7.  Yunaska  smoked  in  April.  Upon  Umnak  a  tremendous 
earthquake  occurred,  with  a  violent  southwest  storm.  One 
of  the  north  peaks  emitted  clouds  of  ashes  and  smoke. 
At  daybreak  the  ashes  covered  the  soil,  from  twelve  to 
twenty  inches  thick.     A    small   river   near  the  factory  was 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES.       469 

1817.  filled  with  them,  and  contained  no  more  fish  for  a  year. 
Some  of  the  ashes,  and  stones  even,  are  said  to  have 
reached  Unalashka  and  Unimak.  A  village  on  the  northeast 
end  of  Umnak,  near  Deep  Bay,  was  covered  by  immense 
stones  and  ashes.  The  inhabitants  were  fortunately  absent 
at  the  Pn'bylofif  Islands.  They  built  a  new  village  on  a 
spot  which  had  been  under  water  before  the  earthquake.  A 
previously  navigable  channel  was  filled  up  with  the  stones 
ejected  during  the  eruption. 

18 1 8.  An  earthquake  occurred  in  the  vicinity  of  Makushin,  and 
great  changes  are  said  to  have  taken  place  in  Amatignak. 

1 8 19.  Mount  Wrangell  emitted  fire,  and  the  Redoubt  volcano  of 
Cook's  Inlet  smoked. 

1820.  Bogoslova  smoked. 

1824.  Shishaldin  emitted  flames,  and  a  mighty  eruption  took 
place  on  Yunaska. 

1825.  On  the  loth  of  March  subterranean  detonations  were 
heard  in  Unimak,  and  as  far  as  Unalashka.  On  the  north- 
east side  of  Isanotski  a  new  crater  broke  forth.  In  five 
or  six  places  flames  and  smoke  poured  out.  At  noon  the 
darkness  of  night  reigned,  even  in  Walrus  Village  forty-five 
miles  away.  Black  ashes  covered  the  peninsula  of  Aliaska 
as  far  as  Pavloff"  Bay.  At  the  same  time  a  torrent  of  water 
burst  out  of  the  south  side  of  the  mountain,  carrying  pumice 
and  ashes  with  it,  and  covering  a  strip  of  country  ten  miles 
wide  ;  even  the  sea  continued  muddy  until  late  in  the 
autumn. 

1826.  Further  disturbances  took  place  on  Unimak,  and  ashes  fell 
on  the  nth  of  October.  In  June  two  earthquakes  shook 
Unalashka. 

1827.  From  this  time  until  1829,  Shishaldin  and  Pogriimnoi 
volcanoes  emitted  fire.  Koniiishi  and  Kanaga  smoked,  while 
in  June  an  earthquake  was  felt  on  Copper  Island. 

1828.  Little  Sitkin,  Akhiin,  Akutan,  Tanak-Angunakh,  Atka, 
Koniushi,  Goreloi,  and  Shishaldin  smoked.  The  same  dis- 
turbances continued  for  two  years. 

1830.  Korovi'n  and  Atka  smoked.  An  eruption  occurred  on 
Yunaska  and  the  southwest  end  of  Umnak.  In  November 
a   fearful   noise   was   heard    through   the   fog   on    Unimak. 


470 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES. 


1830.  When  the  mist  cleared  away,  Isanotski  was  black,  all  the 
snow  had  disappeared,  and  flames  shot  forth  from  fissures  on 
the  north,  west,  and  south.  On  the  north  side,  the  flames  ap- 
peared three  times  a  minute,  followed  by  a  stronger  burst  of 
flames  and  smoke.  In  March,  1831,  the  fissures  had  closed, 
except  the  northern  one,  where  a  mass  of  red-hot  lava  was 
long  visible.  Bilberry  bushes,  before  unknown,  are  growing 
in  the  stratum  of  ashes  thrown  out  by  Pogrumnoi.  After 
the  eruption,  fish  floated  dead  on  the  water,  and  shell-fish 
disappeared.  Since  that  time  other  craters,  formerly  active, 
have  become  quiet. 

1836.  An  earthquake  occurred  on  the  Pri'byloff  Islands,  on  the 
2d  of  April.  The  shock  was  so  severe  that  people  could  not 
stand  erect,  and  was  preceded  by  a  loud  noise.  The  rocks 
were  split  and  broken  in  many  places,  and  the  same  phe- 
nomena occurred  with  less  violence  in  August. 

1838.  Shishaldin  emitted  fire,  and  smoke  arose  from  three  points. 
The  Four  Craters,  Makushin,  Akutan,  Mount  Veniaminoff, 
and  Pavloff"  volcano  smoked. 

1843.  On  the  23d  of  November,  Mount  St.  Helen's  broke  out. 

1844.  Korovin  and  Makushin  smoked  lightly. 

1854.    Light  shocks  occurred  in  the  Kaviak  peninsula. 

1862.    Similar  disturbances  were  reported  by  the  natives. 

1865.  When  the  vessels  of  the  telegraph  fleet  passed  through 
IJnimak  Pass  in  September,  Shishaldin  was  smoking,  and 
light  was  observed  at  night  in  the  direction  of  Akhiin,  and 
Akutan.     Makushin  was  also  active. 

1867.  In  August  a  shock  of  earthquake  occurred  on  the  Lower 
Yukon,  and  was  felt  at  the  Mission.  Amak  Island  had  lost 
its  activity  entirely. 

The  records  of  these  phenomena  are  exceedingly  incom- 
plete ;  but  that  they  are  less  frequent  and  less  severe  than 
formerly,  there  can  be  no  doubt. 

The  coal-bearing  strata  of  Queen  Charlotte's  Island,  about 
which  some  doubt  has  existed,  are  proved,  by  fossils  in  the  pos- 
session of  Professor  Whitney,  to  be  of  Cretaceous  age.  The 
same  formation  doubtless  extends  northward  into  the  Alexan- 
der Archipelago,  and  its  extent  has  not  been  determined.     The 


GEOLOGY    AxMD    MINERAL    RESOURCES. 


471 


rocks  near  Sitka  are  clay  slates,  argillite,  grauvvacke,  and  a  hard 
conglomerate  or  grit.  In  Noquashi'nski  Bay  finely  crystallized 
white  marble  occurs  ;  sienitic  granite  is  found  near  Deep  Lake, 
and  in  St.  John's  Bay  Mr.  Blake  found  fine  black  shales  and 
friable  sandstones,  with  fragments  of  bituminous  coal,  among  the 
detritus.  Near  the  northwest  end  of  Deep  Lake  are  springs 
with  a  temperature  of  120°  Fahrenheit.  They  contain  carbonate  of 
lime  and  sulphur  in  considerable  quantities.  The  rocks  of  Mount 
Vostovia  are  sienitic.  On  the  shores  of  Barlow's  Bay,  Admiralty 
Island  mica  schists,  with  a  vertical  dip,  enclose  quartz  veins  con- 
taining iron  pyrites.  At  the  head  of  Lynn  Canal  fragments  of 
finely  crystalline  white  marble  were  found  with  sienite  and  slate. 

Granite  and  metamorphic  rocks  are  abundant  along  the  coast 
from  Cape  Spencer  to  Cape  St.  Elias.  At  the  former  point 
Tertiary  strata  have  been  reported. 

The  southeast  shore  of  Kenai  is  metamorphic.  The  shores 
of  Chugachik  Bay  and  Cook's  Inlet  on  the  east  side,  as  far  as  the 
Kaknu  River,  are  Tertiary,  containing  beds  of  coal.  North  of  the 
Kaknu  River,  clay  slates  with  veins  of  gold-bearing  diorite  occur. 
In  the  alluvium  of  that  river  gold  has  been  detected.  The  rocks 
of  Kadiak  are  chiefly  metamorphic,  trachytic,  and  chloritic  slates 
with  veins  of  quartz.  Tertiary  sandstones  also  occur  with  fossils. 
Volcanic  and  metamorphic  rocks,  porphyry,  black  Jurassic  shales, 
and  Tertiary  beds,  occur  on  the  adjacent  shores  of  Aliaska.  Far- 
ther west  the  Tertiary  rocks  are  more  extensive,  and  frequently 
contain  lignite  and  fossil  wood.  They  have  been  noted  upon 
Tigalda,  Akhiin,  Unalashka,  L^mnak,  Amchi'tka,  and  St.  Paul's. 
The  islands  of  Akutan,  Bogoslova,  Four  Craters,  Yunaska, 
Amukhta,  St.  George,  Semi-sopochnoi,  Keeska,  Amak,  and 
Agattu,  are  supposed  to  be  entirely  volcanic.  Unalashka,  Amlia, 
x'^tka,  Amchi'tka,  and  Attu  also  contain  metamorphic  rocks  or 
porphyry.  Little  Si'tkin  is  the  most  western  volcano.  The  Com- 
mander's Islands  are  volcanic  and  metamorphic  ;  native  copper 
has  been  found  on  the  more  eastern,  from  which  it  takes  its 
name.  The  St.  Matthew  group  and  St.  Lawrence  are  volcanic 
and  metamorphic.  Granitic  rocks  are  known  to  exist  on  the 
Kuskoquim.  Marine  Miocene  strata  occupy  a  small  basin  on 
the  Yukon  near  Nulato.  In  one  place  near  the  Shaman  Moun- 
tain is  a  small  outcrop  of  lignite  and  shale  much  metamorphosed. 


472       GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES. 

Underneath  these  lie  gray  Miocene  sandstones  with  vegetable 
remains  extending  to  the  sea-coast.  All  these  rocks  are  much 
bent,  contorted,  and  metamorphosed  in  some  localities,  from 
the  intrusion  of  trachytic  and  basaltic  rocks.  Quartz  veins  cut 
the  strata  in  many  places.  Underneath  the  sandstones  are 
metamorphosed  quartzites  which  compose  the  greater  proportion 
of  the  strata  in  the  Yukon  Valley,  below  the  mouth  of  the  Porcu- 
pine. That  portion  of  the  country  near  the  delta  is  mostly 
alluvium  with  metamorphic  rocks.  From  St.  Michael's  Island, 
which  contains  an  extinct  crater,  to  the  Yukon,  extends  a  belt  of 
basaltic  rocks  containing  olivine,  and  of  recent  (geological)  age. 
The  natives  have  a  tradition  that  St.  Michael's  has  been  thrice 
submerged. 

Cape  Denbigh  is  said  to  be  porphyritic.  The  rocks  near 
Grantley  Harbor  are  quartzite  and  granitic.  In  Kotzebue  Sound, 
basalt,  metamorphic  rocks,  granite,  and  alluvium  are  the  preva- 
lent strata.  Granitic  rocks  occur  only  once  on  the  Yukon  near 
the  Rapids.  Obsidian  is  occasionally  found,  and  conglomerate 
beds  exist  in  one  or  two  places.  The  character  of  the  Arctic 
coast  has  already  been  mentioned. 

Any  account  of  Alaska  would  be  incomplete  which  did  not 
include  a  mention  of  the  remarkable  hot  and  mineral  springs 
which  are  so  numerous.  Those  of  Sitka  have  been  already  men- 
tioned. Whitby  records  the  existence  of  hot  saline  springs  be- 
low high-water  mark  near  Sitka.  In  Parenosa  Bay,  opposite 
Unga  Island,  on  the  south  coast  of  Aliaska,  are  several  hot 
springs.  Others  are  situated  on  Amagat  Island,  near  Aliaska, 
and  still  others  in  Port  Moller,  on  the  north  side  of  the  peninsula. 
A  lake  of  water  containing  sulphur  in  solution  exists  on  Unimak. 
Hot  marshes  are  found  near  Pogrumnoi  volcano.  Numerous 
boiling  springs  on  the  northeast  side  of  Akutan  form  a  small 
rivulet,  and  an  extinct  crater  is  filled  with  water  of  a  bitter  taste. 
On  a  small  island  southeast  of  Akhiin,  hot  springs  are  found 
between  tide-marks.  In  Unalashka,  near  Captain's  Harbor,  a 
thermal  spring  exists,  with  a  temperature  of  94°  Fahrenheit,  con- 
taining sulphur  in  solution.  Noises  which  sound  like  the  reports 
of  cannon  are  often  heard,  and  have  been  mistaken  for  coming 
vessels.  The  natives  have  a  tradition  that  long  ago  the  moun- 
tains fought  with  each  other,  and  Makushin  remained  victor. 


GEOLUCY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES.       473 

Many  hot  springs  exist  in  a  small  valley  of  I'mnak.  One  of 
these  rises  two  feet  and  falls  again,  four  times  an  hour.  The 
water  is  boiling,  and  there  is  no  perceptible  opening  in  the  soil. 
Near  Deep  Bay  are  several  springs  ranging  from  212°  Fahrenheit 
to  lukewarm.  The  Aleuts  are  accustomed  to  bathe  in  some  of 
them. 

Upon  the  island  of  Atka  many  such  springs  occur.  The  water 
of  some  of  them  contains  lime  and  sulphur,  but  is  less  bitter  than 
that  at  Sitka.  These  are  five  miles  from  Korovin  Bay,  and  their 
temperature  is  about  167°  Fahrenheit.  At  a  greater  altitude, 
upon  Koni  volcano  are  found  mud  craters  two  feet  in  diameter 
at  the  top,  of  a  funnel  shape,  diminishing  to  five  inches  at  the 
bottom.  They  are  frequently  full  of  mud  in  a  state  of  ebullition. 
Sulphurous  odors  and  subterranean  noises,  like  the  escape  of 
steam,  are  always  noticeable.  If  a  stick  is  thrust  into  the  ground 
and  withdrawn,  sulphurous  vapors  arise  with  great  force.  Be- 
tween Korovin  and  Kluchefif  volcanoes  is  a  verdant  valley.  Here 
the  warmth  arising  from  the  hot  springs  renders  the  vegetation 
rich,  and  this,  with  the  abundance  of  flowers,  presents  a  marked 
contrast  to  the  bare  and  sterile  flanks  of  the  volcanoes.  Ascend- 
ing, the  traveller  leaves  perpetual  summer  for  bare  and  forbidding 
lava  rocks  and  eternal  snow. 

There  are  many  hot  springs  upon  the  island  of  Adakh.  Boil- 
ing springs  on  Kanaga  have  been  used  for  cooking  food  by  the 
Aleuts  from  time  immemorial.  Goreloi  consists  of  a  vast  smok- 
ing cone  eighteen  miles  around.  It  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  the 
highest  in  the  archipelago. 

Very  active  hot  springs  exist  on  Sitignak  Island. 

A  lake  on  Beaver  Island  of  the  Pribyloff"  group  is  said  to  be 
strongly  impregnated  with  nitre. 

As  we  may  turn  to  the  coasts  of  Alaska  to  study  glaciers,  at 
their  very  sides  we  may  also  give  our  attention  to  exhibitions  of 
plutonic  force  and  volcanic  activity  which  are  almost  equal  to  any 
in  the  world. 

Economic  Geology. — The  most  valuable  of  the  previously  men- 
tioned formations,  from  an  economic  point  of  view,  is  the  Tertiary. 
In  it  are  contained  those  beds  of  coal  which  have  been  so  often 
reported  on  the  northwest  coast.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the 
known  localities  up  to  date  of  writing :    Port   Gardner  ;  Hood's 


474       GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES. 

Bay,  Admiralty  Island  (good,  bituminous,  used  by  the  Saginaw 
in  1868)  ;  Hamilton  Harbor,  on  the  east  side  of  Kake  Strait  (a 
vein  of  good  bituminous  coal  opened  here  in  July,  1868)  ;  Kruz- 
noflf  Bay,  Admiralty  Island  ;  Kuiu  Island  ;  Kuprianoft^  Island  ; 
Port  Camden,  Kake  Strait  (a  six-inch  vein  reported  in  hard  rock, 
with  a  southerly  dip  of  35°)  ;  St.  John's  Bay,  Baranoff  Island, 
(fragments  in  debris  of  a  glacier  ;  recent  reports  state  that  the 
vein  has  been  discovered,  and  the  coal  successfully  used  on  a 
United  States  steamer)  ;  Coal  Harbor,  Unga  Island  (examined 
by  the  writer  in  1865  ;  the  coal  is  of  poor  quality,  in  thin  veins, 
much  mixed  with  slate  and  silicified  wood  ;  quite  valueless)  ; 
south  coast  of  Aliaska  ("  Black  lignites,"  Erman)  ;  Cape  Beau- 
fort, Arctic  coast  (a  small  vein  of  true  Carboniferous  coal) ;  Akhiin 
(coal  said  to  occur  by  Liitke)  ;  Unalashka  (near  Captain's  Harbor, 
small  lignite  veins,  according  to  Veniami'noff)  ;  Atka  (lignite  of 
poor  quality  found  near  Sand  Bay) ;  Amchi'tka  (lignite,  Grewingk) ; 
Wrangell  Harbor  (coal  reported,  of  good  quality,  by  General 
Halleck)  ;  and  finally  Cook's  Inlet.  In  the  latter  locality  are 
found  the  most  promising  deposits.  North  of  Cape  Stan'chkoff, 
the  coal  is  found  in  two  parallel  layers.  They  are  variously  re- 
ported as  from  eighteen  inches  to  seven  feet  in  thickness,  and 
are  found  from  thirty-six  to  sixty  feet  below  the  top  of  the 
bank.  Farther  to  the  north  a  third  layer  appears.  They  con- 
tinue nearly  to  Cape  Nenilchik,  with  a  north-northeast  dip,  and 
appear  again  on  the  northern  side  of  the  cape,  and  then  con- 
tinue, first  with  a  south-southeast  dip,  and  afterwards  horizon- 
tally, to  the  mouth  of  a  small  stream.  The  coal  is  Tertiary  ; 
and,  like  most  Tertiary  coals,  is  inferior  to  the  Carboniferous 
coals  both  in  quality  and  thickness  of  seams.  The  annexed 
table  will  show  at  a  glance  the  comparative  value  and  compo- 
sition of  the  coals  of  the  different  formations  on  the  west  coast 
of  America,  and  the  best  Carboniferous  coals  of  Pennsylvania  and 
England. 

The  table  shows  at  a  glance,  better  than  any  description  could 
do,  the  superior  quality  of  the  Cook's  Inlet  coal,  not  only  over  all 
the  Miocene  coals,  but  also  over  all  the  Cretaceous  coals  of  the 
Pacific  slope.* 

*  The  analyses  of  the  Alaska  coal  are  due  to  Professor  J.  S.  Newberry  of  the  School 
of  Mines,  Columbia  College,  New  York,  and  State  geologist  of  Ohio.  Professor 
Newberry  is  excelled  by  none  in  his  knowledge  of  the  Tertiary  coal-bearing  deposits 


GEOLOGY    AND    MINERAL   RESOURCES.  475 

An.vlyses  of  Coal. 


1,3 

il 

'-J 
i 

I 

i 

i 

Locality  of  the  coal. 

J 

Fixed 
carbon. 

III 

>  £  S 

8 

Ash.          % 

Character. 

Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania     . 
Ormsby,  Pennsylvania  . 
Kentucky  .'.... 
Lehigh,  Pennsylvania    . 
Newcastle,  England  . 

2-34 
4.00 
2  00 
2.34 
0-99 

55-82    34-31 
66-56    26.93 
56  01  1  37-89 
88-05 '     2.94 
61-70    33-55 

7.16        ? 
2-50  1       } 
4-10 

6.66 
375;  0-23 

Bituminous. 

Bituminous. 

Cannel 

Anthracite- 

Bituminous- 

Nanaimo,  Vancouver  Island 
Bellingham  Bay 

Mount    Diablo',    California,    best 
"  black  diamond  "  . 

2-98 
8.39 

14.69 

46.31    32.16 
45-69    33-26 

46.84    33-89 

18.55!     ? 
1266      ? 

4-58      ? 

l.ignitic- 
Ligiiitic. 

Lignitic. 

Coose  Bay,  Oregon  - 

Carbon  Station,  \-r>     -i^    t>   ■^       j 

Weber  River.  '{  Pacific  Railroad 

Cook's  Inlet,  Alaska     . 

2009 
\  11-60 

(    9-45 
1-25 

41-98    32-59 
51.67    27.68 
26.21     58-32 
49-89    39-87 

5.34      -' 
6.17    2.90 
3.64    2-40 
782     1.20 

Lignitic- 
Lignitic. 
Lignitic- 
Lignitic. 

Anthracite  has  been  several  times  reported  from  various  parts 
of  Alaska.  It  is  probable  that  the  specimens  collected  may  owe 
their  quality  to  local  metamorphism  of  the  rocks  by  heat  rather 
than  to  the  general  character  of  any  large  deposit-  The  Cook's 
Inlet  coal,  it  will  be  noted,  contains  only  O-37  per  cent  less  com- 
bustible matter,  and  only  O-66  per  cent  more  ash  than  good  Pitts- 
burg bituminous  coal,  which  difterence  is  fully  made  up  by  the 
I-09  per  cent  more  water  which  exists  in  the  latter-  The  amount 
of  sulphur  is  less  than  in  either  of  the  two  best  Tertiary  coals  on 
the  line  of  the  Pacific  Railroad,  and  the  amount  of  moisture  is  less 
than  in  any  other  American  coal  tabulated. 

The  discoverers  of  these  outcrops  of  coal  must  recollect,  how- 
ever, that  the  value  of  coal  is  not  due  to  its  quality  alone.  Com- 
mercially speaking,  a  vein  of  coal  less  than  three  feet  thick  (of 
clear  coal)  is  of  very  little  value,  except  for  local  use.  The  dip  of 
the  strata,  its  faults  or  foldings,  the  solid  or  crumbling  character 
of  the  superincumbent  strata,  the  distance  from  a  market,  and  the 
facilities  for  mining,  shipping,  and  transportation,  —  all  these  are 
as  important  in  determining  the  value  of  a  deposit  as  the  char- 
acter of  the  coal  itself. 

of  the  United  States,  and  says  :  "  This  coal  is  fully  equal  to  any  found  on  the  west 
coast,  not  e.xcepting  those  of  Vancouver  Island  and  Bellingham  Bay."  For  the  use 
of  the  analyses  I  am  indebted  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 


476       GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES. 

The  existence  of  deposits  of  coal  of  permanent  value,  in  Alaska, 
though  very  probable,  can  only  be  determined  by  a  thorough  ex- 
amination, and  is  yet  to  be  proved. 

Amber  occurs  extensively  in  these  beds  associated  with  lignite. 
It  is  common  in  the  lignite  deposits  on  the  peninsula  of  Aliaska, 
and  I  have  obtained  it  from  the  alluvium  in  the  delta  of  the 
Yukon.  It  is  also  found  in  the  vicinity  of  most  of  the  Tertiary 
coal  deposits  on  the  Fox  Islands,  and  is  an  article  of  ornament 
with  the  natives,  who  carve  it  into  rude  beads.  Grewingk  says  that 
the  natives  collect  it  at  Amber  Bay,  Aliaska,  and  sell  it  to  the 
Kadiak  traders.  It  is  also  found  in  the  Tertiary  strata  of  Kadiak. 
A  small  lake  among  the  mountains  of  Unalashka  contains  an 
amber-bearing  island.  On  the  island  of  Umnak,  near  Yagorkoft- 
ski  Village,  is  a  steep  bank  of  friable  material.  The  natives 
spread  a  walrus-skin  between  two  boats  at  the  foot  of  the  bank 
and  dislodge  the  earth,  which  falls  upon  the  skin,  and  from  this 
debris  much  amber  is  obtained.  It  is  also  said  to  be  found  on 
the  Kuskoqiiim. 

Among  the  other  mineral  products  of  Alaska,  probably  of  this 
age,  is  petroleum.  This  is  found  floating  on  the  surface  of  a  lake 
near  the  bay  of  Katmai,  Aliaska  Peninsula.  It  is  of  the  specific 
gravity  of  25°  (Beaume),*  quite  odorless,  and  in  its  crude  state 
an  excellent  lubricator  for  machinery  of  any  kind. 

The  beds  of  white  marble  near  Sitka  and  in  Lynn  Canal,  if 
uniformly  of  as  good  quality  as  the  specimens  obtained  by  the 
United  States  Coast  Survey  officers,  will  prove  of  great  value. 
The  natives  have  long  been  in  the  habit  of  carving  images, 
labrets,  &c.,  of  this  material. 

Gold  and  silver  occur  in  limited  quantities  in  Alaska.  The 
latter  is  sometimes  associated  with  native  copper. 

Talcose  and  chloritic  slate,  with  veins  of  quartz,  abound  in  the 
island  of  Kadiak.  An  analysis  of  specimens  of  these  rocks  by 
Dr.  Newberry  shows  only  about  $  i  per  ton  in  gold  and  silver. 
He  says  in  regard  to  them,  however :  "  These  specimens  come 
from  a  system  which  at  other  points  is  probably  much  richer. 
The  mineralogical  character  of  the  specimens  is  precisely  that  of 
the  most  productive  gold-bearing  veins  known,  although  silver 
will  not  be  found  in  quantity  in  such  an  association  of  minerals." 

*  Newberry,  Report  on  Alaska  Minerals  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES.       477 

It  is  not  impossible  that  the  gold-bearing  alluvium  of  Cook's  Inlet, 
first  examined  by  Doroshin,  was  originally  deriv^ed  from  similar 
rocks,  especially  as  the  island  of  Kadiak  is  apparently  a  prolon- 
gation of  the  peninsula  of  Kenai,  on  which  the  gold-bearing  allu- 
vial was  found. 

Another  analysis  of  this  quartz,  by  Dr.  John  Hevvston,  Jr., 
afibrded  S4.15  in  silver  per  two  thousand  pounds,  with  a  trace 
of  gold.  These  specimens  were  associated  with  sulphurets  of 
lead  and  iron. 

The  gold  deposits  of  the  Stiki'ne  River  are  all  situated  in  British 
territory.  They  are  only  worked  in  the  placers,  but  gold  is  said 
to  exist  in  quartz  veins  in  the  vicinity.  The  head-waters  of  the 
Tahco  River  have  afforded  coarse  gold  to  the  few  enterprising 
miners  who  have  penetrated  there.  Gold  in  small  quantities  is 
found  in  the  sands  of  the  Yukon,  near  Fort  Yukon.  The  allu- 
vium of  the  Kaknu  River  is  a  yellowish  clay,  and  has  not  yet 
been  worked  by  any  practical  miners. 

Gold  has  been  found  in  the  bay  on  which  the  Taku  villages 
are  situated,  and  in  the  streams  of  the  vicinity.  It  averages  five 
cents  to  the  pan  in  scales  or  small  nuggets.  The  richest  deposit 
was  on  the  main  stream,  four  or  five  miles  from  the  bay,  at  the 
foot  of  a  waterfall,  said  to  be  one  hundred  feet  high.  The  In- 
dians here  were  "  Kakes,"  and  said  to  be  unfriendly.  (Alaska 
Times,  September  25,  1869.) 

Native  copper,  occasionally  associated  with  silver,  has  long 
been  obtained  from  the  natives  of  the  Atna  or  Copper  River.  It 
occurs  in  rounded  masses  sometimes  weighing  thirty-six  pounds. 
The  original  locality  is  unknown  and  carefully  concealed  by  the 
natives,  with  whom  it  is  an  article  of  trade.  The  specimens  have 
a  worn  appearance,  as  if  from  the  bed  of  a  stream.  That  this 
metal  exists  in  large  quantities  in  this  vicinity,  there  can  be  no 
doubt.  Metallic  copper  is  reported  from  Unalashka  by  Veniami- 
noff,  and  has  been  obtained  from  the  north  end  of  Admiralty 
Island  and  from  Unga  Island  by  the  Russians.  The  blue  car- 
bonate occurs  on  the  Kuskoquim  and  near  Cape  Romanzoff,  and 
the  sulphurets  on  the  north  coast  of  Aliaska.  Mercury,  in  the 
form  of  cinnabar,  exists  in  the  Cretaceous  strata  of  the  Alexander 
Archipelago.  The  locality  is  unknown,  but  fine  specimens  were 
in  the  possession  of  the  Russians. 


478       GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES. 

Lead,  in  the  shape  of  galena,  is  reported  from  Whale  Bay,  about 
twenty  miles  south  of  Sitka,  and  near  St.  Paul's,  Kadiak.  It  has 
been  found  only  in  small  quantities. 

Iron  exists  in  many  parts  of  the  territory,  but  no  valuable  de- 
posits, fit  for  working,  have  yet  been  noticed.  The  titanic  and 
magnetic  oxides,  in  the  form  of  sand,  have  been  reported  from  the 
island  of  St.  Paul.  The  micaceous  oxide  is  used  as  a  pigment  by 
the  Yukon  Indians.  A  red  ferruginous  clay  is  used  by  the  same 
tribes  in  decorating  all  wooden  articles. 

Graphite,  or  plumbago,  is  reported  from  Kadiak,  Seguam,  Ka- 
chi'daguk  Point,  Aliaska,  and  by  La  Perouse  from  Litiiya  Bay. 

Black  oxide  of  manganese  has  been  received  from  the  Kusko- 
quim. 

Next  to  copper  and  coal,  sulphur  is  probably  the  most  valuable 
mineral  of  the  territory.  It  has  long  been  in  use  as  a  means  of 
obtaining  fire  by  the  coast  tribes,  and  is  reported,  with  great 
probability,  to  exist  in  large  quantities  in  connection  with  the 
numerous  volcanic  peaks  and  craters  of  Alaska.  It  has  been 
reported  as  existing  in  solution  in  most  of  the  hot  and  mineral 
springs  elsewhere  referred  to,  and  in  a  solid  form  in  the  following 
localities  :  near  the  craters  of  the  Aliaska  volcanoes,  on  the  isl- 
and of  Kadiak  (?) ;  in  the  fissures  of  Shishaldin  on  Unimak,  and 
in  large  quantities  near  Pogriimnoi  Village  on  the  same  island  ; 
in  a  small  crater  on  Akutan ;  in  quantities  on  a  small  island 
southeast  of  Akhun,  near  the  summit  of  Makushin  volcano  ;  in 
the  mud  craters  of  Atka ;  and  finally  on  the  volcanic  peaks  of 
Kanaga. 

In  case  of  war,  when  the  supply  of  Sicilian  sulphur  might  be 
cut  off,  or  for  the  manufacture  of  blasting-powder  for  the  miners 
of  California,  these  deposits  may  prove  of  very  considerable  value. 
The  waters  of  a  small  lake  on  Beaver  Island,  of  the  PribylofT 
group,  are  said  by  Veniami'noff  to  be  strongly  impregnated  with 
another  ingredient  of  gunpowder,  namely,  nitre. 

Kaolin  occurs  on  Amchi'tka,  but  the  amount  and  exact  locality 
are  not  recorded. 

Boulder  Island  produces,  according  to  Grewingk,  "earthcream  ( ' ), 
or  edible  earth,  consisting  of  pure  gypsum  without  infusoria." 
This  statement  needs  explanation. 

Upon  Umnak  a  good  quality  of  fire-clay  is  found  near  Yagor- 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES.       479 

koffski  Village.  The  exploration  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  Alaska 
has  hardly  begun. 

In  regard  to  precious  stones  we  have  very  little  information. 
Amethysts  are  not  uncommon  in  veins  of  quartz.  Zeolites  are 
abundant  in  the  amygdaloid  rocks  of  the  Lower  Yukon.  Tour- 
malines and  garnets  are  reported  from  Kotzebue  Sound.  Garnets 
are  abundant  near  Fort  Simpson,  in  mica  schists.  Spinel  oc- 
curs in  a  bed  of  whitish  decomposed  volcanic  rock  on  St.  George's 
Island.  The  crystals  are  large,  but  usually  dark  and  full  of  im- 
perfections. Agates  and  carnelians  are  abundant  in  numerous 
localities,  especially  Unga  and  the  valley  of  the  Lower  Yukon. 
Diamonds  have  erroneously  been  reported  from  I'nga. 

Among  Indian  carvings  I  have  seen  several  made  of  beautifully 
variegated  marble,  with  streaks  of  red,  black,  and  cream-color. 
Hypochlorite,  a  rich  green  ore  of  bismuth,  with  delicate  streaks 
of  different  shades,  is  commonly  used  for  ornaments  by  the  natives 
of  the  coast  from  Bering  Strait  to  Sitka.  It  somewhat  resembles 
jade  in  appearance,  and  has  been  referred  to  as  malachite  by 
ignorant  explorers. 

Wild  and  exaggerated  stories  have  found  a  place,  even  in  offi- 
cial documents,  in  regard  to  fossil  ivory.  This  is  not  uncommon 
in  many  parts  of  the  valleys  of  the  Yukon  and  Kuskoquim.  It  is 
usually  found  on  the  surface,  not  buried  as  in  Siberia,  and  all  that 
I  have  seen  has  been  so  much  injured  by  the  weather  that  it  was 
of  little  commercial  value.  It  is  usually  blackened,  split,  and  so 
fragile  as  to  break  readily  in  pieces.  A  lake  near  Nushergak,  the 
Inglutalik  River,  and  the  Kotlo  River,  are  noted  localities  for  this 
ivory.  It  has  also  been  found  on  the  shores  of  Kotzebue  Sound 
and  the  Arctic  coast. 

Ice  has  long  been  an  article  of  trade  with  the  Russian  Ameri- 
can Company.  The  history  of  this  trade  is  given  elsewhere.  The 
first  cargo  was  sold  for  S75  a  ton.  It  was  soon  found  that  it  was 
impossible  to  procure  ice  of  good  quality  or  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities in  the  latitude  of  Sitka.  The  establishments  were  thereibre 
removed  to  a  small  island  near  Kadiak,  where  they  still  remain. 
At  various  times  vessels  have  loaded  with  ice  from  several  of 
the  glaciers  to  the  southward.  The  value  of  the  ice  imported 
into  California  in  1868  was  $28,000.  The  demand  for  it  has  not 
greatly  increased  of  late  years,  yet  it  seems  as  if,  when  once  in- 


480       GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  RESOURCES. 

troduced  into  Mexican,  South  American,  and  Asiatic  ports,  that  a 
profitable  trade  might  be  carried  on.  At  present  ice  is  taken 
from  New  England  to  India  and  China,  a  much  greater  distance, 
requiring  a  longer  voyage  through  hot  latitudes,  and  of  course 
necessitating  a  large  waste  while  on  the  way. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  geology,  minerals,  and  rocks  of  Alaska  is 
extremely  meagre.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  our  energetic  traders 
and  trappers  will  enable  us  to  increase  it  by  collecting  and  trans- 
mitting specimens  from  clearly  identified  localities.  In  this  way 
our  stock  of  information  may  be  rapidly  enlarged,  and  the  growth 
and  prosperity  of  the  new  Territory  promoted. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

Fisheries,  Fur  Trade,  and  other  Resources  not  previously  mentioned. 

EXTENSIVE  fisheries  have  always  been  considered  by  all 
nations  as  among  the  most  productive  sources  of  wealth 
and  prosperity. 

The  annual  value  of  the  British  fisheries  is  estimated  at  twenty- 
five  millions  of  dollars.  Those  of  the  French  produce  three 
millions,  and  the  catch  of  American  vessels  on  the  northeast 
coast  has   an   annual  value   of  two  millions. 

The  abundance  of  fish  on  the  shores  of  Alaska  has  been  a 
matter  of  wonder  since  the  voyages  of  the  earliest  navigators. 
Billings,  Cook,  La  Perouse,  Liitke,  Lisiansky,  Belcher,  and  Sir 
George  Simpson,  have  all  borne  credible  witness  to  the  myriads 
of  cod,  salmon,  halibut,  and  herring,  which  are  found  on  the 
northwest  coast.  Fish  have  always  formed  the  largest  part  of 
the  food  of  the  native  population,  and  while  the  fisheries,  from  a 
commercial  point  of  view,  are  still  in  their  infancy,  yet  there  can 
be  no  question  as  to  their  immense  value  and  extent. 

The  principal  marine  fish  of  the  Alaskan  waters  are  cod,  hali- 
but, herring,  tomcod,  ulikon,  and  mullet. 

The  cod  are  the  most  abundant  and  valuable  of  these  fish. 
They  are  found  principally  on  soundings  of  about  fifty  to  twenty- 
five  fathoms.  The  most  northern  point  reached  by  the  cod  is 
determined  by  the  floating  ice  line  of  Bering  Sea.  This  passes 
between  the  St.  Matthew  and  Pri'byloff  groups  of  islands  and 
touches  the  mainland  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mouth  of  the  Kusko- 
quim  River.  North  of  it  there  are  no  cod.  They  extend  south- 
w^ard  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Straits  of  Fuca,  but  are  most  abun- 
dant from  Yakutat  Bay  north,  and  west  among  the  islands  of  the 
Kadiak  and  Aleutian  Archipelagoes.  The  cod-banks  are  gen- 
erally in  the  vicinity  of  land,  but  off-shore  banks  have  been  found, 
though  the  fishermen  endeavor  to  keep  the  locality  of  any  such 
31 


482  FISHERIES. 

discovery  to  themselves.  The  fisheries  extend  clear  across  the 
Pacific,  and  abundance  of  cod  are  found  in  the  Ochotsk  Sea. 
In  searching  for  cod-banks,  fishermen  may  generally  take  the 
trend  of  the  adjacent  land  or  groups  of  islands,  and  the  banks, 
if  any,  will  probably  be  found  in  the  line  of  that  trend  or  in  lines 
parallel  with  it.  The  known  banks  are  of  greater  extent  than 
those  of  Newfoundland.  The  best,  as  far  as  known,  are  near  the 
Shiimagin  Islands. 

The  best  Ochotsk  banks  are  near  Sakhalin  Island,  or  on  the 
west  coast  of  Kamchatka.  The  round  voyage  to  the  Ochotsk 
averages  170  days.  That  to  the  Shumagins  is  usually  about 
1 10  days,  a  saving  of  two  months,  and  2,000  miles  in  favor  of 
the  latter,  to  say  nothing  of  the  safe  harbors  close  at  hand  and 
the  greater  facilities  for  obtaining  fresh  provisions,  wood,  and 
water. 

The  importation  of  Atlantic  cod  into  the  markets  of  San  Fran- 
cisco averaged  about  500  tons  in  1863  and  1864. 

The  product  of  the  Californian  fishermen  hitherto  has  been  as 
follows  :  — 

I  vessel,     1864,  120  tons,     or       40,000  fish. 

?       "  1865,  523     "         "      249,000    " 

18       "  1866,         1,614     "         "      706,200    " 

23       "  1867,        2,164     "         "      947.264    " 

The  immense  catch  of  1867,  of  which  more  than  one  half  was 
from  the  vicinity  of  the  Shumagins,  temporarily  overstocked  the 
market,  and  in  the  spring  of  1868  only  twelve  vessels  were  en- 
gaged in  the  fisheries  against  twenty-three  the  previous  year. 
In  the  quarter  ending  December  31,  1868,  eight  vessels  of  2,442 
tons,  employing  237  men,  were  engaged  in  the  fisheries.  It  is 
much  to  be  regretted  that  since  the  purchase  of  the  territory  no 
record  of  imports  of  this  kind  has  been  kept,  as  they  came  under 
the  head  of  coastwise  trade.  This  has  rendered  it  impossible  to 
obtain  full  statistics  of  the  fisheries.*  For  the  quarter  ending 
June  30,  1868,  470  cwt.  and  17  bbls.  of  fish,  were  exported  from 
San  Francisco  to  New  York.  The  value  of  cod  obtained  from 
foreign   waters    during    the    same    period    was    $119,127,    which 

*  The  catch  for  the  autumn  of  1869  is  just  reported  as  one  million  and  eighty-two 
thousand  fish.  This,  at  the  low  average  of  three  pounds  and  a  half  each,  would 
be  worth,  at  five  cents  a  pound,  $  1 89. 350  in  gold. 


FISHERIES.  483 

shows  abundant  room  for  the  extension  of  the  fisheries  in  Ameri- 
can waters.  The  total  amount  of  fish  from  foreign  waters  im- 
ported into  the  United  States  during  the  eight  months  ending 
August  31,  1867,  was  994,988  lbs.,  and  for  the  same  period  in 
1868,  927,540  lbs. 

There  appear  to  be  two  kinds  of  cod  in  the  Pacific  fisheries, 
both  of  which  are  distinct  species  from  the  Atlantic  cod.  As  a 
rule,  the  heads  are  larger  in  proportion  to  the  bodies  than  in  the 
latter.  The  first  of  the  two  kinds  referred  to  is  small,  but  of  good 
quality,  and  appears  to  frequent  the  banks  during  the  entire  year. 
The  other  and  larger  species  arrives  on  the  banks  about  May  loth, 
and  leaves  them  about  September  loth.  These  are  a  little  smaller 
than  the  Ochotsk  fish,  but  dry  heavier,  averaging  about  four  pounds. 
The  Shiimagin  fish  are  the  best  in  quality,  and  most  of  the  Cali- 
fornian  fishermen  have  abandoned  the  Ochotsk  for  these  fisheries. 

No  tongues  and  sounds,  and  but  little  cod  liver  oil,  has  been 
saved  by  these  fishermen  as  yet.  Ten  thousand  gallons  of  oil 
were  reported  in  1866.  The  Shumagin  fishermen,  according  to 
Mr.  Davidson,  from  whose  report  many  of  the  above  facts  were 
obtained,  are  in  the  habit  of  running  into  Coal  Harbor  Saturday 
night,  and  remaining  there  during  Sunday. 

The  supply  of  bait  has  been  sometimes  taken  from  San  Fran- 
cisco, at  a  cost  of  about  $100  for  a  one-hundred-ton  vessel.  Oth- 
ers have  relied  on  halibut  and  sculpins.  There  are  many  places 
near  the  banks  where  the  dredge  would  bring  up  abundance  of 
shell-fish  excellent  for  bait.  This  is  the  case  in  the  shallow  part 
of  Coal  Harbor,  and  in  the  harbor  of  St.  Paul's,  Kadiak.  Her- 
ring and  other  small  fish  in  their  season  might  be  obtained  in 
immense  quantities  at  slight  expense  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  prices  of  salt  codfish  of  first  quality,  in  San  Francisco, 
have  ranged  from  thirteen  cents  to  seven  and  a  half  in  gold,  per 
pound.  It  is  not  probable  that  they  will  continue  so  high.  These 
fishermen,  like  other  Californians,  are  in  haste  to  make  money,  and 
if  it  does  not  come  in  as  fast  as  they  wish,  are  apt  to  disparage  the 
fisheries.  They  are  not  content  with  the  small  and  steady  gains 
which  satisfy  Eastern  fishermen.  I  saw  recently  in  the  tele- 
graphic column  of  a  newspaper  the  following  item.  "  San  Fran- 
cisco.   Arrived,  schr. with  35,000  codfish,  and  discouraging 

reports  of  the  fisheries  "  !     Prudence  and  care  are  not  extensively 


484  FISHERIES. 

consulted  in  business  on  the  West  Coast,  and  great  expectations 
are  tlie  rule. 

Cod  have  been  taken  at  Nootka,  Sitka,  Litiiya  Bay,  Yakutat 
Bay,  Chugach  Gulf,  Cook's  Inlet,  through  the  whole  Aleutian 
chain,  Bristol  Bay,  and  the  Pn'bylofif  Islands.  In  1865  and  1866 
the  Western  Union  Telegraph  vessels  obtained  abundance  of  fine 
cod  in  Coal   Harbor,  Unga  Island,  and  off  Unimak,  in  August. 

The  weather  on  the  fishing  banks  from  June  to  the  middle  of 
August  is  rainy  and  foggy,  with  southeast  winds.  From  that  time 
until  the  latter  part  of  September  northwest  winds  and  fine  weather 
are  usual.     Later  in  the  season  heavy  southerly  gales  occur. 

The  halibut  are  smaller  than  those  of  the  Eastern  fisheries,  but 
near  Sitka  and  along  the  coast  they  have  been  taken  from  three 
to  five  hundred  pounds  in  weight.  They  are  not  found  north  of 
the  ice  line  in  Bering  Sea,  except,  perhaps,  in  summer. 

The  herring,  which  resemble  those  of  the  North  Sea  of  Europe, 
arrive  in  incalculable  numbers  in  June  on  the  shores  of  Bering 
Sea,  as  far  north  as  the  Straits.  The  fishery  lasts  but  a  fortnight, 
and  is  over  by  the  15th  of  June.  They  are  caught  in  seines  by 
the  natives,  and  kept  until  half  putrid,  especially  in  Kamchatka, 
when  they  are  reckoned  a  delicacy.  They  are  also  found  at  Sitka 
and  along  the  southern  coast,  but  I  have  not  been  able  to  find 
out  at  what  season  they  arrive.  They  are  caught  in  immense 
numbers  by  the  Indians,  who  have  only  a  lath  with  three  nails 
driven  through  it  and  sharpened.  With  these  they  beat  the 
water,  which  is  so  full  of  fish,  during  their  season,  that  it  is  rare 
not  to  see  a  herring  on  every  nail.  They  fill  their  canoes  easily 
in  less  than  an  hour.  Their  method  of  fishing  for  cod  and  hali- 
but is  mentioned  elsewhere. 

The  "  mullet "  is  not  known  to  me,  but  Seemann  mentions  it 
as  replacing  the  salmon  north  of  Kotzebue  Sound  along  the  coast. 

The  tomcod  or  zvankJini  of  the  natives  is  a  permanent  resi- 
dent of  the  more  northern  coasts.  It  is  more  plenty  in  the  fall 
than  at  other  seasons.  It  is  caught  with  an  ivory  hook  without 
bait  or  barb,  especially  just  as  the  ice  begins  to  form  along  shore, 
in  Norton  Sound.  Boat-loads  are  obtained,  as  they  bite  at  the 
white  iv^ory  hook  as  fast  as  they  can  be  pulled  up.  I  saw  immense 
quantities  of  them  in  Avatcha  Bay.  They  would  be  well  suited 
for  bait. 


FISHERIES.  485 

The  ulikon  has  long  been  the  subject  of  remark  from  those 
who  have  visited  the  part  of  the  coast  where  it  abounds.  It 
is  a  small  silvery  fish,  averaging  about  fourteen  inches  long, 
and  resembling  a  smelt  in  general  appearance.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  native  fisheries  is  on  the  Nasse  River  in  British 
Columbia.  The  spot  is  named  Kit-ldk-a-laks,  and  there  was  a 
mission  situated  there.  Many  tribes  come  to  these  fisheries, 
which  begin  about  the  20th  or  25th  of  March.  The  first  fish 
is  addressed  as  a  chief,  with  appropriate  ceremonies.  After 
these  are  over,  the  fishing  goes  on  for  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks. 
The  fish  are  caught  in  a  sort  of  basket  made  of  wicker-work. 
They  are  the  fattest  of  all  known  fish,  and  afford  a  superior  oil 
when  tried  out.  The  amount  of  fat  is  so  great  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  keep  them  in  alcohol  for  scientific  examination. 

Dried,  they  serve  as  torches ;  when  a  light  is  needed,  the  tail  is 
touched  to  the  fire,  and  they  will  burn  with  a  bright  light  for 
some  time.  No  description  can  give  an  adequate  idea  of  their 
numbers  when  ascending  the  river  ;  the  water  is  literally  alive 
with  them,  and  appears  as  if  boiling.  Wild  animals  draw  from 
the  stream  with  their  paws  sufficient  for  all  their  needs.  I  have 
not  heard  that  these  fisheries  have  been  utilized,  except  by  the 
natives. 

The  fresh-water  fish  of  Alaska  are  principally  salmon,  white- 
fish,  losh,  or  burbot,  pike,  and  suckers. 

The  salmon  are  of  many  species.  Those  best  suited  for  food 
are  called  by  the  Russians  chozvicJiec  {Salmo  orientalisf),  korbuska 
{Salnio proteusf),  BXid goltse'k  {Sahno  alpinns?).  On  the  Yukon  the 
redfish  {Salmo  sajiguineits?)  is  also  a  favorite.  Other  kinds,  with 
large  heads  and  many  bones  (5.  dermatinus  and  consiietus),  are 
dried  for  the  use  of  the  dogs.  The  number  of  salmon  annually 
consumed  by  the  natives  of  Alaska  cannot  be  less  than  twelve  mil- 
lion, at  the  lowest  estimate.  At  the  single  Russian  fishery  near 
Deep  Lake,  BaranofF  Island,  84,159  fish  were  obtained  during  the 
season,  of  which  two  thirds  were  salted.  At  the  fisheries  on 
Kadicik  and  Cook's  Inlet,  465,000  salmon  were  caught  annually. 
Among  the  articles  sent  by  Baranoff"  to  the  Sandwich  Islands 
were  4,344  casks  of  salted  salmon,  which  realized  the  sum  of 
93,161  R.  s.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Yukon  not  less  than  two  mil- 
lion salmon  are  dried   every  summer,  and  probably  double  that 


486  FISHERIES. 

number.  Words  fail  to  describe  their  abundance.  The  weak 
and  injured  fish,  which  die  after  spawning,  I  have  seen  piled  three 
or  four  deep  in  winrows,  on  the  banks  of  the  Unalakli'k  River,  in 
the  middle  of  October.  The  fishing  on  the  Yukon  begins  in 
June,  and,  except  near  the  sea,  is  over  by  the  middle  of  September. 
Farther  up  the  season  is  still  more  limited  ;  at  Nuklukahyet  it 
lasts  not  more  than  two  months.  Above  Anvi'k  their  abundance 
is  not  so  noticeable.  The  sloughs  of  the  Yukon-mouth  and  the 
smaller  rivers,  which  empty  into  Bering  Sea,  have  proportionate- 
ly more  fish  in  them.  The  chowi'chee  of  the  Yukon  is  the  king 
of  salmon.  Laid  in  a  little  water,  to  prevent  burning  at  first,  a 
slice  of  this  fish  will  more  than  cover  itself  in  the  pan  with  its  own 
fat.  A  number  of  barrels  were  annually  sent  from  St.  Michael's 
to  the  governor  at  Sitka,  and  by  him  even  to  St.  Petersburg,  as  a 
rare  delicacy.  None  of  the  more  southern  salmon  can  compare 
with  it  in  flavor.  It  is  particularly  plenty  on  the  Kusilvak,  and 
the  largest,  weighing  sixty  pounds,  can  be  bought  for  a  single 
leaf  of  Circassian  tobacco.  A  Russian  established  a  fishery  in 
Kazarn  Bay  during  the  season  of  1S68.  From  the  ist  of  July  to 
the  end  of  August  he  put  up  two  hundred  barrels  a  week,  and 
could  have  trebled  it  had  he  been  supplied  with  casks  and  salt  in 
sufficient  quantity. 

Examples  might  be  indefinitely  multiplied,  but  sufficient  has 
been  said  to  give  an  idea  of  the  value,  extent,  and  importance  of 
this  branch  of  the  fisheries. 

TheVe  are  no  salmon  north  of  the  Buckland  River,  Kotzebue 
Sound,  but  they  are  replaced  by  the  "  mullet,"  according  to  Dr. 
Seemann. 

The  whitefish  {Coregoni),  especially  in  the  north,  are  nearly  as  abun- 
dant as  the  salmon,  but  with  one  exception  they  are  much  smaller. 

The  nelima  of  the  Russians  is  found  four  feet  long,  and  of 
delicious  flavor.  In  the  Yukon  there  are  eight  species  of 
whitefish.  These  fish  are  in  many  respects  superior  to  the  sal- 
mon, as  many  who  have  tasted  the  Lake  Superior  whitefish,  in 
perfection,  will  admit.  They  are  more  difficult  to  preserve,  how- 
ever, the  skin  and  flesh  being  very  tender  and  delicate.  In  the 
Yukon  Valley  they  usually  form  the  chief  reliance  of  the  traders 
in  winter,  when  there  are  no  salmon.  They  possess  one  virtue, — 
that  of  not  cloying  by  long  use,  as  salmon  always  does. 


FISHERIES.  487 

The  losh,  eelpout,  or  burbot  {^Lota  inaculata),  is  also  abundant  in 
all  the  northern  rivers.  They  grow  to  a  very  large  size,  —  some 
I  have  seen  were  five  feet  long,  —  and  form  an  acceptable  dish  in 
the  absence  of  whitefish.  Their  flesh  is  hard  and  white,  and  their 
chief  value  is  for  the  liver.  This,  when  broiled,  is  an  exceedingly 
rich  and  delicate  morsel,  and  affords  a  rich  sweet  oil,  used  by  the 
Russians  for  cooking.  The  liver  of  a  large  losh  will  produce 
nearly  a  pint  of  oil,  which  perhaps  would  form  an  acceptable  sub- 
stitute for  cod-liver  oil.  They  are  very  abundant,  especially  in  the 
autumn,  and  are  an  exclusively  fresh-water  fish.  The  skin  is 
dried  and  used  in  trimming  their  dresses  by  the  Innuit,  and  serves 
for  windows  in  Eastern  Siberia.  The  pike  {Esox  cstor)  abounds 
in  all  the  ponds  and  lakes.  The  flesh  is  dry  and  inferior  to  that 
of  the  other  fish.  The  roe  and  heads  of  the  Yukon  suckers 
{Catostomi)  afford  a  rich  soup,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  spawn 
of  the  losh. 

Shell-fish  (except  oysters),  crabs,  and  mussels,  can  be  obtained 
almost  everywhere  north  of  Dixon's  Entrance,  and  form  a  large 
part  of  the  food  of  the  natives. 

Turning  from  these,  we  find  other  sources  of  wealth,  also  known 
as  fisheries.  The  pursuit  of  the  whale,  seal,  and  walrus  has  al- 
ways formed  a  large  part  of  the  commerce  of  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain.  The  right-whale  fishery  of  the  North  At- 
lantic, carried  on  by  hundreds  of  vessels  of  all  nations,  is  annu- 
ally becoming  less  profitable.  For  some  years  the  larger  part  of 
the  right-whale  and  bowhead  oil  and  bone  has  been  obtained 
from  the  North   Pacific. 

In  1848,  the  ship  Superior,  Captain  Roys,  passed  through 
Bering  Strait,  and  this,  the  first  effort  of  the  kind,  was  rewarded 
by  a  full  cargo  in  a  very  short  space  of  time.  The  report  spread, 
and  in  the  following  season  the  example  of  Captain  Roys  was 
followed  by  one  hundred  and  fifty-four  American  whalers. 

The  products  of  the  American  whale  fishery  for  the  quarter 
ending  June  30,  1868,  were  1,483,083  gallons  of  oil  (other  than 
sperm)  and  526,566  pounds  of  baleen  or  whalebone,  of  which  the 
total  value  was  $  1,661,922.  The  greater  part  of  this  came  from 
the  vicinity  of  Bering  Strait. 

The  ravages  of  the  pirate  Shenandoah  in  1864,  struck  a  serious 
blow  to  the  American  whale  fisheries  in  this  region.     Neverthe- 


488  FUR    TRADE. 

less,  the  business  has  rallied,  and  at  present  not  less  than  seventy 
American  whalers  visit  Bering  Strait,  obtaining  annually  an 
average  of  1,200  barrels  of  oil  and  20,000  pounds  of  bone. 

The  whales  of  this  vicinity  are  known  as  the  bowhead,  the 
right-whale,  the  sulphur-bottom,  humpback,  and  "  California 
gray."  The  first  two  furnish  the  best  quality  of  baleen,  though 
the  short  baleen  of  the  other  sp&cies  has  recently  been  made 
available  in  certain  manufactures.  Much  oil  and  bone  is  ob- 
tained from  the  Eskimo  whalers  by  barter.  The  Russian  Ameri- 
can Company  obtained  a  large  amount  of  baleen  in  this  way 
every  year. 

Previously  American  whalers  were  debarred  from  refitting  in 
the  ports  of  Alaska,  except  in  cases  of  the  utmost  necessity.  At 
present  this  difficulty  has  been  obviated  by  the  change  of  regime. 

Whales  are  abundant,  not  only  north  of  Bering  Strait,  but  also 
all  over  Bering  Sea,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bristol 
Bay.  They  are  also  common  in  the  Gulf  of  Alaska.  The  Clio 
borealis,  a  minute  moUusk  which  forms  the  principal  food  of  the 
whale  in  the  North  Atlantic,  is  wanting  in  Bering  Sea.  Careful 
and  repeated  observations  have  failed  to  detect  any  such  mollusk 
north  of  the  Catherina  Archipelago.  The  principal  food  of  the 
whale  in  these  waters  is  the  so-called  "brit,"  a  reddish  scum  which 
covers  the  surface  of  the  sea  for  miles,  and  is  composed  of  minute 
crustaceans.  The  sperm  whale,  attracted  perhaps  by  the  abun- 
dance of  cuttlefish  {Octopi)  is  said  to  visit  the  Alaskan  coast 
occasionally.  Multitudes  of  small  whales  are  found  about  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  and  the  hunting  of  the  beluga  or  white  whale 
in  the  various  inlets  near  Norton  Sound  has  elsewhere  been 
described. 

Mr.  Davidson  suggests  the  employment  of  smaller  vessels, 
manned  by  Aleutians,  in  the  whale  fishery.  These  might  be 
laid  up  in  winter  in  some  of  the  numerous  harbors  of  the  islands, 
while  their  cargoes  might  be  sent  south  in  larger  ships.  This 
would,  doubtless,  decrease  the  amount  of  expense,  and  at  least 
deserves  a  trial. 

Another  great  source  of  revenue  now  demands  our  attention. 
The  fur  trade  of  Alaska  has  been  widely  known  for  a  century. 
Its  history  is  almost  a  history  of  the  country.  The  furs  were  the 
principal,  if  not  the  only  objects  which  led  to  its  exploration  and 


FUR  TRADE. 


489 


settlement.  The  fur  trade  is  the  only  branch  of  industry  which 
has  been  fully  developed  in  Alaska,  and  all  others  have  been 
forgotten  in  the  enormous  profits  which  have  attended  its  success- 
ful prosecution.  While  still  otiering  abundant  opportunities  for 
amassing  wealth,  yet  it  is,  in  some  of  the  branches  formerly  most 
profitable,  evidently  on  the  decline.  Nevertheless,  it  stands  only 
second  in  importance  to  the  fisheries,  and,  properly  restricted, 
ofters  large  returns,  not  only  to  individuals,  but  to  the  govern- 


ment. From  a  pecuniary  point  of  view  it  is  at  present  the  most 
important  business  in  the  territory. 

It  may  be  divided,  for  convenience  in  discussion,  into  two 
branches.  The  first  of  these  comprises  the  capture  and  preser- 
vation of  the  marine  fur-bearing  animals,  and  the  second,  of  all 
other  fur  animals. 

There  are  two  species  which  furnish  the  most  valuable  of  the 
furs  of  Alaska.     These  are  the  sea-otter  *  {Enhydra  marina,  Flem.) 

*  The  sea-otter  is  well  represented  bv  one  of  Audubon's  plates,  and  also  by  a  very 
spirited  drawing  by  Wolf,  in  the  Proc.  Zoril.  Soc.  of  London. 


490  FUR    TRADE. 

and  the  fur-seal  {CallorJiiinis  ursimis,  Gray).  The  former  is  called 
the  sea-beaver  by  the  Russians,  and  the  latter  the  sea-cat  {Kotik) ; 
it  has  also  been  called  the  sea-bear  by  many  authors,  perhaps 
from  the  clumsiness  of  its  motions,  for  there  is  no  other  point 
of  resemblance.  The  foregoing  sketch  was  taken  from  life  and 
corrected  by  careful  measurements.  If  it  has  a  fault,  it  is  that 
the  bodies  appear  a  little  too  thick,  but  they  are  correct  by  the 
measurements. 

The  sea-otter  is  a  very  large  animal  ;  the  fur  is  soft  and  black, 
while  long  hairs  tipped  with  white  add  to  its  beauty.  When 
properly  skinned  the  pelt  is  of  an  oval  form.  The  tails  are  always 
cut  off  and  sold  separately.  The  hair  in  a  first-class  sea-otter 
skin  should  be  nearly  even  in  length  all  over  it,  and  of  uniform 
color.  The  length  of  a  full-sized  skin  is  about  six  feet,  and  its 
breadth  nearly  four  feet. 

The  sea-otter  is  solitary,  and  almost  exclusively  marine  in  its 
habits.  It  is  said  to  come  up  on  solitary  rocks  or  islets  to  bring 
forth  its  young.  At  other  periods  it  seldom  visits  the  land.  It 
often  sleeps  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  floating  on  its  back, 
and  is  said  to  clasp  its  young  with  one  arm  in  an  almost  human 
way.  It  has  black  or  dark  brown  eyes.  The  teeth  are  remark- 
able ;  those  in  front  are  not  unlike  those  of  a  cat,  while  the  grind- 
ers are  rounded,  bossy,  and  broad,  suitable  for  crushing  bones  or 
the  shells  of  bivalves.     It  is  said  to  live  principally  on  fish. 

The  manner  of  hunting  the  sea-otter  is  as  follows.  In  Alaska 
the  Aleuts  or  other  natives  are  the  otter-hunters.  A  large  num- 
ber of  bidarkas  take  provisions  for  a  day  or  two,  and  when  the 
weather  is  calm,  put  out,  often  out  of  sight  of  land.  When  ar- 
rived on  the  banks  most  frequented  by  these  animals  the  bidarkas 
form  in  a  long  line,  the  leader  in  the  middle.  They  paddle  softly 
over  the  water  so  as  to  make  no  disturbance.  If  an  Aleut  sees 
an  otter's  nose,  which  is  usually  the  only  part  above  the  surface, 
he  throws  his  dart  and  at  the  same  time  elevates  his  paddle  per- 
pendicularly in  the  air.  The  ends  of  the  line  dart  forward,  so  as 
to  encircle  the  animal  in  a  cordon  of  bidarkas,  and  every  one  is 
on  the  watch  for  the  second  appearance  of  the  otter.  The  same 
process  is  repeated  until  the  animal,  worn  out  with  diving,  lies 
exhausted  on  the  surface,  an  easy  prize  for  his  captors.  The  skin 
belongs  to  the  hunter  who  first  struck  it,  or  to  him  who  struck 


FUR    TRADE.  49  I 

nearest  the  head.  If  two  wounds  are  inflicted  at  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  nose,  that  on  the  right  side  has  the  preference. 
Guns  are  not  used,  as  they  are  said  to  scare  away  the  otters.  The 
skin  is  stretched  in  a  hoop,  and  the  tail  is  skinned  without  a  longi- 
tudinal incision.  The  sea-otter  was  formerly  very  abundant,  from 
the  Kamchatka  coast  along  the  islands  as  far  as  the  coast  of  Lower 
California.  A  few  are  annually  taken  on  the  coast  of  Kamchatka, 
five  or  six  thousand  among  the  islands  of  the  Catherina  and  Alex- 
ander archipelagoes,  and  a  very  few  to  the  southward.  Those 
taken  by  the  Russian  American  Company  were  sent  to  Irkutsk, 
whence  part  of  them  were  taken  to  St.  Petersburg  and  part  to  the 
Chinese  frontier,  where,  at  the  trading  town  of  Kiachta,  they  were 
sold  for  tea  and  silks. 

The  skins  of  the  sea-otter  were  formerly  worth  in  Europe  from 
two  to  five  hundred  dollars,  but  they  have  much  declined  in 
value.  At  present  the  best  quality  bring  only  from  eighty  to  one 
hundred  dollars.  The  Aleuts  receive  for  first-class  skins  about 
twenty  dollars  in  gold  or  goods. 

Owing  to  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  the  sea-otter  is  hunted, 
it  would  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  place  any  restrictions  on 
the  trade.  They  form  a  much  smaller  item  in  the  list  of  peltries 
than  they  did  once.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  there  has  always 
been  a  large  difference  between  the  number  of  tails  and  the  num- 
ber of  skins  purchased  by  the  Russian  American  Company,  al- 
though the  Aleuts  were  forced  to  sell  all  their  skins  to  the  officers 
appointed  by  the  Company  to  receive  them.  The  sea-otter  trade 
was  inaugurated  by  the  sailors  of  Bering's  second  expedition,  and 
proved  so  profitable  that  the  Russians  dared  shipwreck,  starva- 
tion, scurvy,  and  the  hostilities  of  the  natives,  for  many  years  in 
the  prosecution  of  it. 

The  fur-seal  fishery,  formerly  less  important  than  that  of  the 
sea-otter,  has  of  late  years  far  exceeded  it  in  value.  A  short  re- 
view of  the  history  of  this  fishery  may  not  be  out  of  place.  At 
present  fur-seal  are  almost  exclusively  obtained  on  the  islands  of 
St.  Paul  and  St.  George  in  Bering  Sea.  A  few  stragglers  only 
are  obtained  on  the  Falkland  Islands  and  the  extreme  southwest 
coast  of  South  America.  The  case  was  formerly  very  different. 
Many  thousands  were  obtained  from  the  South  Pacific  Islands 
and  the  coasts  of  Chili  and  South  Africa. 


492  FUR   TRADE. 

The  Falkland  Island  seal  {ArctopJioca  Falklandica,  Peters)  was 
at  one  time  common  in  that  group  and  the  adjacent  seas.  The 
skins,  worth  fifteen  Spanish  dollars,  according  to  Sir  John 
Richardson,  were  from  four  to  five  feet  long,  covered  with  red- 
dish down,  over  which  stiff"  gray  hair  projected.  They  were  hunt- 
ed especially  on  the  Falkland  Islands,  Terra  del  Fuego,  New 
Georgia,  South  Shetland,  and  the  coast  of  Chili.  Three  and  a 
half  millions  of  skins  were  taken  from  Masa  Fuero  to  Canton 
between  1793  and  1807. 

Another  species  {ArctocepJiahis  Delalaudi,  Gray)  formerly 
abounded  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Their  fur  was  the  least  valuable  of  the  different  kinds  of  fur-seal, 
and  the  species  seems  to  have  become  extinct.  They  were  smaller 
than  the  other  kinds,  and  said  to  be  of  a  reddish-brown  color. 

Of  the  Arctic  or  Bering  Sea  species  {Callorhiims  ursiims,  Gray) 
not  less  than  six  million  skins  have  been  obtained  since  1741. 

Captain  Benjamin  Morrell,  about  the  year  1823,  found  fur-seal 
on  the  Lobos,  Galapagos,  St.  Ambrose,  and  St.  Felix  islands  of 
the  coast  of  Chili  ;  he  also  obtained  them  from  Kerguelen's  Land, 
Bouvette's  Island,  Staten  Land,  the  Falklands,  Tristran  d'Acunha, 
Masa  Fuero,  and  the  Auckland  Islands.  He  gives  the  following 
particulars  in  regard  to  their  habits,  which  apply  particularly  to 
the  Falkland  species. 

The  seal  come  ashore  in  the  month  of  November  for  the  pur- 
pose of  bringing  forth  their  young,  remaining  until  May.  The 
old  males  were  called  "  wigs  "  by  the  sealers  ;  the  females,  "  clap- 
matches"  ;  those  two  years  old,  "dog-seals"  ;  and  the  very  young 
ones,  "  pups."  The  term  of  gestation  is  ten  months.  The  pups 
are  born  blind,  and  remain  so  for  several  weeks.  At  three  or  four 
weeks  old  they  are  taken  by  the  mothers  into  the  water,  as  a  cat 
carries  her  kittens,  and  taught  to  swim.  They  seldom  have  more 
than  one  young  one  annually.  The  pups,  after  learning  to  swim, 
spend  most  of  their  time  in  the  water.  .  They  are  easily  tamed, 
and  Morrell  had  two  for  several  months.  These  seal  are  said  to 
live  on  the  squid  {Loligo),  and  to  attain  an  age  of  thirty  years. 
They  are  very  active,  often  jumping  six  or  eight  feet  out  of  the 
water,  which  is  never  done  by  the  hair-seals.  They  swim  with 
great  swiftness.  They  will  fight  hard  for  their  young  and  for  the 
possession  of  the  females,  but  are  timid  in  other  respects.     The 


FUR   TRADE.  493 

young  seals  do  not  approach  the  females.  They  are  polygamous, 
each  old  male  having  a  herd  of  eight  or  ten  females.  Their  hear- 
ing is  very  acute.  At  the  end  of  February  the  pups  go  ashore  to 
shed  their  coats.  About  the  ist  of  May  all  leave  the  land  until 
the  month  of  July,  when  they  appear  and  disappear  about  the 
shore  for  some  unknown  reason.  About  September,  first  the 
young  seal,  and  afterward  the  old  ones,  repair  to  the  land  as  be- 
fore. Large  males  reach  seven  feet  in  length,  and  females  about 
five  feet. 

The  fur-seals  and  sea-lions  are  closely  allied,  forming  the 
family  Otariidce.  They  are  well  distinguished  from  the  hair- 
seals  {PJiocidce)  by  their  external  ears  and  long  flippers  desti- 
tute of  hair,  and  with  only  three  nails.  The  hair-seals  have  no 
external  ears,  and  their  flippers  are  broad,  short,  and  covered  with 
hair,  having  five  nails  on  the  hind  ones. 

The  Alaskan  fur-seal  formerly  extended  from  the  ice  line  of 
Bering  Sea  to  the  coast  of  Lower  California.  At  present  a  few 
stragglers  reach  the  Straits  of  Fuca,  where  five  thousand  were 
said  to  have  been  killed  in  1868,  but  the  great  majority  are 
confined  to  the  Pn'byloft^  Islands.  They  have  never  been  found 
in  Bering  Strait,  or  within  three  hundred  miles  of  it.  They 
arrive  at  the  islands  about  the  middle  of  June,  a  few  stragglers 
coming  as  early  as  the  end  of  May.  They  leave  on  the  approach 
of  winter,  usually  about  the  end  of  October.  They  are  supposed 
to  spend  the  winter  in  the  open  sea  south  of  the  Aleutian  Islands. 
The  pups  are  born  about  the  middle  to  the  end  of  June.  They 
are  about  a  foot  long  and  grow  very  rapidly.  Each  female  has 
only  one  pup.  These  young  seal  are  easily  tamed  and  very  play- 
ful. The  bulls  approach  the  females  about  a  week  after  the 
young  are  born.  The  period  of  gestation  is  therefore  nearly 
twelve  months.  The  young  seal  are  kept  away  from  the  females 
by  the  old  bulls  until  they  are  three  years  old.  When  born  the 
pups  are  covered  with  fine  black  hair  without  down.  At  the 
age  of  three  months  this  down  begins  to  appear,  and  about  six 
months  later  the  black  hair  is  replaced  by  a  stronger  hair  tipped 
with  white  or  brown.  At  three  months  the  milk-teeth  are 
replaced  by  the  permanent  set.  The  eye  is  black  and  liquid 
and  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal.  When  con- 
tracted the  pupil  is  horizontally  oval,  not  perpendicular,  as  in  the 


494  ^^'^   TRADE. 

cats.  They  appear  to  feed  on  fish,  but  will  remain  many  days  on 
shore  without  food.  Nothing  is  found  in  the  stomach.  They 
sleep  in  the  water  on  their  sides,  with  the  upper  flippers  out  of 
water,  and  receive  the  bulls  in  the  same  position.  They  have 
three  cries,  —  a  kind  of  roar,  like  that  of  a  young  calf,  which  in- 
dicates anger  ;  a  milder  cry,  which  they  use  in  calling  to  one 
another  ;  and  a  kind  of  piping  whistle  when  they  are  hot  or 
tired.  They  come  up  in  droves  of  many  thousands  on  the  hill- 
sides near  the  shore,  and  literally  blacken  the  islands  with  their 
numbers.  The  rocks,  which  they  have  scrambled  over  for  ages, 
are  polished  and  rounded.  The  ground  which  they  frequent  is 
avoided  by  the  sea-lions,  and  is  quite  destitute  of  herbage.  The 
vicinity  has  a  strong  and  disagreeable  odor.  They  get  along 
rather  awkwardly  on  land,  going  at  a  kind  of  gallop,  both  hind 
flippers  moving  together.  They  can  ascend  almost  perpendicular 
rocks,  as  the  skin  which  covers  the  flippers  is  harsh  and  granu- 
lated, looking  like  shagreen.  They  fight  desperately  among 
themselves,  each  bull  having  five  or  six  females  which  he  defends 
with  the  greatest  courage,  while  they  look  on  complacently,  or 
encourage  him  with  their  cries.  The  female  seal  has  four  teats, 
but  they  are  almost  invisible  except  when  suckling.  They  have 
a  shorter  tail  and  more  reddish-brown  on  their  bodies  than  the 
male.  The  latter  has  a  mane,  which  is  absent  in  the  females. 
In  the  fore  flippers  there  are  no  visible  toes,  but  the  hind  flippers 
are  very  long  and  thin,  with  strips  of  skin  extending  several 
inches  beyond  the  bones  of  the  toes,  which  are  connected  by  a 
web.  A  favorite  attitude,  when  on  land,  is  sitting  with  the  head 
bent  sideways,  the  mouth  open  and  thrown  up,  fanning  them- 
selves meanwhile  with  one  hind  flipper.  When  swimming,  the 
palms  of  the  two  latter  are  placed  together  and  extend  behind, 
performing  the  office  of  a  tail.  They  often  scratch  themselves 
with  the  long  nails  on  these  members.  The  testes  are  retractile. 
The  manner  of  conducting  the  fishery  is  as  follows. 

A  number  of  Aleuts  go  along  the  water's  edge,  and,  getting 
between  the  animals  and  the  water,  shout  and  wave  their  sticks. 
The  seal  are  very  timid,  and  always  follow  each  other  like  sheep  ; 
yet,  if  brought  to  bay,  they  will  fight  bravely.  A  man  who 
should  venture  into  the  midst  of  a  herd  would  doubtless  be  torn 
in  pieces,  for  their  teeth,  though  small,  are  exceedingly  sharp. 


FUR    TRADE. 


495 


A  body  of  four  or  five  hundred  having  been  separated,  as 
above,  from  the  main  assembly,  they  can  be  driven  very  slowly, 
by  two  men,  into  the  interior  of  the  island,  exactly  as  a  shepherd 
would  drive  his  sheep.  Their  docility  depends  on  circumstances. 
If  the  sun  is  out,  and  the  grass  dry,  they  cannot  be  driven  at  all. 
If  the  day  is  wet,  and  the  grass  sufficiently  moist,  they  may  be 
driven  several  miles.  Every  two  or  three  minutes  they  must  be 
allowed  to  rest.  Those  who  become  tired  are  killed  and  skinned 
on  the  spot  by  the  drivers,  as  it  is  of  no  use  to  attempt  to  drive 
them.  They  would  at  once  attack  the  driver,  and  perhaps  seri- 
ously injure  him.  When  the  seal  have  been  brought  to  a  suitable 
place,  they  are  left  with  some  one  to  watch  them  until  it  is  de- 
sired to  kill  them.  The  skins  of  old  males  are  so  thick  as  to  be 
useless.  The  Russians  restricted  the  killing  solely  to  young  males, 
less  than  five  years  and  more  than  one  year  old. 

No  females,  pups,  or  old  bulls  were  ever  killed.  This  was  a 
necessary  provision,  to  prevent  their  extermination.  The  seal  are 
killed  by  a  blow  on  the  back  of  the  head  with  a  heavy  sharp- 
edged  club.  This  fractures  the  skull,  which  is  very  thin,  and  lays 
them  out  stiff,  instantly.  The  Aleut  then  plunges  his  sharp  knife 
into  the  heart,  and  with  wonderful  dexterity,  by  a  few  sweeps  of 
his  long  weapon,  separates  the  skin  from  the  blubber  to  which  it 
is  attached.  The  nose  and  wrists  are  cut  around,  and  the  ears 
and  tail  left  attached  to  the  skin.  "When  the  operation  is  over, 
the  skin  is  of  an  oval  shape,  with  four  holes  where  the  extremities 
protruded.  These  skins  are  then  taken  and  laid  in  a  large  pile, 
with  layers  of  salt  between  them.  After  becoming  thoroughly 
salted,  they  are  done  up,  two  together,  in  square  bundles,  and 
tied  up  with  twine.  They  are  then  packed  for  transportation  to 
London.  No  guns  are  used  in  killing  these  seal.  Indeed,  guns 
are  not  only  unnecessary,  but  injurious,  for  a  hole  in  the  skin 
diminishes  its  value  one  half.  All  the  fur-seal  skins  are  dressed 
in  London.  They  were  worth  in  the  raw  state,  in  1868,  about 
seven  dollars  each  in  gold.  A  machine  has  been  invented  by 
which  the  skin  is  shaved  very  thin  ;  the  roots  of  the  stiff  hairs 
are  cut  off,  and  they  may  then  be  brushed  away.  The  down, 
which  does  not  penetrate  the  skin  to  any  distance,  remains,  and 
is  dyed  black  or  a  rich  brown.  This  is  the  state  in  which  we  see 
the  skins  at  the  furrier's. 


496  FUR    TRADE. 

The  Aleuts  were  formerly  paid  only  ten  cents  each  for  these 
skins,  in  condition  for  shipment,  the  salt  being  furnished ;  but  the 
work  of  preparing  them  was  not  otherwise  paid  for.  In  1868 
they  received  thirty-five  cents  apiece,  in  gold  or  goods,  under  the 
same  conditions. 

At  first  the  fur-seal  were  killed  in  immense  numbers  by  the 
Russians.  At  one  time  three  hundred  thousand  skins  were 
destroyed,  in  order  that  the  market  might  not  be  overstocked. 
It  was  only  when  their  numbers  were  very  greatly  diminished 
that  the  number  annually  killed  was  limited,  and  the  other  pre- 
viously mentioned  restrictions  were  imposed.  Of  late  years  not 
more  than  fifty  thousand  fur-seal  were  allowed  to  be  killed  annu- 
ally. Of  these,  five  or  six  thousand  were  from  the  island  of  St. 
George,  and  the  remainder  from  St.  Paul.  The  price  has  gradually 
been  rising,  and  is  now  higher  than  for  many  years.  At  one  time 
the  xlussian  American  Company  had  a  contract  to  deliver  twenty 
thousand  skins  annually  to  a  New  York  firm  for  $  2.50  each. 
Now  the  skins  may  be  estimated  as  worth  at  least  five  dollars 
each  in  gold  in  the  London  markets.  Of  this,  in  1868,  the  poor 
Aleuts  got  only  thirty-five  cents.  The  price  of  the  salt  and  the 
freight  deducted,  the  rest  remained  for  the  traders.  It  may  be 
said  that  thirty-five  cents  is  enough  for  the  work  they  do,  as  a 
skilful  Aleut  will  skin  fifty  in  a  day.  This  is  to  some  extent 
true,  but  there  is  a  very  large  margin  of  which  a  reasonable  pro- 
portion should  go  toward  paying  the  interest  of  the  debt  incurred 
in  the  purchase  of  the  territory.  This  is  not  only  feasible,  but 
proper  and  just.  Familiarity  with  the  subject  is  my  excuse  for 
suggesting  the  necessary  legislation. 

First,  a  monopoly,  properly  restricted,  ofters  many  advantages 
to  the  government.  Those  who  might  receive  the  grant  should 
give  large  and  satisfactory  bonds,  and  pay  a  tax  of  not  more  than 
two  dollars  a  skin  for  the  annual  catch  of  not  over  one  hundred 
thousand,  of  which  not  more  than  twenty-five  thousand  should  be 
killed  on  the  Island  of  St.  George,  The  number  of  the  seal  had 
greatly  increased  up  to  1868,  but  in  that  year  not  less  than  fifty 
thousand  were  killed  on  St.  George's,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  on  St.  Paul's,  by  the  traders.  At  this  rate  they  would 
soon  be  exterminated  or  driven  to  the  Kurile  or  Commander's 
Islands.     Yet  it  is  probable  that  one  hundred  thousand  might  be 


FLR    TRADE.  497 

safely  killed.  But,  in  case  a  monopoly  be  considered  as  incon- 
sistent with  the  spirit  of  our  institutions,  the  following  restrictions 
should  be  enforced,  if  it  is  desired  to  preserve  the  fishery  and 
obtain  an  income  from  it. 

I.  The  killing  should  be  entirely  restricted  to  the  Aleuts  born 
or  now  residing  on  the  Pn'bylofif  Islands. 

II.  Trading  companies  desirous  of  purchasing  skins  from  the 
Aleuts  should  be  required  to  give  good  and  sufficient  bonds  to 
pay  their  taxes  to  the  officer  appointed  to  receive  them,  to  refrain 
from  trading  or  giving  liquor  to  the  natives,  and  from  violence 
toward  them  or  other  traders. 

III.  A  tax  of  ...  .  dollars  a  skin  should  be  imposed  (to  be 
fixed,  in  the  form  of  a  stamp  of  lead  or  other  suitable  material,  to 
each  skin,  or  to  be  paid  upon  the  delivery  of  the  pelts),  and  col- 
lected by  an  officer,  who  should  reside  on  the  islands  and  supervise 
the  killing,  salting,  and  shipping  of  the  skins.  This  officer  might 
also  serve  as  Indian  agent,  and  the  islands  should  be  declared  an  In- 
dian reservation.  The  buildings  which  have  been  illegally  erected 
on  the  islands  should  be  forfeited,  and  traders  who  infringe  the 
regulations  should  forfeit  not  only  their  bonds,  but  their  vessels  and 
furs,  and  be  forever  debarred  from  receiving  another  license  to  trade. 

IV.  The  killing  should  be  restricted  to  one  hundred  thousand 
annually,  of  which  twenty- five  thousand  should  be  taken  from  St. 
George's,  and  seventy-five  thousand  from  St.  Paul's. 

V.  American  citizens  only  should  be  allowed  to  receive  licenses, 
and  the  salary  of  the  Government  agent  should  be  sufficient  to 
put  him  above  bribery.  He  should  have  an  assistant  on  St. 
George's,  but  all  other  work  could  be  done  at  an  infinitesimal 
cost  by  the  resident  Aleuts.  No  settlements  should  be  allowed 
upon  the  Pn'bylofif  Islands,  and  the  law  against  the  sale  of  liquor 
should  be  most  rigidly  enforced. 

By  measures  such  as  these,  the  rapacity  of  unscrupulous  traders 
would  be  curbed,  the  Aleuts  protected,  the  government  remuner- 
ated, and  the  trade  put  upon  a  secure  business  foundation.  The 
number  allowed  to  be  killed  might  be  increased  or  diminished 
annually,  as  experience  showed  to  be  necessary. 

The  flesh  of  the  fur-seal  and  sea-lion  serve  the  Aleuts  for  food, 
and  their  blubber  for  fuel.  The  flesh  of  the  fur-seal  forms  but  a 
small  portion  of  the  body.  The  greater  part  is  blubber,  and  this 
32 


498  FUR    TRADE. 

is  more  noticeable  because  of  the  thousands  of  bodies  of  seal 
which  are  scattered  over  the  islands.  If  these  were  composed  in 
large  part  of  muscular  fibre,  as  is  the  case  with  the  walrus,  the 
decaying  bodies  would  breed  a  pestilence.  As  it  is,  the  odor  is 
sufficiently  perceptible,  though  a  month  or  two  shows  the  skele- 
ton nearly  clean. 

The  flesh  of  a  young  fur-seal,  placed  in  running  water  over- 
night and  then  broiled,  is  far  from  disagreeable.  In  fact,  it  tastes 
almost  exactly  like  mutton-chop.  The  young  sea-lion  is  said  to 
be  even  better  eating,  and  both  present  a  marked  contrast  to  the 
fetidity  of  the  flesh  of  the  hair-seal  {Phoca)  of  Norton  Sound. 
The  Aleuts  make  boot-soles,  which  are  very  durable,  of  the  skin 
of  the  flippers.  The  fat  cut  from  the  nearest  carcass  serves  them 
for  fuel.  The  blubber  of  the  fur-seal  makes  oil  of  the  first  quality, 
and  is  worth  about  two  dollars  a  gallon ;  yet  for  many  years  hun- 
dreds of  barrels  have  fertilized  the  hillsides,  for  want  of  some  one 
to  preserve  it.  Each  seal  will  make  half  a  gallon,  which  would 
give  for  one  hundred  thousand  seal  about  a  thousand  barrels  of 
oil,  worth  at  least  sixty  thousand  dollars,  which  has  always  been 
wasted.    In  fact,  the  oil  is  worth  as  much  as  the  skin  at  the  islands. 

The  second  branch  of  the  fur  trade  now  demands  our  attention. 
The  principal  fur-bearing  animals,  which  are  not  marine  in  their 
habits,  are  the  fox,  marten,  mink,  beaver,  otter,  lynx,  black  bear, 
and  wolverine.*  Beside  these,  the  skins  of  the  whistler,  marmot, 
reindeer,  mountain  sheep  and  goat,  wolf,  musk-rat,  and  ermine, 
have  a  certain  value,  though  hardly  to  be  classed  as  furs. 

The  foxes  are  of  several  varieties.  The  stone  foxes  are  blue, 
gray,  and  white  ;  the  red  fox  is  found  of  various  colors,  known  as 
silver,  black,  cross,  and  red  foxes. 

The  white  stone  foxes  are  the  most  valuable  of  the  varieties  of 
that  species  at  present.  They  are  found  in  the  more  northern 
part  of  the  territory,  especially  in  the  Kaviak  peninsula,  on  the 
Arctic  coast,  and  near  the  Yukon-mouth. 

The  most  common  variety  is  the  blue  fox.  It  is  of  a  slate 
color  with  a  purplish  tinge,  and  very  abundant  on  the  Pn'byloft' 
and  Aleutian  islands.  They  have  been  introduced  upon  most  of 
the  islands  by  the  Russian  American  Company,  and  only  a  cer^ 

*  These  animals  are  mostly  caught  in  dead-fall  traps  by  the  natives.  There  are  no 
white  trappers  and  very  few  steel  traps  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Yukon. 


. FUR   TRADE. 


499 


tain  number  were  allowed  to  be  killed  annually.  The  earliest 
voyagers  found  tame  foxes  on  the  larger  Aleutian  Islands,  and 
it  is  not  improbable  that  they  were  all  originally  introduced  from 
the  continent  by  the  hand  of  man.  They  are  very  prolific,  having 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  cubs  at  a  birth.  They  have  exterminated 
all  the  small  animals,  if  any  existed,  on  the  islands,  and  feed  on 
sea-birds  or  the  carcasses  of  seal  abandoned  by  the  natives. 

The  gray  stone  foxes  are  the  white  ones  in  their  summer  dress, 
and  the  skins  are  nearly  worthless.  Black  and  silver  foxes  are 
abundant  in  many  parts  of  the  territory.  Those  from  Unalashka 
were  formerly  considered  the  best.  Many  are  annually  obtained 
at  Fort  Yukon.  These  were  formerly  among  the  most  valuable 
of  furs,  but  at  present  are  not  so  much  in  favor.  Fifty  dollars 
will  buy  one  of  the  best  quality,  while  formerly  they  were  valued 
as  high  as  three  hundred  dollars.  Cross  foxes,  which  are  much 
more  common,  are  of  proportional  value  according  to  the  quality 
of  the  particular  skin.  Red  foxes  are  found  all  over  the  north- 
ern part  of  America,  and  are  very  common  in  most  parts  of 
Alaska.  The  marten,  known  also  as  the  stone-marten,  fitch,  or 
American  sable,  is  very  abundant  in  the  Yukon  Valley,  especially 
in  the  wooded  district.  The  mink,  which  prefers  the  more  open 
country,  is  at  present  one  of  the  most  valuable  small  furs.  They 
can  be  obtained  near  the  mouth  of  the  Yukon  in  great  numbers, 
and  many  of  them  of  the  finest  quality.  The  price  is  usually  five 
musket-balls. 

The  beaver,  as  elsewhere  described,  is  found  in  great  numbers 
all  over  the  northern  part  of  Alaska  ;  it  is  the  standard  of  value 
among  the  Yukon  Indians.  A  beaver  skin  is  worth  twenty  balls 
or  two  fathoms  of  strung  beads.  Four  mink,  two  marten,  or  two 
white  foxes  are  equal  in  value  to  a  beaver.  A  first-rate  otter  is 
worth  three  beaver,  a  lynx  also  three,  a  good  red  fox  is  equal  to  a 
beaver  and  a  half.  This  tariff  is  quite  different  from  the  com- 
mercial value  of  the  fur,  but  it  is  that  by  which  all  trade  is  carried 
on  with  these  natives,  A  double-barrelled  percussion  gun  is 
worth  ten  beaver,  yet  a  single-barrelled  flint-lock  will  bring 
twenty.  These  old  customs  cannot  be  overridden,  although  they 
may  appear  absurd.  The  fixed  prices,  at  which  the  old  trading 
companies  have  held  their  goods,  doubtless  tended  to  confirm  the 
practice. 


500  FUR   TRADE. 

Otter  and  lynxes  are  very  common  on  the  Yukon.  The  wol- 
verine is  rare,  and  its  skins,  as  v^ell  as  those  of  the  wolf,  bring 
high  prices  from  the  natives,  who  use  them  for  trimming  their 
dresses.  A  first-rate  wolverine  skin  will  bring  twenty  marten  or 
forty  mink  skins. 

The  skin  of  the  black  bear  is  valuable  in  Russia,  although  not 
much  esteemed  with  us.  The  ermine  is  usually  of  poor  quality, 
except  that  from  the  Kaviak  peninsula.  The  skins  of  Parry's 
marmot  are  used  for  parkies  in  the  territory.  They  were  domes- 
ticated by  the  Company  on  Chi'rikoff  Island,  and  the  skins  were 
prepared  by  persons  who  were  sent  there  as  a  punishment  for 
slight  offences.  The  hides  of  the  deer  and  moose,  wild  sheep 
and  goat,  are,  if  in  good  condition,  quite  valuable.  They  may  be 
obtained  in  immense  quantities  in  some  localities,  and  in  others 
are  an  article  of  trade  with  the  natives.  Near  the  Yukon-mouth 
a  deerskin  is  worth  three  martens.  The  muskrat  have  only 
been  trapped  within  a  few  years,  yet  abound  in  immense  num- 
bers in  the  northern  part  of  the  territory.  A  black  variety  has  a 
very  beautiful  fur,  far  surpassing  the  marten  or  even  the  best 
mink.  An  albino  variety  has  been  found  on  the  Kuskoquim. 
The  siffleur,  or  whistler,  is  distributed  over  the  territory,  but 
nowhere  common.  Its  skin  is  of  little  value  except  for  rugs  or 
blankets.     Its  Russian  name  is  trabagon. 

The  prices  paid  by  the  Russian  American  Company  for  furs  in 
the  District  of  St.  Michael  were  substantially  as  follows.  The 
trade  was  carried  on  by  barter  entirely.  To  the  original  cost  of 
the  goods  in  Hamburg  or  St.  Petersburg,  from  forty-two  to  sev- 
enty-five per  cent  was  added  for  expenses.  A  marten  was  worth 
one  paper  ruble,  or  twenty  cents.  A  mink  was  valued  at  ten 
cents  ;  foxes,  from  thirty  cents  to  five  dollars  ;  stone-foxes,  ten 
cents  ;  lynx,  at  sixty  cents  ;  beaver,  at  forty  cents  ;  the  castoreum, 
at  five  cents  a  pair ;  otter,  from  forty  to  eighty  cents  ;  black  bear, 
at  sixty  cents  ;  and  muskrats  or  walrus-tusks  at  one  cent  each. 

But  in  many  respects  the  natives  did  not  receive  even  the 
whole  value  of  this  insignificant  tariff.  The  goods  were  delivered 
at  their  appraised  value  to  the  bidarshik  of  a  trading-post.  All 
expenses  of  winter  journeys,  of  native  servants  in  the  fort,  and,  in 
fact,  everything  except  the  cost  of  constructing  the  buildings  and 
the  wages  of  the  Russian  workmen,  must  come  out  of  the  trading 


FUR   TRADE. 


501 


goods.  Hence,  while  the  Company's  price  of  a  pound  of  Circas- 
sian tobacco  was  thirty  cents,  and  the  bidarshik  was  expected  to 
balance  his  account  with  the  Uprovali'sha  of  his  district  by  re- 
turning, say,  three  mink  for  the  tobacco  ;  yet  the  native  received 
nothing  like  a  pound  for  three  mink  skins.  The  tobacco  comes 
done  up  in  small  bundles  called  papSoshki.  There  may  be  from 
two  to  six  of  these  in  a  pound ;  yet  for  each  one,  large  or  small, 
the  native  must  give  a  marten  skin  or  two  mink  skins.  Again^ 
the  Company's  price  for  lead  was  twenty  cents  a  pound.  Their 
bullets  were  about  thirty-six  to  the  pound.  Yet  the  native  onl)- 
received  ten  balls  for  his  marten,  or  five  for  a  mink  skin.  In  the 
season  of  1867-68,  there  were  collected  in  the  District  of  St. 
Michael,  by  Stepanofif,  sixteen  thousand  martens,  according  to 
the  Indian  mode  of  counting.  During  the  same  time,  not  less 
than  fourteen  thousand  found  their  way  to  the  traders  at  Kotze- 
bue  Sound  and  Grantley  Harbor,  and  ten  thousand  to  Fort 
Yukon.  This  makes  a  total  of  forty  thousand,  which  may  be  av- 
eraged to  be  worth  at  least  two  dollars  and  a  half  each.  In  their 
purchase,  not  over  twenty  thousand  dollars  were  expended,  in 
every  way.      The  profits  of  such  a  business  are  evident. 

At  present,  competition  has  raised  the  value  of  the  martens  at 
St.  Michael's  from  twenty  to  fift}^  cents  each,  but  in  the  interior 
they  are  still  less  costly. 

The  furs  annually  purchased  by  the  Russian  American  Com- 
pany were  disposed  of  in  this  way. 

Beaver  to  the  number  of  two  thousand  were  sent  to  Irkutsk 
and  then  sold  at  Kiachta  on  the  Chinese  frontier.  The  surplus 
over  that  number  were  sent  to  Shanghae  for  tea,  and  to  America. 
The  castoreum  went  to  St.  Petersburg.  Otter  were  sent  to 
Irkutsk  and  Kiachta.  Some  foxes  went  the  same  way,  and  others 
to  Shanghae.  White  stone  foxes  went  to  San  Francisco,  and 
the  blue  to  Irkutsk.  Black  bearskins  went  to  St.  Petersburg. 
Lynxes  were  formerly  sent  to  Shanghae  and  afterward  to  Irkutsk. 
Martens  were  sold  in  Sitka,  Shanghae,  and  Irkutsk.  Muskrats, 
mink,  and  Parry's  marmot  {Ivrdshka),  were  sold  in  Sitka  for  use 
or  exportation.  Of  the  fur-seal,  20.000  went  to  the  United  States, 
8,000  to  Irkutsk  and  China,  a  few  to  Shanghae,  and  the  greater 
portion  to  St.  Petersburg.  Walrus-tusks  were  sent  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, sea-otter  tails  to  Irkutsk  and  China,  and,  finally,  wolf  and 


502 


FUR   TRADE. 


wolverine  skins  to  the  District  of  St.  Michael,  where  they  were 
traded  with  the  natives  for  other  furs. 

Since  1850,  traders  from  the  Sandwich  Islands,  have  visited 
Kotzebue  Sound  and  Grantley  Harbor  every  spring.  These 
traders  are  usually  small  vessels,  brigs  or  schooners.  They  load 
at  Honolulu  with  ammunition,  double-barrelled  Belgian  fowling- 
pieces,  hardware,  and  rum  or  alcohol.  They  follow  up  the  melting 
ice,  and  usually  reach  Bering  Strait  in  the  latter  part  of  June. 
Their  tariff  of  prices  amounts  to  about  fifty  cents  apiece  for 
martens,  in  goods.  They  are  usually  provided  with  whaling  im- 
plements, and  manned  by  Kanakas.  A  single  whale  will  pay  the 
expenses  of  the  voyage,  and  leave  the  profits  of  the  trade  clear. 
The  large  quantities  of  liquor  which  are  obtained  in  this  manner 
by  the  natives  have  a  very  demoralizing  effect.  The  chances  of 
capture  by  a  revenue-cutter  are  so  small  that  the  risk  is  not  very 
great,  and  the  profits  are  very  large.  Since  the  purchase  of  the 
territory,  smugglers,  loaded  with  liquor  from  British  Columbia, 
have  also  carried  on  a  thriving  trade.  It  is  also  said  that  opium 
and  Siberian  sables  have  found  their  way  to  San  Francisco,  via 
Alaskan  ports,  without  paying  duty.  A  smart  revenue-officer, 
with  a  light-draft  swift-sailing  cutter,  could  soon  materially  dimin- 
ish this  traffic.  The  difficulty  has  been,  hitherto,  that  the  vessels 
sent  to  Alaska  have  been  so  large  as  to  be  unfit  for  entering  the 
shallow  harbors  in  the  northern  part  of  the  territory  ;  and  they 
have  usually  made  their  appearance  in  the  north  about  the  month 
of  August,  when  the  spring  trade  is  over,  and  the  smugglers  have 
already  returned  to  the  Sandwich  Islands  with  their  cargoes. 

The  late  treaty  with  Russia  has  thrown  open  the  trade  with 
the  natives  in  the  Ochotsk  Sea  and  on  the  coasts  of  Siberia  to 
American  vessels  for  ten  years.  These  have  not  unfrequently 
loaded  with  liquor,  and  cleared  for  the  Siberian  coast,  afterwards 
disposing  of  part  of  their  cargo  in  Alaskan  waters.  The  atten- 
tion of  the  government  should  also  be  called  to  the  illicit  trade 
carried  on  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  at  Fort  Yukon,  and  to 
the  fact  that  vessels  loaded  principally  with  liquor  have  cleared 
for  a  trading  voyage  in  Alaska  without  opposition  from  the 
officials  at  Sitka.  One  of  these  visited  St.  Michael's  in  June, 
1868 ;  and  another  touched  at  St.  George,  leaving  men  and  liquor, 
though  ostensibly  bound  for  the  coast  of  Eastern  Siberia.     The 


FUR    TRADE. 


503 


revenue-cutter  passed  St.  George's  without  landing  or  disturbing 
these  smugglers,  who  proceeded  to  slaughter  some  thirty-five 
thousand  seal,  which  were  afterwards  shipped  to  the  Sandwich 
Islands.  Time,  and  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  the  territory, 
will  doubtless  put  a  stop  to  these  abuses. 

A  word  on  the  organization  of  the  territory  may  not  be  out  of 
place.  At  present  the  number  of  Americans  in  Alaska  is  less 
than  five  hundred,  excepting  troops.  These  are  all  connected 
with  trading  companies.  The  great  majority  of  the  traders  are 
foreigners.  If  a  territorial  government  should  be  organized  at 
present,  the  effect  would  be  to  throw  the  whole  power  into  the 
hands  of  a  few  individuals,  mostly  foreigners,  who  direct  these 
companies.  The  result  would  be  that  the  stronger  companies 
would  use  their  power  to  crush  the  weaker  ones,  and  to  continue 
the  sale  of  liquor,  and  thus  defeat  the  intentions  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  military  government  is  far  better,  in  spite  of  its 
many  defects.  It  is  an  unquestionable  fact  that  the  aborigines 
would  sell  themselves  body  and  soul  for  liquor,  if  they  could  find 
a  purchaser. 

The  statistics  of  the  fur  trade  given,  from  the  most  trustworthy 
sources,  in  the  Appendix,  are,  beyond  question,  far  below  the  truth. 
The  number  of  furs  obtained  in  the  colonies,  according  to  the  an- 
nual reports  published  at  Sitka,  is  always  greater  than  the  number 
stated  in  the  annual  report  published  for  the  stockholders  of  the 
Russian  American  Company  in  St.  Petersburg.  The  discrep- 
ancies cannot  be  reconciled,  and  show  a  great  carelessness  in  the 
manner  of  keeping  the  accounts.  There  was  a  leak  somewhere, 
and  the  Russian  officials  alone  could  tell  where.  It  is  probable 
that  strict  probity  did  not  always  characterize  the  colonial 
officials.  Beside  the  amount  of  furs  thus  disposed  of,  the  traders 
and  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  doubtless  obtained  a  large  annual 
supply,  which  is  nowhere  recorded. 

Sufficient  has  been  said  to  show  approximately  the  value  and 
extent  of  the  Alaska  fur  trade.  It  may  not  be  superfluous  to 
repeat  that  the  Company  paid  annual  taxes  to  the  Russian 
Crown,  which  averaged  two  hundred  thousand  rubles.  Other 
sources  of  revenue  remain  to  be  noticed. 

The  sea-lion  {Enmctopias  Stc/Icri,  Mull.)  and  the  walrus  {Ros- 
;nanis  obesus,  111.)  have  long  furnished  hides,  oil,  and  ivory  to  the 


504 


OTHER    RESOURCES. 


inhabitants  of  Alaska.  The  quantity  of  walrus-tusks  annually 
obtained  will  average  one  hundred  thousand  pounds.  These 
animals  are  most  abundant  near  Port  MoUer  in  Bristol  Bay,  and 
on  the  more  northern  coast  and  islands.  They  feed  principally 
upon  shell-fish,  which  they  swallow  whole,  and  the  shells,  which 
remain  after  they  have  digested  the  contents,  are  found  in  large 
numbers  about  the  localities  which  they  frequent.  The  hide  has 
been  successfully  used  for  belting  and  covering  skin-boats.  The 
oil  is  a  well-known  article  of  commerce.  There  is  no  doubt  but 
that  the  annual  supply  might  be  largely  augmented. 

The  sea-lions  are  abundant  on  most  of  the  rocky  islands.  They 
appear  in  May  and  remain  until  late  in  the  fall.  They  come 
ashore  to  breed  and  often  remain  in  one  spot  for  weeks.  They 
appear  to  subsist  mainly  on  fucoid  algae  or  sea-v/eed,  and  many 
stones  are  found  in  their  stomachs.  The  males  often  weigh  two 
or  three  tons.  Their  hide  and  oil  are  used  for  the  same  purpose 
as  those  of  the  walrus,  though  inferior  in  quality.  The  whiskers 
of  the  sea-lion  are  as  large  as  a  quill,  and  sometimes  fifteen  inches 
long.  They  are  exported  to  China,  the  Chinese  paying  a  high 
price  for  them  to  use  as  toothpicks.  The  gall  is  also  disposed  of 
in  China,  being  used  in  the  manufacture  of  silk. 

Many  casks  of  ducks  and  geese  were  annually  salted  down  by 
the  Russians.  They  form  a  very  agreeable  addition  to  the  winter 
fare.  The  quantity  of  game  of  this  kind  in  Northern  Alaska  is 
so  great,  that  the  time  may  come  when  eggs,  salted  birds,  eider 
and  swan's  down,  may  occupy  some  space  in  the  commerce  of 
Alaska. 

The  fashion  (set  centuries  ago  by  the  Innuit)  of  wearing  the 
beautiful  skins  of  the  grebe,  loon,  and  diver,  as  furs,  may  open  a 
new  branch  of  commerce.  Milliners  may  obtain  thousands  of 
wings  and  breasts  of  the  most  delicate  colors  and  rarest  beauty, 
from  the  northern  marshes.  From  the  same  source,  the  luxurious 
sleepers  of  the  west  coast  may  fill  their  beds  and  pillows. 

The  immense  fields  of  kelp,  which  fringe  the  greater  portion 
of  the  northwest  coast,  have  been  the  wonder  of  navigators  from 
the  time  of  the  earliest  voyages. 

The  manufacture  of  carbonate  of  soda  and  iodine  from  this 
fucus  is  a  business  of  no  little  importance  in  the  Old  World. 
These    sea-weeds   are  dried  on  the  shore   and  carefully  burned 


OTHER    RESOURCES. 


505 


in  an  oblong  kiln.  After  the  whole  is  burnt,  the  mass  gradu- 
ally softens,  when  it  is  stirred  with  an  iron  bar  until  it  reaches 
a  semifluid  consistency.  It  is  then  allowed  to  cool,  and  when 
broken  up  is  ready  for  the  market.  According  to  the  Ency- 
clopedia Americana,  small  farms  in  the  Orkneys  which  formerly 
rented  for  ^40  a  year  have  now  risen  to  ;^  300,  on  account 
of  their  kelp  shores  ;  and  so  much  importance  is  attached  to  this 
branch  of  business,  that,  along  sandy  shores,  stones  have  been 
placed  within  the  flood-mark,  on  which  the  sea-weed  soon  collects. 
Many  thousand  tons  are  thus  manufactured  annually,  and  bring 
from  £']  X.0  £\o  per  ton.  The  alkali  is  consumed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  glass  and  in  all  hard  soaps.  It  is  from  incinerated  kelp 
that  iodine  is  obtained  in  large  quantities.  The  solution  of  kelp, 
from  which  all  the  alkali  has  been  crystallized,  by  a  chemical  pro- 
cess affords  iodine  through  distillation.  This  branch  of  manu- 
facture might  be  carried  on  in  almost  any  part  of  Alaska  to  any 
desired  extent. 

The  resources  of  the  new  territory  having  now  been  pointed 
out,  it  only  remains  for  the  irresistible  energy  of  American  citi- 
zens to  hasten  their  development.  Time  alone  can  prove  their 
ultimate  value. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

Adjacent  Territories  and  their  Inhabitants. 

BRITISH  COLUMBL-\  is  too  well  known  in  America  to 
require  much  notice  here.  It  is  probable  that  the  mines 
of  coal  or  gold,  the  only  w^ealth  of  that  colony,  extend  northward 
into  Alaska.  Further  exploration  in  the  southern  portion  of  that 
narrow  strip  of  coast  is  necessary  to  determine  the  localities  where 
che  above-mentioned  minerals  crop  out;  but  that  they  exist  there 
is  little  doubt. 

The  colonies  of  Vancouver  Island  and  British  Columbia  have 
been  recently  united  under  one  government,  with  the  capital  at 
New  Westminster.  The  costly  machinery  of  two  British  colonial 
governments  proved  too  heavy  a  burden  for  the  slender  resources 
of  the  colonists,  and  necessitated  the  change.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  but  that  annexation  to  the  United  States  would  be  hailed 
with  joy  by  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  region,  who 
have  already  taken  to  celebrating  the  Fourth  of  July  with  a 
heartiness  not  surpassed  by  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  on 
the  adjacent  shores  of  Puget  Sound. 

Victoria,  V.  I.,  formerly  a  thriving  town  of  some  twenty  or 
thirty  thousand  inhabitants,  is  now  comparatively  depopulated. 
After  the  placer  mines  of  British  Columbia  had  become  worked 
out,  and  quartz  mills  became  a  necessity,  the  population  dwin- 
dled. For  some  time,  as  a  free  port,  it  invited  some  commerce, 
and  was  a  noted  base  for  smuggling  operations.  The  consolida- 
tion of  the  two  colonies,  and  the  imposition  of  import  duties,  still 
more  reduced  its  prosperity,  and  long  lines  of  deserted  houses 
stand  in  evidence  of  the  fact  that  mineral  wealth  alone  will  never 
make  a  prosperous  country.  The  fisheries  of  British  Columbia 
have  been  neglected,  her  timber  is  in  great  part  inaccessible,  and 
she  has  no  farming  land,  except  in  small  isolated  patches. 

Lakes  Kennicott  and  Ketchum,  the  sources  of  the  Yukon,  are 


ADJACENT    TERRITORIES.  507 

in  British  Colutiibia.  The  exploration  of  this  part  of  th^  terri- 
tory is  mainly  due  to  the  employes  of  the  Western  Union  Tele- 
graph Company.  Tahco  Lake  was  reached  in  August,  1867,  by 
Mr.  Michael  Byrnes,  a  miner,  well  known  in  Caribou.  He  had 
been  temporarily  employed  as  an  explorer  by  the  Company. 
The  object  which  tempted  him  to  leave  the  gold-fields  of  Caribou 
was  more  the  hope  of  finding  gold  than  the  love  of  exploration. 
Unaccompanied,  except  by  a  few  Indians,  he  made  his  way  over 
hills,  down  narrow  canons  and  difficult  rapids,  until  he  lighted  his 
pipe  and  built  his  camp-fire  on  the  beach  of  Tahco  Lake.  In 
June  of  the  same  year,  Ketchum  and  Lebarge  had  visited  Fort 
Selkirk,  or  rather  the  spot,  distinguished  by  two  rubble-built 
chimneys,  where  the  fort  had  stood  before  it  was  burnt  by  the 
Chilkahts.  One  hundred  and  twenty  miles,  two  days  down 
stream,  easy  travel,  —  nay,  hardly  a  day  and  a  half  in  their  swift 
birch  canoes,  and  the  explorations  would  have  been  finished,  and 
he  would  have  earned  the  honor  of  completing  them.  That 
evening  a  canoe  with  two  Indians  arrived  in  haste,  with  the 
news  that  the  enterprise  was  abandoned,  and  Mr.  Byrnes  might 
return,  as  the  Company  would  not  require  his  services  as  ex- 
plorer any  longer  ;  the  success  of  the  Atlantic  Cable  rendering 
the  failure  of  this  audacious  but  poorly  executed  enterprise  no 
longer  a  matter  of  doubt. 

Mr.  Byrnes  returned,  moody  and  silent,  refusing  to  converse 
on  the  subject.  It  is  said  he  has  returned  to  the  wilderness,  still 
in  search  of  gold  ! 

The  Yukon,  from  Fort  Selkirk  to  the  mouth  of  the  Porcupine 
River,  was,  I  believe,  first  descended  by  Mr.  Campbell  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company's  service.  He  was  in  charge  of  Fort 
Selkirk,  and  learning  from  the  Indians  that  there  were  no  ob- 
structions to  navigation,  he  supposed,  correctly,  that  it  would  be 
easier  to  transport  their  furs  and  supplies  by  the  way  of  the 
Porcupine  and  Peel  Rivers,  than  by  the  more  laborious  route 
previously  employed.  After  the  first  trip  this  v/as  thoroughly 
demonstrated,  and  that  route  was  followed  for  several  years. 

One  day,  however,  in  185  i,  the  Chilkahts,  instigated  it  was  said 
by  the  Russians,  appeared  before  the  fort  in  force.  Mr.  Camp- 
bell and  two  men  who  held  the  fort  saw  it  was  of  no  use  to  ex- 
asperate them,  and,  like  the  coon  in  the  story,  came  down  and 


5o8  ADJACENT    TERRITORIES. 

let  them  in.  No  violence  was  offered  them,  except  that  they  were 
tied  while  the  Indians  plundered  the  storehouse.  Mr.  Campbell 
afterward  said,  that  it  made  his  blood  boil  to  see  the  goods, 
brought  so  far  at  the  cost  of  so  much  hard  work,  carried  off  with 
perfect  sang-froid  by  these  good-for-nothing  Indians.  Prudence, 
however,  kept  him  quiet,  and  after  the  Indians  had  had  their  fill 
of  plunder,  they  allowed  him  and  his  men  to  depart  in  peace. 

After  their  departure  the  Indians  amused  themselves  by  mak- 
ing a  bonfire  of  the  fort,  as  they  had  previously  of  Pelly  Banks 
Fort  and  the  post  at  Frances's  Lake.  The  two  blackened  chim- 
neys alone  were  found  by  Messrs.  Ketchum  and  Lebarge  on  their 
visit  in  1867. 

This  spot  is  interesting  to  practical  men  as  being  the  head  of 
navigation,  and  to  botanists  as  being  the  most  northern  point 
where  true  pines  are  found  on  the  Yukon.  The  trees  are  small, 
but  bring  cones  to  maturity,  and  from  them  it  has  been  deter- 
mined that  the  tree  is  the  Finns  contorta  of  botanists.  All  the 
so-called  pines  on  the  Yukon  north  of  this  are  spruce  {A.  alba). 
The  scenery  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Stikine,  Tahco,  and  Lewis 
rivers  is  mountainous.  The  mountains  do  not  attain  any  very 
great  height.  Near  Fort  Selkirk  they  are  moderately  high,  but 
increase  in  grandeur  as  we  descend  the  Yukon.  Toward  the 
Alaskan  boundary  the  river  cuts  its  way  through  a  high  and 
mountainous  country.  The  great  Rocky  Mountain  or  Chip- 
pewyan  Chain,  trending  with  the  coast-line  of  the  continent,  does 
not,  as  represented  on  many  maps,  form  an  unbroken  line  to  the 
Arctic  Sea,  but  bends  with  the  coast-line,  and  finally  merges  into 
the  Alaskan  Range,  which  forms  the  backbone  of  the  peninsula 
of  Aliaska,  and  farther  west  the  chain  of  the  Aleutian  Islands. 

On  the  river,  according  to  Captain  Ketchum,  the  rocks  are 
principally  metamorphic  quartzites  and  black  and  gray  slates. 
The  Yukon  cuts  through  this  chain  at  its  broadest  part  in  the  bend, 
about  latitude  64°  N.  Here  the  river  is  narrow  and  dark,  running 
with  the  greatest  impetuosity,  though  without  rapids,  for  many 
miles.  The  current  is  such  that  it  is  only  a  four  days'  trip  drift- 
ing from  Fort  Selkirk  to  the  mouth  of  the  Porcupine  River,  in  the 
month  of  July.  Later,  when  the  water  is  very  low,  it  is  less  rapid. 
Wrangcll  Land.  —  Baron  Wrangell  and  Dr.  Kyber  in  1820-23 
made  explorations  in  Eastern  Siberia,  and  received    information 


ADJACENT   TERRITORIES.  509 

from  the  natives  of  high  peaks  visible  in  fine  weather  from 
Cape  Yakan.  In  1849,  from  the  vicinity  of  Herald  Island,  Kel- 
lett  saw  high  mountains,  which  were  probably  the  same.  On 
the  old  Russian  maps  land  is  laid  down  in  this  direction. 
As  yet  no  explorers  have  landed  upon  these  shores.  The 
latest  and  most  circumstantial  account  of  Wrangell  Land  is  de- 
rived from  an  American  whaler.  Captain  Theodore  Long,  of  the 
bark  Nile,  reports  having  seen,  August  14,  1867,  in  Ion.  180°^ 
lat.  70°  45',  land  distant  about  sixteen  miles  ;  along  which  he 
held  his  course  for  three  days.  It  extended  east  and  west  appar- 
ently about  three  degrees  of  longitude.  Several  high  peaks,  one 
supposed  to  be  volcanic,  were  observed,  and  the  eastern  and 
western  capes  were  named  by  Captain  Long  respectively  Cape 
Hawaii  and  Cape  Thomas.  There  was  abundance'  of  ice  between 
the  vessel  and  the  shore,  and  Captain  Long  did  not  consider  him- 
self justified  in  risking  his  vessel  for  the  pleasure  of  landing  on 
the  unknown  coast.  The  passage  between  it  and  the  Siberian 
coast  has  been  named  Long  Strait. 

The  reports  of  whalers  from  the  Arctic  Sea  would  seem  rather 
to  point  against  the  probability  of  an  open  Polar  Sea  as  under- 
stood by  Kane  and  Wrangell.  While  warm  currents  passing 
northward  through  Bering  and  Davis  Straits  would  doubtless 
tend  to  keep  open,  even  in  winter,  large  sheets  of  water  (such  as 
exist,  during  the  most  extreme  cold  of  winter,  in  the  more  rapid 
portions  of  the  Yukon  River),  still  it  seems  improbable  that  any 
very  extensive  portion  should  remain  permanently  free  from  ice  ; 
obstructed,  as  is  the  case  with  much  of  the  Polar  Sea,  with  islands 
and  shoals,  each  gathering  its  girdle  of  ice  about  it.  That  por- 
tion of  the  Arctic  Ocean  north  of  Bering  Strait  has  hitherto  been 
unduly  neglected.  It  offers  many  inducements  for  more  thorough 
exploration. 

In  June,  1647,  Michael  Stadukin,  a  Cossack,  was  sent  from 
Nijni  Kolymsk  to  discover  an  island,  or  land  separated  from  the 
continent,  which  was  reported  as  being  visited  by  the  Chiik- 
chees,  with  reindeer  in  winter,  over  the  ice.  He  returned  unsuc- 
cessful. This  reported  land  may  have  been  Wrangell  Land,  but 
was  more  probably  the  small  islands  off  the  mouth  of  the  Kolyma 
River  ;  still,  if  the  latter  was  the  case,  it  seems  singular  that  he 
did  not  reach  them  without  difficulty. 


5IO  ADJACENT    TERRITORIES. 

There  are  traditions  among  the  Chiikchees  of  implements  of 
wood  and  bone  washed  ashore  on  the  northern  coast,  of  a  fashion 
differing  from  those  of  Chukchee  manufacture,  and  from  those 
made  by  the  Innuit  to  the  eastward,  with  whom  they  are  well 
acquainted. 

There  are  also  stories  told  how  years  ago,  yet  in  the  memory 
of  Chukchees  now  living,  one  very  cold  winter,  strange  men, 
speaking  a  different  language  from  Chukchee,  Innuit,  or  Russian, 
came  from  the  north  over  the  ice,  landed  on  the  Siberian  shore, 
took  many  of  the  Chukchee  reindeer,  and  went  back,  no  one 
knew  whither.  A  few  years  later  the  incursion  was  repeated, 
the  Chukchees  rallied  to  protect  their  property,  a  bloody  fight 
ensued,  many  Chukchees  were  killed,  and  the  strangers  retreated 
to  the  northward,  and  have  never  since  been  seen. 

This  legend  may  be  due  to  the  aboriginal  imagination,  or  it 
may  be  founded  on  a  fact ;  I  give  it  as  it  was  told  ;  future  ex- 
plorers may  find  confirmation,  or  determine  its  mythical  nature. 

The  Chukchee  Peninsula.  —  That  portion  of  Eastern  Siberia 
which  is  known  under  this  name  is  situated  east  of  the  valley 
of  the  Anadyr  River,  Chaun  Bay,  and  Anadyr  Bay.  It  has  never 
been  thoroughly  explored,  and  is  a  desolate  waste  of  tundra  and 
low  mountains,  with  small  trees  along  the  Anadyr  River,  and 
elsewhere  only  the  moss  and  grass  on  which  the  reindeer  feed. 
The  argali,  or  mountain  sheep,  is  said  to  exist  in  the  mountains, 
while  immense  herds  of  wild  reindeer  roam  over  the  tundri. 

This  peninsula,  forming  the  western  boundary  of  Bering  Strait, 
and  part  of  Bering  Sea,  is  of  interest  from  its  near  approach  to 
our  territory. 

The  coast,  from  Cape  Serdze  Kamen  (Heart  of  Stone)  to  East 
Cape,  and  thence  to  Cape  Bering  in  Anadyr  Gulf,  is  generally 
high  and  rocky.  Granitic  hills  rise  sharply  from  the  water,  cov- 
ered with  keen -edged  fragments  detached  by  the  frost,  and 
broken  by  the  same  agency  to  the  size  of  a  man's  fist  and  up- 
wards. Snow  may  always  be  found  somewhere  on  them,  if  not  on 
the  summits,  at  least  in  some  of  the  sheltered  fissures  of  the  moun- 
tain-sides. 

There  are  no  watercourses,  as  water  filters  through  the  im- 
mense masses  of  broken  stone,  far  below  the  surface  ;  and  is  only 
to  be  obtained  near  the  base  of  the  hills. 


ADJACENT    TERRITORIES.  51I 

Had  Eugene  Sue  ever  visited  these  shores,  he  would  not  have 
described  the  stunted  birch-trees  sighing  in  the  wind,  while  the 
Wandering  Jew  and  his  partner  in  misfortune  conversed  with 
each  other  across  Bering  Strait !  That  forty-mile-wide  expanse 
of  blue  water  never  reflected  the  stem  of  a  growing  tree  as  large 
as  a  lead-pencil.  Richly  colored  mosses  and  lichens  adorn  the 
ungrateful  rocks.  Grass,  chickweed,  and  creeping  willow  are 
found  sparingly  in  the  most  favored  localities  and  fertile  gravel. 
A  tasteless,  seedy,  heather  berry  is  the  only  fruit,  if  indeed  it 
deserves  the  name.  A  more  forbidding,  desolate,  and  cheerless 
shore  does  not  exist. 

Wandering  Jews  are  not  unknown  here,  by  the  way  ;  but  they 
appear  to  have  degenerated  from  the  ancient  stock,  and  have  a 
sharp  eye  for  business  ;  buying  of  the  greasy  Tuski  their  stores 
of  whalebone,  oil,  and  walrus-tusks,  and  making  them  happy  with 
tobacco,  powder  and  ball,  guns,  knives,  kettles,  and  the  vilest  of 
alcoholic  concoctions. 

Notwithstanding  the  rock-bound  aspect  of  the  coast,  it  abounds 
with  good  harbors,  where  the  whalers  and  traders  resort  for  water, 
rest,  and  that  delectable  occupation  known  to  the  initiated  as 
" gammijigy  For  the  benefit  of  those  who  have  not  been  aboard 
of  a  whaler,  I  will  remark  that  the  English  for  the  above-men- 
tioned term  is  "  making  calls." 

The  best  of  these  harbors,  or,  rather,  a  series  of  harbors,  one 
within  another,  is  known  to  the  whalers  as  Plover  Bay.  The 
Plover  wintered  here  in  1848-49,  hence  the  name.  It  is  often 
marked  on  the  charts  Port  Providence,  which  I  believe  was  the 
name  given  to  it  by  Captain  Moore. 

The  point  to  the  eastward  of  the  mouth  of  the  bay,  as  it  is  rather 
low,  bare,  and  round,  goes  by  the  name  of  Bald  Head  ;  somewhat 
farther  east  is  the  cape  known  to  the  Russians  as  Chukotski  Nose. 

Just  inside  of  the  heads  a  sandspit  makes  out,  forming  the 
lower  anchorage  behind  it.  Several  smaller  bays  diverge  from 
the  main  one,  among  the  rest  Emma  Harbor,  named  so  by  Moore, 
whose  vessel  lay  there  during  one  winter.  Notwithstanding  the 
long  detention  here  of  regular  exploring  ships,  the  charts  of  the 
bay  have  hitherto  been  exceedingly  erroneous.  A  new  chart, 
due  to  the  officers  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Expedition, 
and  recently  published  by  the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  gives 


512  ADJACENT    TERRITORIES. 

a  fair  view  of  the  harbor  for  the  first  time.  As  a  haven  of  refuge 
for  whalers,  traders,  and  other  vessels  in  these  waters,  its  value 
cannot  be  estimated.  There  is  abundance  of  excellent  water, 
ballast  by  the  million  tons,  all  ready  for  shipping.  Fish,  and 
occasionally  tame  reindeer  meat,  can  be  obtained  from  the  native 
settlement  on  the  sandspit,  where  several  of  them  speak  fair  Eng- 
lish. Excellent  anti-scorbutic  grass  can  also  be  procured  in 
plenty  near  the  beach. 

The  middle  of  the  bay  is  very  deep,   one  hundred  and  two 
fathoms,  without  bottom,  being  reported.     The  lower  anchorage 


Mount  Kennicott,  Plover  Bay. 

has  rather  deep  water,  except  close  in  ;  and  in  a  norther  a  large 
vessel  would  need  plenty  of  chain  and  good  anchors,  as  the  bot- 
tom is  hard  in  some  spots,  and  there  is  a  slight  liability  to  drag. 
The  small  bays  farther  in,  however,  are  perfectly  protected,  and 
have  the  best  of  holding-ground.  The  end  of  the  sandspit  in  the 
lower  harbor  is  in  lat.  64°  22'  25",  and  Ion.  173°  30'  32",  accord- 
ing to  the  report  of  the  United  States  Eclipse  Expedition  under 
Professor  Asaph  Hall,  in  1869. 

The  mountains  around  the  bay,  though  steep  and  rugged,  are 
low.  I  measured  several  with  a  mercurial  barometer,  and  named 
the   highest   and  most  prominent    Mount  Kennicott,   after  that 


ADJACENT    TERRITORIES.  513 

intrepid  explorer,  who  ev'en  then,  unknown  to  us,  had  passed 
awav  from  his  labors.  The  exact  height  of  this  mountain  is 
2,216  feet.  Danger  Peak,  just  north  of  Snug  Harbor,  in  the 
upper  end  of  the  bay,  was  2,100  feet,  and  1,800  feet  may  be 
taken  as  a  fair  average  of  these  peaks,  which  might  be  called 
the  Chukchee   Hills. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula  are  of  two  races,  —  the  Chiik- 
chees  proper  and  the  Tuski,  a  branch  of  the  Innuit  stock,  who 
hav^e  been  elsewhere  described. 

The  Chukchces  and  Koridks.  —  The  extreme  western  limit  of 
these  wandering  tribes  may  be  described  as  a  line  drawn  from 
Gijiga  to  Ni'jni  Kolymsk  on  the  Kolyma  River.  Their  south- 
ern boundary  is  about  the  fifty-sixth  degree  of  latitude.  The  two 
tribes  of  similar  stock  and  habits  may  be  considered  together. 
The  Koriaks  never  go  north  of  the  Anadyr  River,  while  bands 
of  Chukchees  may  occasionally  be  found  to  the  south  of  it.  Both 
are  distinguished  by  physical  characteristics  from  the  Tunguses 
and  other  adjacent  tribes.  The  Chukchees  are  a  fierce  and 
determined  people,  and  have  successfully  resisted  all  the  efforts 
of  the  Russians  to  impose  tribute  upon  them,  while  the  Koriaks 
have  abjectly  submitted  without  any  resistance.  The  features 
of  the  former  are  prominent,  their  hair  is  black  and  harsh,  and 
their  eyes  are  large  and  dark.  Their  complexion  is  light  yellow. 
The  Chukchees  call  themselves  Tsutsin,  from  which  the  word 
Chukchee,  with  its  various  modes  of  spelling,  is  evidently  derived. 
They  live  during  the  entire  year  in  round  lodges  covered  with 
deerskins.  These  lodges  are  divided  into  compartments,  called 
in  Russian  pologs.  They  are  accustomed  to  sleep  without  cloth- 
ing. Their  parkies  are  of  deerskin,  with  the  edge  trimmed  with 
the  skins  of  beaver  or  otter,  and  the  hood  ornamented  with  the 
skin  of  the  dog's  tail.  Men  and  women  wear  ear-rings,  and  prac- 
tise tattooing.  The  men  adopt  the  tonsure,  while  the  women  do 
up  their  hair  in  two  braids,  which  fall  nearly  over  the  eyes ;  the 
remainder  is  left  in  a  tangled  and  unkempt  condition.  They 
eradicate  the  beard  as  far  as  possible,  but  wear  a  light  mustache. 
The  bodies  of  the  dead  are  burned  after  cutting  open  the  breast, 
while  a  dog  or  deer  is  sacrificed  during  the  ceremony.  Each 
head  of  a  family  performs  the  office  of  a  shaman.  Auguries  are 
drawn,  while  killing  animals,  from  the  manner  and  direction  in 
33 


514  ADJACENT   TERRITORIES. 

which  they  fall.  They  are  said  to  make  sacrifices  to  invisible 
spirits,  of  whom  they  also  make  figures  or  idols.  The  Koriaks 
are  very  similar  in  these  respects.  Aquiline  noses  are  not  un- 
common, presenting  quite  a  contrast  to  the  flat  faces  of  the 
Tuski  and  other  Eskimo  tribes.  Some  of  the  Koriaks,  like  some 
of  the  Chukchees,  are  sedentary.  Their  language  is  said  to  be 
harsh,  but  of  very  limited  vocabulary. 

Both  tribes  are  noted  for  their  herds  of  tame  reindeer,  upon 
which  they  depend  for  their  subsistence.  They  go  with  their 
deer  wherever  there  is  forage,  and  their  wanderings  are  greatly 
determined  by  its  abundance  or  scarcity.  The  deer  are  carefully 
herded  and  always  watched  by  men  appointed  for  the  purpose. 
They  are  obliged  to  exercise  great  care  that  the  tame  deer  shall 
not  find  opportunity  to  stampede  with  the  immense  herds  of  wild 
deer  which  sweep  across  the  country  in  the  spring.  The  do- 
mesticated animals  are  piebald,  and  sometimes  even  pure  white. 
Their  skins  are  soft  and  of  great  beauty,  far  surpassing  those  of 
the  wild  deer.  The  Chukchees  tan  them  with  the  inner  bark  of 
the  willow,  and  thus  color  them  of  a  beautiful  red  brown. 

They  are  indefatigable  traders.  They  exchange  their  deerskins 
and  articles  obtained  from  the  Russians  for  oil,  ivory,  walrus- 
skins,  and  whalebone  with  the  Tuski.  The  latter  (not  the  Chuk- 
chees, as  stated  by  Hartwig)  cross  Bering  Strait  and  trade  with 
the  Innuit,  and  at  Plover  Bay  with  the  American  traders.  The 
Chukchees  obtain  some  American  goods  from  the  Tiiski,  but  the 
major  portion  of  their  tobacco,  calico,  &c.,  is  purchased  at  a  fair 
held  on  an  island  in  the  Anui  River  every  year.  This  is  called 
the  Island  Fair  {Ostrovnoi).  It  is  held  in  the  spring,  and  at- 
tended by  hundreds  of  nomads  of  other  tribes.  It  is  superin- 
tended by  a  government  agent,  who  collects  a  small  market-tax 
for  the  Crown. 

The  Russians  celebrate  a  mass  after  all  preliminaries  have  been 
arranged,  and  the  hoisting  of  a  flag  on  the  tower  of  the  Ostrog 
announces  the  opening  of  the  market.  At  this  sign,  the  Chuk- 
chees, armed  with  spears,  bows,  and  arrows,  advance,  and  form  a 
wide  semicircle  around  the  fort.  At  the  tolling  of  a  bell  the 
barter  commences.  The  furs  sold  by  the  natives  are  foxes,  lynxes, 
wolverine,  otter,  beaver,  and  American  martens.  They  also  sell 
mahout,  walrus  ivory,  bone  sledge-runners,  bearskins,  and  deer- 


ADJACENT    TERRITORIES.  515 

skin  clothing.  The  Russian  traders  bring  kettles,  knives,  an.l 
other  iron  ware,  calicoes,  and  especially  Circassian  tobacco. 
During  the  fair,  foot-races,  dances,  and  other  festivities,  are  in- 
dulged in  by  the  natives.  The  Chukchees  are  fond  of  all  ath- 
letic sports,  and  despise  a  weak,  small,  or  deformed  person.  Of 
this,  Saur,  who  was  a  little  man,  gives  a  comical  account  in  his 
description  of  BilHngs'  journey.  The  Chukchees  handled  him  so 
roughly,  on  his  first  visit  to  them  near  St.  Laurence  Bay,  that  he 
retired  in  offended  dignity  to  the  ship,  where  he  remained  until 
the  journey  began,  overland  to  the  Kolyma. 

The  Chukchees  are  said  to  kill  all  deformed  children  and  aged 
or  infirm  people,  and  human  sacrifices  are  not  unknown  among 
them.  They  carry  their  tents  or  nmnets  with  them  wherever 
they  go,  and  sometimes  travel  in  caravans  of  fifty  or  sixty  fami- 
lies. They  are  exceedingly  fond  of  tobacco,  and  liquor  which  is 
obtained  from  the  traders  on  the  coast.  They  are  said  to  num- 
ber twenty  thousand,  and  the  Tuski  ten  thousand,  yet  this  is 
probably  an  exaggeration.  The  Koriaks  are  estimated  at  about 
four  thousand  five  hundred  souls.  They  are  said  by  Muller  to 
have  lived  in  huts  elevated  on  four  posts  above  the  ground,  enter- 
ing by  means  of  a  ladder  from  below. 

Kamchatka.  —  This  peninsula  divides  the  waters  of  the  Ochotsk 
Sea  from  those  of  Bering  Sea.  The  climate  is  colder  than  that 
of  the  opposite  shores  of  the  latter,  which  is  partly  due  to  a  cold 
current  which,  at  least  during  a  part  of  the  year,  flows  southward 
from  the  Strait  along  the  coast.  It  is  noted  for  the  number, 
height,  and  grandeur  of  its  volcanoes.  Their  rugged  sides  are 
covered  with  a  luxuriant  vegetation.  Along  the  banks  of  the 
numerous  streams,  a  dense  forest  is  sustained,  while  the  meadows 
which  occur  among  the  valleys  are  remarkable  for  the  vigor  and 
richness  of  their  herbage.  The  pasture-grounds  are  so  luxuriant 
that  grass  is  often  cut  three  times  during  the  season.  The  woods 
abound  with  squirrels  and  the  most  valuable  sables.  On  the 
mountains,  bears,  wolves,  argali,  reindeer,  and  stone  foxes  are 
found.  Fish,  especially  salmon  and  herring,  abound  in  incredi- 
ble numbers.  In  a  small  cove  of  the  Bay  of  Avatcha,  two  white 
men,  with  the  help  of  a  few  women,  prepared  six  hundred  barrels 
of  salmon  for  shipment  in  the  season  of  1865.  The  dogs,  which 
are  used  for  draught,  are  fed  solely  on  dry  fish,  and  their  daily 


5l6  ADJACENT   TERRITORIES. 

ration  is  a  single  salmon.  When  in  good  condition  they  will 
travel  on  good  roads  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  miles  in  a  day. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  sledges  in  use,  of  which  one  is  long  and 
low,  used  only  for  carrying  goods  or  on  long  journeys,  while  the 
other  is  high,  shaped  much  like  a  child's  rocking-horse,  and  is 
used  for  short  journeys.  The  dogs  are  guided  by  the  drivers 
voice,  aided  by  a  crooked  stick  called  an  "  ostle,"  which  he  throws 
at  them,  and  which  requires  much  dexterity  to  pick  up  when 
travelling  rapidly.  Five  dogs  will  carry  three  persons  and  sixty 
pounds  of  luggage  on  a  large  sled.  The  principal  rivers  of  Kam- 
chatka are  the  Bolshoya,  the  Avdtcha,  and  the  Kamchatka.  There 
are  sixty-three  volcanoes,  of  which  twenty  are  active.  Warm 
and  mineral  springs  are  not  uncommon.  The  mineral  wealth 
of  the  peninsula  has  not  been  investigated.  The  principal  har- 
bors are  those  of  Lower  Kamchatka  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of 
the  same  name,  and  Petropavlovsk  on  Niaki'na  Cove,  Avatcha 
Bay.  The  latter  is  a  most  magnificent  haven,  which  might  con- 
tain the  navies  of  the  world.  It  is  subject,  however,  to  small 
whirlwinds,  or  "  woolys,"  which  sometimes  render  navigation  in 
small  boats  dangerous.  Petropavlovsk  is  the  capital  of  Kamchatka, 
and  is  a  town  of  some  five  hundred  inhabitants.  It  is  principally 
noted  as  a  rendezvous  for  traders  and  for  the  defeat  of  the  Allies 
in  1854.  When  there  was  a  garrison  here,  the  population  num- 
bered fifteen  hundred,  but  the  removal  of  the  troops  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Amoor  River  in  1855  was  a  serious  blow  to  its  prosperity. 
There  are  only  some  two  hundred  Russians  in  the  peninsula. 
The  remainder  of  the  inhabitants  are  Kamshadales,  Yakuts,  and 
half-breeds.  To  the  north  the  Tungiisi  or  Lamuts  occupy  a  large 
extent  of  territory  with  their  herds  of  deer.  At  the  mouth  of  the 
Avatcha  River  is  a  small  settlement,  which  I  visited  in  1865. 
Here  are  numerous  herds  of  small  cattle,  which  give  abundance 
of  rich  milk.  Potatoes  are  raised,  though  not  of  very  large  size, 
yet  in  considerable  quantities.  These,  with  a  little  barley,  tur- 
nips, lettuce,  &c.,  compose  the  agricultural  products.  Berries 
are  abundant.  Many  ducks  were  seen  in  the  Avatcha  delta,  and 
auks,  divers,  and  murres  abound  on  the  rocky  cliffs  of  the  coast. 
The  Kamshadales  are  expert  in  procuring  their  eggs  by  suspend- 
ing themselves  over  the  precipice  and  drawing  themselves  in  by 
means  of  a  crooked  pole. 


ADJACENT    TERRITORIES.  517 

The  Kamchatkan  lily  {Fritillaria  sarrana),  or  Sarrana,  has  a 
tuberous  root,  which  is  an  article  of  diet  with  the  natives.  A 
species  of  fungus  called  nmc hainor  di^ords,  a  kind  of  stimulant,  and 
is  also  an  article  of  trade  with  the  more  northern  tribes.  The 
roots  of  the  wild  parsnip  {Archangclica)  are  distilled,  and  a  kind 
of  spirit  made  from  them.  The  population  of  the  peninsula  is 
about  seven  thousand. 

T/ie  Kamsliaddlcs.  —  The  original  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula 
are  much  reduced  in  numbers  since  the  Russian  conquest.  Vio- 
lence, disease,  and  the  presence  of  a  superior  race,  have  swept 
them  away  in  large  numbers.  Their  characters  are  much  changed 
by  contact  with  the  Russians.  Those  in  the  vicinity  of  Penjinsk 
have  preserved  their  language  with  the  least  corruption  of  any. 
The  name  Kamchatka  is  derived,  according  to  some  authors,  from 
the  Chukchee  "  Kre-kamchatkan','  meaning  demons. 

The  Kamshadales  are  broad  and  stout,  but  of  medium  height. 
They  have  prominent  cheek-bones,  broad  and  projecting  jaws, 
small  noses,  full  lips,  and  black  hair.  Their  complexion  is  light 
yellowish,  with  much  color.  The  women  are  said  to  purify  their 
complexion  by  sticking,  with  fish  glue,  gut  parchment,  made 
from  the  intestines  of  the  bear,  upon  their  faces.  They  also  rub 
their  cheeks  with  a  red  sea-weed  in  place  of  rouge.  They  are 
remarkably  healthy,  and  attain  a  good  old  age.  Some  of  the 
girls  whom  I  saw  were  well  formed,  pretty,  and  attractive.  They 
keep  their  houses  very  clean,  and  are  neat  about  their  persons. 
The  men  gain  their  living  by  fishing  and  trapping  sables.  For 
the  latter  they  obtain,  at  Petropavlovsk,  from  eighteen  to  twenty 
dollars  apiece  in  goods.  The  traders  are  frequently  obliged  to 
advance  tea,  sugar,  flour,  tobacco,  and  brandy  to  the  natives  in 
the  summer,  and  to  keep  a  bright  lookout  lest  the  cunning  Kam- 
shadale  sell  his  furs,  during  the  winter,  to  some  one  else.  They 
pay  their  taxes,  and  obtain  the  above-mentioned  articles,  with 
clothing  and  utensils,  by  the  product  of  their  traps.  For  other 
food  they  rely  on  the  fish  and  game,  for  few  of  them  are  suf- 
ficiently active  to  keep  cattle  or  cultivate  the  ground.  All  of 
them  are  baptized,  but,  as  usual  among  Greek  converts,  they 
retain  many  of  their  old  superstitions.  They  are  intelligent,  good- 
natured,  hospitable,  and  witty,  but  indolent,  and  not  always  honest. 
The  snowshoes  worn  in  Kamchatka  are  made  on  the  Norwegian 


5l8  ADJACENT    TERRITORIES. 

pattern,  covered  with  sealskin,  and  esteemed  as  very  valuable. 
There  are  a  few  horses  at  Petropavlovsk,  but  most  of  the  travel- 
ling is  done  with  boats  or  dogs.  The  women  are  noted  for  their 
fine  needlework,  and  some  of  the  Kamshadale  parkies  are  of  great 
beauty  and  no  little  value.    The  embroidery  is  usually  done  in  silk. 

The  Tungusi  or  Lamuts.  —  These  tribes  range  over  an  im- 
mense extent  of  territory,  reaching  from  Lake  Baikal  to  Kam- 
chatka and  the  mouth  of  the  Amoor,  and  from  the  shores  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Ochotsk  l^ea  and  the  Chinese  borders.  They 
take  their  name  from  the  Tunguska  or  Angara  River,  where 
they  were  first  met  with  by  the  invading  Russians  in  1640. 
They  are,  of  course,  nomadic,  and  are  distinguished  as  Reindeer, 
Horse,  Dog,  Forest,  and  River  Tungusi,  according  to  their  mode 
of  life  and  domestic  animals.  Most  of  them  have  tame  reindeer, 
but  horses  and  cattle  are  not  uncommon.  They  are  said  to  number 
thirty  thousand,  and  were  formerly  much  more  numerous,  but  are 
yearly  declining  from  diseases  introduced  by  the  Russians.  The 
unfortunate  Tungiise  who  may  lose  his  reindeer  by  wolves  or 
sickness  is  reduced  to  a  most  miserable  condition.  Nothing  is 
secure  from  these  outcasts,  who  have  sometimes  been  reduced  to 
cannibalism,  and  are  hunted  down  like  wild  beasts  by  their  more 
fortunate  countrymen.  The  Tungusi  are  noted  for  their  wit, 
jovial  manner,  and  good  temper.  They  are  exceedingly  intelli- 
gent, but  malicious  and  deceitful.  They  are  vain,  and  fond  of 
beads  and  other  ornaments.  While  hunting  the  reindeer  they 
dress  in  deerskins,  laying  aside  their  finery,  and  wear  water-proof 
boots  to  keep  out  the  dampness  of  the  tundri.  They  are  expert 
with  gun  and  sling,  or  in  the  use  of  the  bow.  They  veil  their 
eyes  from  the  snow  glare  with  a  black  horse-hair  net.  They  are 
extremely  bold  and  courageous,  meeting  the  bear  in  single  com- 
bat with  only  a  knife. 

The  nomadic  Tunguse  uses  a  tent  of  skins  or  soft,  pliable  bark, 
which  is  easily  transported.  The  house  of  the  sedentary  Tun- 
giise is  very  small,  and  heated  by  a  fire  built  on  a  stone  hearth  ii) 
the  centre.  Their  food  is  obtained  from  their  herds,  or  consists 
of  fish,  berries,  and  game.  A  favorite  dish,  as  with  the  Norton 
Sound  Innuit,  consists  of  the  half-digested  contents  of  the  rein- 
deer's stomach,  mixed  with  fat  and  berries.  Many  of  them  use 
the  "  brick  "  tea,  which  they  obtain  from  the  Chinese. 


ADJACENT    TERRITORIES.  519 

They  dress  the  dead  in  their  best  clothes,  and  hang  them  in 
large  chests  between  two  trees.  The  weapons  of  the  deceased 
are  buried  under  the  body.  A  reindeer  is  sacrificed  during  the 
ceremony.  Their  religion  consists  of  a  belief  in  shamanism,  and 
but  few  are  even  nominal  Christians.  They  anciently  worshipped 
wooden  idols  called  Bul-zvan.  They  purchase  their  wives  for 
twenty  or  a  hundred  reindeer  from  the  parents,  or  serve,  like 
Jacob,  many  years  for  them.  They  excel  in  athletic  exercise, 
dancing,  and  chess-playing.  They  are  the  best  of  travellers, 
and  are  the  usual  companions  of  a  journey  in  Eastern  Siberia. 
They  visit  annually  the  fairs  which  are  held  in  all  the  Siberian 
towns.  They  are  of  medium  height,  Tartar  features,  and  light 
yellow  complexion.* 

The  Yukagiri.  —  The  tribe  commonly  known  by  this  name 
are  said  by  Saur  to  call  themselves  Andon  doinni,  and  are  about 
eight  hundred  in  number.  They  occupy  the  country  between  the 
Chukchees  and  the  Yakuts,  especially  on  the  Kolyma  River. 
They  are  believed  to  consist  of  the  remnants  of  some  of  the 
primitive  Siberian  nations.  They  have  been  greatly  reduced  by 
the  small-pox,  and  also  by  their  frequent  wars  with  other  tribes. 
They  have  black  eyes  and  hair,  pale  and  regular  features.  They 
are  said  to  carry  the  bones  of  their  deceased  relatives  about  with 
them,  especially  when  hunting.  In  manners  and  customs  they 
much  resemble  the  Tungiisi.  They  formerly  were  entirely  sup- 
ported by  their  deer,  but  many  of  them,  who.  have  lost  their 
herds,  live  by  hunting  and  fishing.  With  them  are  included  some 
small  bands  known  as  Chiivdntses. 

The  Yakuts.  —  The  traditions  of  this  great  Semitic  colony 
point  to  an  origin  near  Tunguska  River  and  Lake  Baikal.  At 
present  they  occupy  the  territory  about  the  Lena,  as  far  south  as 
the  Aldan,  eastward  to  the  Kolyma,  and  westward  to  the  Yenisei. 
They  are  nearly  two  hundred  thousand  in  number,  and  form 
almost  the  entire  population  of  the  Yakutsk  District.  Their 
language  bears  a  near  relationship  to  the  Turkish,  while  they 
are  said  to  be  of  "  Mongolian  "  features.  This  is  one  more  item 
in  the  long  list  of  facts  which  show  the  worthlessness  of  physio- 
logical characters  as  evidences  of  relationship  between  nations. 

Their  capital  is  at  Yakutsk.     They  are  an  essentially  pastoral 

*  Most  of  these  details  in  reference  to  the  Tungiisi  and  Yakuts  are  from  Ilartwig. 


520  ADJACENT    TERRITORIES. 

people,  and  live  on  the  products  of  their  herds  of  cattle  and  horses, 
though  some  of  the  more  northern  bands  are  reduced  to  herding 
reindeer. 

Those  whom  I  have  seen  were  remarkable  for  their  small  eyes 
and  noses,  exceedingly  prominent  cheek-bones,  stiff  black  hair,  and 
diminutive  size  of  most  of  the  members  of  the  body.  Their  civ- 
ilization is  of  a  high  character  in  the  cities,  but  many  of  the 
lower  classes  are  little  above  the  other  northeast  Siberian  nomads 
in  intelligence.  They  are  of  a  reserved  and  somewhat  gloomy 
disposition,  but  hospitable  and  generous.  Many  of  their  villages 
are  very  small,  and  to  the  north  the  solitary  huts  are  many  miles 
apart,  so  that  the  nearest  neighbors  see  each  other  perhaps  only 
once  in  several  years.  In  summer  the  herdsmen  live  in  conical 
tents  made  of  birch-bark  spread  over  light  poles.  Their  principal 
occupation  during  this  season  is  haying.  In  winter  they  live  in 
yonrts,  or  low,  pyramidal  log  huts  covered  with  turf  and  with  slabs 
of  pure  ice  for  windows.  As  the  weather  grows  warmer,  these 
are  replaced  by  the  translucent  bladders  of  fish,  or  oiled  paper. 
The  floor  is  generally  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  ;  the  fire  is 
built  on  a  stone  hearth  in  the  middle  of  the  yourt,  and  the  smoke 
escapes  through  a  hole  in  the  roof.  They  build  stables  for  their 
horned  cattle,  but  in  very  cold  weather  the  more  valuable  cows 
may  find  refuge  in  the  family  yourt. 

Their  horses,  though  of  small  size,  have  great  powers  of  endur- 
ance, and  remain  without  shelter  during  the  most  severe  weather, 
feeding  on  the  dry  herbage  which  they  dig  with  their  hoofs  from 
under  the  snow.  These  animals  travel  thirty  or  forty  miles  with- 
out rest,  and  are  admirably  suited  to  the  country.  The  Yakuts 
make  excellent  mechanics,  and  are  hard  to  excel  in  driving  a 
bargain.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  saving  and  industrious,  and  some- 
times amass  large  fortunes,  at  least  large  for  that  part  of  the  world. 
Their  nationality  is  exceedingly  energetic,  and  not  only  do  they 
retain  their  own  language  and  customs  almost  unchanged,  but 
the  Russians  long  resident  among  them,  many  of  whom  have 
married  Yakut  women,  have  also  adopted  their  national  tongue. 
In  ingenuity  they  surpass  all  other  Siberian  nations,  and  their 
leather-work  and  some  of  their  manufactures  of  iron  would  do 
credit  to  the  most  skilful  European  artisan.  Long  before  the 
Russian  conquest  they  manufactured  their  own  knives  and  axes 


ADJACENT   TERRITORIES.  52  I 

from  the  ore  found  on  the  Wilna.  These  articles,  either  from  the 
toughness  of  the  metal  or  the  method  of  manufacture,  sustain  the 
greatest  cold  without  that  liability  to  break  which  marks  the  Eu- 
ropean iron  and  steel.  Their  leather  is  perfectly  water-tight,  and 
the  carpets  woven  by  the  women  are  even  exported  to  Europe. 
They  are  excellent  hunters  and  trappers,  and  untiring  in  the 
chase.  Many  of  them  are  great  gluttons.  Sir  George  Simpson 
mentions  an  instance  where  two  of  them  devoured  seventy-two 
pounds  of  beef  and  thirty-six  of  melted  butter  at  a  sitting.  One 
was  old  and  experienced,  the  other  young  and  zealous.  At  first 
the  latter  had  the  advantage.  "  His  teeth  are  good,  but  with  the 
assistance  of  my  patron  saint,"  said  the  old  man,  crossing  him- 
self, "I  will  soon  come  up  with  him!"  It  is  said  that  at  the 
Yakut  weddings  some  of  these  professional  gormandizers  are  in- 
vited for  the  amusement  of  the  guests.  Their  favorite  food  is 
horseflesh,  and  sour  mare's-milk,  called  kocvniss,  is  their  favorite 
beverage.  A  favorite  dish  called  salamat  is  composed  of  a  mix- 
ture of  rye  flour,  koomiss,  the  inner  bark  of  the  larch,  fat,  dry 
fish,  and  berries. 

They  make  clothing  of  the  skins  of  their  horses,  and  nets  from 
horsehair.  They  catch  fish  in  zapors,  or  fish-traps,  much  like 
those  of  the  Yukon  Ingaliks.  They  are  inveterate  drunkards 
when  they  can  procure  liquor,  and  devoted  to  the  use  of  tobacco. 
East  of  the  Lena,  they  are  the  universal  carriers,  and  travelling 
in  this  part  of  Siberia  would  be  almost  impossible  without  the 
Yakut  and  his  horse. 

They  are  tough  and  enduring,  and  fear  no  amount  of  cold 
or  exposure,  while  they  support  the  pangs  of  hunger  with  the 
utmost  fortitude.  Their  powers  of  vision  are  remarkable,  and 
some  of  them  have  been  said  to  be  able  to  distinguish  the 
satellites  of  Jupiter  with  the  naked  eye.  Their  memory  is 
wonderful,  and  every  bush  and  hillock  on  the  journey  is  remem- 
bered as  a  guide  for  the  future.  They  wear  many  ornaments. 
Their  parkies  are  adorned  with  fringes,  beads,  and  embroidery. 
They  are  fond  of  music,  but  their  songs  are  melancholy  and 
usually  devoted  to  the  objects  of  nature  around  them  or  some 
of  their  national  superstitions.  Many  of  them  are  nominal  Chris- 
tians, but  the  belief  in  shamanism  is  nearly  as  strong  as  ever. 
The  spirit  of  the  woods  is  called  Lieshi,  and  the  Yakut  is  accus- 


522  ADJACENT    TERRITORIES 

tomed  to  propitiate  him  by  attaching  a  few  hairs  from  his  horse's 
mane  to  some  solitary  tree.  The  use  of  the  gun  has  not  en- 
tirely supplanted  that  of  the  bow,  and  they  carry  a  weapon  like  a 
scythe  blade,  attached  to  a  straight  pole.  They  are  a  carnivorous 
race ;  though  wheat  matures  near  Yakutsk,  they  spend  little 
time  in  cultivating  the  ground. 

They  were  said  by  MuIIer  to  call  themselves  ZinzdkJia,  from 
the  name  of  one  of  their  ancient  princes.  They  did  not  worship 
wooden  idols,  but  made  a  stuffed  doll  which  they  hung  on  a  tree 
and  regarded  as  an  impersonation  of  an  invisible  spirit.  Their 
shamans  were  called  ^z7/////,and  very  anciently  they  killed  or  buried 
alive  the  servants  of  their  important  chiefs  after  the  death  of  the 
latter.  Some  of  their  dead  were  left  exposed  or  covered  with  a 
hide,  some  were  put  in  a  box  elevated  on  four  posts,  and  others 
were  buried.  They  bought  their  wives  from  the  parents,  and 
allowed  polygamy.  They  were  divided  into  eight  tribes,  each  of 
which  had  some  bird  or  animal  which  they  regarded  as  sacred, 
and  would  not  eat.  Their  new  year  began  in  April,  at  which 
time  they  were  accustomed  to  sacrifice  horses  or  cattle,  hanging 
the  heads  and  skins  upon  trees.  Most  of  these  ancient  customs 
have  long  since  passed  away. 

There  were  many  Yakuts  among  the  servants  of  the  Russian 
American  Company  in  Northwest  America. 

TJie  ]\[ancJi6os.  —  These  are  a  Tartar  people  who  live  on  the 
banks  of  the  Amoor  and  along  the  borders  of  Siberia.  They  are 
closely  allied  in  language,  manners,  and  customs  to  the  Chinese. 

The  Ghiliaks.  —  These  are  also  a  Tartar  race  who  inhabit  part 
of  the  country  near  the  mouth  of  the  Amoor  and  on  Sakhalin 
Island.  They  are  represented  as  a  very  intelligent  people  who 
have  readily  adopted  Russian  manners  and  civilization.  Their 
language  is  almost  monosyllabic.  They  are  said  to  live  almost 
exclusively  on  fish,  but  are  also  good  hunters.  They  call  them- 
selves GJiilicn  or  Kileti,  and  their  appearance  resembles  that  of 
other  Tartar  tribes, 

Ai-dn. — This  is  a  small  territory  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
Ochotsk  Sea.  It  was  formerly  under  the  control  of  the  Russian 
American  Company.  It  had  a  governor  appointed  by  the  Crown, 
and  is  one  of  the  best  ports  on  the  Ochotsk  Sea.  It  is  noted  for 
the  quality  of  the  sables  which  are  obtained  there. 


ADJACENT    TERRITORIES.  523 

The  Knrilc  Islands.  —  These  islands  form  a  chain,  extending 
from  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Kamchatka  to  the  vicinity 
of  the  island  of  Yesso,  of  the  Japan  archipelago.  The  name 
has  been  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Russian  kiireet,  to  smoke. 
They  are  mostly  of  small  size,  and  without  trees.  The  larger  are 
called  Yeterop,  Yiirup,  and  Paraniushir.  They  were  also  under 
the  control  of  the  late  Russian  American  Company. 

From  them  some  bear,  fur-seal,  and  sea-otter  skins  were  for- 
merly obtained. 

The  Ainos.  —  The  Kiirile  Islands  are  inhabited  by  a  few  hun- 
dred natives  belonging  to  a  nation  which  is  also  found  on  the 
northern  point  of  Sakhalin  Island,  on  the  island  of  Yesso,  and 
formerly  on  the  southwest  coast  of  the  Kamchatkan  peninsula. 
Japanese  historians  made  mention  of  this  people  in  the  year 
663  B.  c.  They  call  themselves  Ainu  or  Aino.  Their  language 
is  very  imperfectly  known,  yet  some  authors  have  stated  that  it  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  northern  inhabitants  of  Yesso  or  to  the  ad- 
jacent Tartar  tribes,  such  as  the  Manchoos  and  Ghi'liaks.  Von 
Siebold  says  that  the  roots  of  the  language  differ  from  those  of 
the  neighboring  dialects,  and  he  definitely  separates  them  from 
the  Tungiisi  and  Kamshadales. 

The  Ainos  have  greatly  diminished  in  numbers  since  they  be- 
came known  to  Europeans.  Those  on  the  Kiirile  Islands  have 
been  subject  to  Russia  since  1736.  Those  on  the  island  of  Yesso 
and  those  on  Sakhalin  were  long  since  conquered  by  the  Jap- 
anese, who  treated  them  with  great  severity. 

They  are  of  light  complexion,  with  horizontally  placed  eyes, 
broad  faces,  prominent  noses,  large  ears,  and  a  medium  mouth. 
The  cheek-bones  are  not  prominent,  and  they  are  remarkable  for 
their  heavy  beards  and  great  development  of  hair,  not  only  on 
the  scalp  and  eyebrows,  but  all  over  the  body.* 

*  From  the  above  characteristics  solely,  without  a  knowledge  of  the  grammar  or 
vocabulary,  some  ethnologists  have  jumped  to  the  startling  conclusion  that  they 
are  Aryans !  The  hairiness  of  body,  though  not  quite  so  great,  is  found  among 
some  of  the  Innuit  tribes  of  the  Yukon  delta,  while  among  other  tribes,  unques- 
tionably of  the  same  origin,  directly  adjacent  and  speaking  an  almost  identical 
dialect,  even  the  mustache  is  not  developed.  The  prominent  noses  and  horizontal 
eyes  are  common  among  the  tribes  of  Northeastern  Siberia,  especially  the  true  Chiik- 
chees,  Kamshadales,  and  Yukagirs.  A  similar  course  of  reasoning,  on  the  other 
hand,  long  placed  the  Yakuts  (now  known  to  be  closely  allied  to  the  Turks  and  of  un- 
questionable  Semitic  origin)  among  the  Mongols  with  the  equally  distinct  Yukagirs 


524  ADJACENT    TERRITORIES. 

The  women  tattoo  the  upper  lip,  and  sometimes  the  lower  one. 
They  pierce  the  ears,  and  wear  beads  or  silver  rings  in  them. 
They  sometimes  wear  their  hair  uncut,  and  sometimes  cut  it  off 
in  front.  They  dress  in  furs,  sealskins,  and  the  bark  of  trees, 
which  is  twisted  into  strings  for  the  purpose.  They  bury  the 
dead  on  their  backs,  at  full  length,  enclosed  in  boxes.  They  weep 
and  grieve  for  the  dead  very  bitterly,  even  to  the  little  children. 

The  name  of  the  dead  person  is  never  mentioned  ;  such  an 
act  would  be  considered  the  greatest  rudeness.  The  husband's 
younger  brother  marries  the  widow,  either  for  life,  or  until  some 
one  else  asks  her  in  marriage. 

A  widower  may  marry  again  in  a  month,  but  a  widow  is  ex- 
pected to  remain  single  somewhat  longer.  There  are  no  mar- 
riage ceremonies.  The  husband  does  not  purchase  his  wife,  but 
serves  her  parents.  They  have  from  one  to  three  wives.  They 
think  little  of  matrimonial  infidelities,  yet,  according  to  other  au- 
thors, such  give  rise  to  duels  fought  with  clubs,  or  the  transgressor 
pays  for  his  fault  by  such  restitution  as  the  husband  demands. 
Until  childbirth  the  wife  remains  in  the  family  ;  after  delivery, 
she  lives  apart  for  a  month.  They  reckon  time  by  moons  or  sea- 
sons. When  sickness  occurs  a  dog  is  sacrificed,  as  among  the 
Chukchees.  Their  religion  is  probably  a  belief  in  shamanism,  as 
among  the  adjacent  tribes.  They  travel  with  dogs  in  winter,  and 
also  eat  them.  The  dog  is  their  principal  domestic  animal,  as 
they  do  not  keep  cattle  or  cultivate  the  ground. 

They  catch  rats  in  traps,  but  do  not  eat  them.  The  Japanese 
have  introduced  cats  among  them.  They  are  accustomed  to  rear 
the  cubs  of  the  bear,  and  when  full  grown  to  make  a  feast,  kill, 
and  eat  them. 

They  have  but  recently  acquired  the  use  of  iron  tools  and  weap- 
ons. Formerly  they  used  implements  of  stone  or  bone.  They 
use  the  root  of  the  edible  lily,  and  eat  eggs  and  fish.     They  de- 

and  other  tribes,  simply  because  they  had  small  eyes  and  projecting  cheek-bones. 
The  words  of  Whitney  are  applicable,  when,  speaking  of  the  Scythian  family,  he  says, 
"  It  is  to  no  small  extent  those  who  know  least  in  detail  of  the  languages  of  the  fam- 
ily who  are  most  ready  to  assert  and  defend  their  historical  connection  "  ;  and,  again, 
in  reference  to  the  so-called  "  Turanian  "  family,  "  Such  a  sweeping  and  wholesale 
conglomeration,  at  the  present  stage  of  progress  of  linguistic  research,  is  wholly  un- 
scientific, and  of  no  authority  or  value.  It  represents  only  a  want  of  detailed  knowl- 
edge, and  a  readiness  to  give  way  to  loose  and  unscrupulous  theorizing,  on  the  part 
of  its  authors." 


ADJACENT    TERRITORIES.  525 

pend  in  great  part  on  the  latter  for  food.  The  above  facts  refer 
to  those  Hving  upon  Sakhiihn  Island.  There  are  said  to  be  about 
two  thousand  five  hundred  of  them. 

The  houses  of  the  Yesso-Ainos  are  rectangular,  with  a  porch 
about  eight  feet  broad  in  front.  They  are  built  of  small  poles, 
fastened  with  strips  of  bark  and  covered  with  straw.  Under  the 
eaves  are  holes  which  serve  as  windows.  They  generally  consist 
of  one  room,  but  they  are  sometimes  divided  by  partitions.  There 
are  no  floors,  but  the  sand  is  covered  with  mats,  and  there  is  a 
platform  on  one  side  where  the  inmates  lounge  or  sleep.  The 
fire  is  made  in  the  centre,  and  there  are  usually  fish  hung  up 
over  it  to  smoke.  Altogether  the  huts  much  resemble  the  Tun- 
giise  yourts,  but  are  less  solidly  built.  They  store  their  fish  in  a 
cache  not  unlike  those  in  use  among  the  Yukon  Indians. 

Fish  are  caught  in  nets  made  of  twisted  bark.  The  twine 
made  in  this  way  is  woven  into  a  kind  of  cloth,  of  which  clothing 
is  made.  Young  children  go  naked,  and  older  ones  are  only  pro- 
vided with  a  long  jacket. 

They  are  fond  of  bear-hunting,  and  preserve  the  skulls  as 
trophies.  Their  arrows  are  made  of  wood  and  reeds  pointed 
with  bamboo,  and  they  are  said  to  poison  them.  They  consider 
it  as  a  disgrace  to  part  with  their  weapons.  They  carry  short 
knives,  biit  rely  principally  on  their  bows  and  arrows  in  hunting 
the  bear  and  deer.  They  use  snowshoes,  which  are  made  with  a 
wooden  frame  and  covered  with  deerskin.  The  lips  of  the  women 
are  tattooed  after  marriage.  They  also  tattoo  the  back  of  the 
hands  and  other  parts  of  the  body.  They  cultivate  millet  and 
potatoes,  an  art  probably  learned  from  the  Japanese.  They  use 
deerskin  dresses.  They  have  many  deities,  but  address  most  of 
their  prayers  to  fire.  They  do  not  buy  their  wives,  but  make 
presents  to  the  parents.  Their  only  feast  is  at  the  beginning 
of  the  new  year,  when  they  make  offerings  to  all  their  gods.  A 
man  can  have  only  one  wife,  but  any  number  of  concubines,  each 
of  whom  lives  in  a  separate  house.  When  a  wife  dies,  the  house 
in  which  she  lived  is  burned.  The  body  of  a  dead  man  is  clothed 
in  white  and  buried  in  a  sort  of  bo.x  in  the  ground  with  the  head 
to  the  east.  They  have  no  written  characters,  but  are  said  to 
convey  information  by  means  of  notched  sticks.  They  have  no 
notion  of  a  future  state.     They  keep  fowls  and  eat  wild  birds,  but 


526  ADJACENT   TERRITORIES. 

not  eggs.  They  average  about  five  feet  two  inches  in  height, 
are  broad-chested,  well  made,  and  have  a  fine  appearance  com- 
pared with  the  Japanese.  Their  eyes  are  always  black,  and  their 
hair  is  of  the  same  color.  They  are  active  and  fond  of  work, 
seldom  suffering  from  sickness.  The  Kurile-Ainos  are  very  few 
in  number.  They  live  almost  entirely  on  fish,  and  are  fond  of 
travelling  from  island  to  island  in  their  boats.  They  are  noted 
for  their  mildness,  quiet  manners,  hospitality,  and  general  good- 
will toward  strangers  and  each  other. 

The  little  knowledge  *  which  we  do  possess  with  regard  to  this 
interesting  people  makes  us  regret  that  we  know  no  more.  They 
have  probably  adopted  many  customs  from  their  Japanese  con- 
querors. Without  a  grammar  or  vocabulary  of  their  language, 
any  theories  in  regard  to  their  origin  are  mere  speculation.  The 
Japanese  consider  them  to  be  descended  from  the  original  inhabi- 
tants of  the  islands,  who,  according  to  the  Japanese  records,  were 
conquered  by  the  former  about  the  year  600  of  the  Christian  era. 
Many  of  their  habits  and  customs  appear  similar  to  those  of  the 
northeastern  races  of  Asia. 

Nikoldijfsk.  —  This  town  is  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Amoor.  It  owes  its  principal  importance  to  the  trade  of  that 
river  and  the  garrison  which  was  transferred  there  from  Petro- 
pavlovsk  by  the  government  in  1855.  American  and  Sandwich 
Island  traders  monopolize  most  of  its  commerce.  Owing  to  the 
difficult  and  dangerous  character  of  the  navigation  of  the  Amoor, 
from  the  constantly  changing  sand-bars  which  obstruct  the  chan- 
nel, most  vessels  carry  their  cargoes  to  De  Castries  Bay  in  Sak- 
halin Straits,  whence  it  has  been  proposed  to  build  a  railroad  to 
Nikolaiffsk.  The  population  of  the  place  is  estimated  at  twelve 
thousand,  and  the  trade  is  principally  in  lumber,  liquors,  fancy 
articles,  and  breadstuffs. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  form  an  ice  company  here,  for  the 
purpose  of  supplying  the  Chinese  ports  ;  but  it  is  doubtful  if  the 
enterprise  would  pay  for  many  years,  as  the  market  is  very 
limited  at  present. 

This  concludes  the  list  of  points  or  people  of  interest  in  the 
foreign  territories  adjacent  to  Alaska. 

*  Most  of  the  above  facts  are  from  a  pajKr  by  Professor  A.  S.  Bickinorc,  in  Silli- 
man's  Journal,  1868. 


APPENDIX 


Flag  of  the  Scientific  Corps. 


MEMBERS. 


Robert   Kennicott, 
W.  H.  Dall,  H.  \V.  Elliott, 

H.  M.  Bannister,  J.  T.  Rothrock, 

Ferdinand  Bischoff,  Charles  Pease. 


APPENDIX     A. 


GLOSSARY. 

FROM  ignorance  of  the  true  phonetic  value  of  the  Russian  com- 
pound consonants,  and  from  literal  transcription,  instead  of  pho- 
netic translation,  of  the  German  rendering  of  Russian  and  native  names, 
much  confusion  has  arisen. 

Many  writers  persistently  represent  the  third  letter  of  the  Russian 
alphabet  by  W,  writing  Ronidnow  instead  of  Romanoff,  &c.  The 
twenty-fifth  letter  is  also  frequently  rendered  T  S  C  H  instead  of  C  H 
soft,  as  in  churchy  which  fully  represents  it  in  English.  The  Russian  O, 
when  not  accented,  should  be  rendered  in  English  by  A  ;  from  the  neg- 
lect of  this  we  have  Kbdiak  instead  of  Kadidk,  and  many  similar  errors. 
The  twenty-second  letter  of  the  Russian  alphabet  should  properly  be 
represented  by  K  H  in  English  ;  it  has  the  exact  value  of  the  German 
C  H  as  in  welcher. 

The  spelling  throughout  this  volume  has  been  made  as  simple  as  the 
phonetic  values  would  allow.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  authors  in  future 
will  endeavor  to  follow  up  this  reform,  especially  when  they  learn  that  it 
is  as  gross  an  error  to  spell  Kamchatka,  for  instance,  Kamtschdtka,  as  it 
would  be  for  a  foreigner  to  represent  the  English  word  chu)xh  by 
tschurtsch,  and  so  on.  The  letter  U  in  Russian  and  native  words  has 
almost  invariably  the  sound  of  U  in  Luke. 

This  Glossary  has  been  added  to  explain,  more  fully  than  was  con- 
venient in  the  text,  the  meaning  and  derivation  of  some  words. 

Alaska.  —  This  name,  now  applied  to  the  whole  of  our  new  territory, 
is  a  corruption,  very  far  removed  from  the  original  word.  When 
the  early  Russian  traders  first  reached  Unalashka,  they  were  told 
by  the  natives  that  to  the  eastward  was  a  great  land  or  territory. 
This  was  called  by  the  natives  Al-dk-shak  or  Al-dy-ek  sa.  The  island 
now  known  as  Unalashka  was  called  Na-gun-aldyeksa  or  "  the  land 
34 


530 


APPENDIX. 


near  Alayeksa."  From  Alayeksa  the  name  became,  by  corruption, 
A/dksa,  Alds/ika,  AUdska,  and  finally  Aldska.  Alaska  is  an  English 
corruption  ;  the  Russians  never  used  it.  In  all  the  later  maps  the 
name  of  the  peninsula  is  spelled  A/idska,  and  this  spelling  has  been 
preserved  in  this  volume,  as  atifording  a  convenient  distinction  be- 
tween the  general  and  the  specific  names.  In  the  same  way,  Na- 
giin-alayeksa  became  Agun-aldksa,  Agun-aldshka,  and  finally  Unaldsh- 
ka.  The  term  Unaldska  has  no  authority,  is  not  known  to  either 
Russians  or  Aleuts,  and  I  have  not  employed  it,  as  it  has  no  grounds 
for  preference.  We  have,  then,  Alaska  for  the  territory,  Aliaska  for 
the  peninsula,  and  Unalashka  for  the  island  ;  all  derived  from  the 
same  root,  meaning  a  great  country  or  continent. 

Alel^t,  or  Aleutian.  —  This  term  is  now  universally  used  to  designate 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Aleutian  Islands.  Its  origin  is  obscure.  Some 
of  the  early  writers  state  that  it  was  derived  from  one  of  the  East- 
ern Siberian  dialects,  and  meant  originally  servant  or  slave.  It  is 
certain  that  it  is  a  word  foreign  to  the  language  of  the  islanders,  who 
called  themselves  originally  Kagatdya  Koiin^iis,  meaning  "  men  of  the 
east,"  their  traditions  indicating  an  eastern  or  continental  origin.  The 
Kaniagisti  or  Kanidgmut  of  the  island  of  Kadiak,  quite  a  different 
branch  of  the  Orarian  stock,  were  also  called  Aleuts  by  the  early 
traders. 

Aliaska,  a  corruption  of  Aldyeksa.     See  Aldska. 

AvACHA,  or  AvATCHA.  —  The  name  of  a  river  in  Southeastern  Kam- 
chatka, and  also  of  the  noble  bay  into  which  it  falls.  Originally 
Sii-wdcha,  it  was  soon  corrupted  into  Avacha  by  the  Russians,  and 
is  well  known  by  the  latter  name.  Ignorance  or  stupidity  has  done 
its  worst  in  the  different  methods  of  spelling  this  clear  and  simple 
name.  On  Niak'ina  Cove,  one  of  the  numerous  small  harbors  in  the 
bay,  is  situated  the  town  of  Petropavlovsk. 

Babiche.  —The  term  applied  by  the  French  Canadians  of  Hudson  Bay 
to  a  fine  rawhide  line,  formed  by  removing  the  hair  from  the  reindeer 
skin,  soaking,  cutting  into  line,  and  finally  stretching  and  drying  the 
latter.  It  is  used  by  the  voyageurs  for  the  netting  of  their  snow- 
shoes,  and  lashing  their  sleds,  or  any  use  to  which  twine  might 
be  applied.  A  similar  line  is  made  from  sealskin  by  the  Innuit, 
and  is  generally  known  among  the  voyageurs  as  remui.  It  is  ex- 
ceedingly tough  and  strong,  and  is  used  for  the  same  purposes,  on 
the  coast,  that  are  served  by  hab'iche  in  the  interior.  The  rhniii, 
according  to  my  experience,  is  the  better  of  the  two. 


GLOSSARY. 


531 


BARR.-CBORA.  — The  Russian  term  for  the  Innuit  winter  houses  or  topcks. 
The  word  yourt  is  frequently  used  to  express  the  same  idea,  but  a 
true  yourt  differs  in  many  respects  from  a  tdpek.  Ivan's  barrabora 
means  simply  John's  house.  It  is  perhaps  derived  from  a  Russian 
word  which  means  a  pigsty,  or  a  confused,  disordered  heap. 

Bering.  —  The  name  of  the  commander  of  the  first  Russian  exploring 
expedition  in  the  sea  which  bears  his  name.  A  fac-simile  of  his  auto- 
graph, in  a  biography  of  the  Russian  admirals,  proves  incontestably 
that  he  spelled  his  name  in  this  manner.  It  is  generally  written 
Bc/iri/ig,  and  sometimes  Beering. 

BiDARSHiK. — A  Russian  term  used  to  indicate  the  commander  of  a 
small  trading-post,  one  of  several  which  are  under  the  command  of  a 
Director  or  Uprovalisha.  It  is  probably  derived  from  bidar  or  bidarrd, 
and  originally  meant  the  captain  of  a  large  skin  boat,  or  of  a  hunting 
party  in  such  boats  or  bidarras. 

Casi'ne  or  Kasine.  —  Derived,  perhaps,  from  casino,  an  assembly  room, 
or  from  cas<ir?iicr,  a  barrack.  It  is  used  by  the  Russians  to  denote 
the  dance-houses  of  native  villages,  wliich  the  Innuit  call  Kagns- 
keemi  (or  Kagi  at  Davis's  Strait).  Richardson  says  that  it  is  an  Innuit 
word  ;  but  the  Innuit  of  Norton  Sound  do  not  use  it  or  recognize  it 
as  other  than  a  Russian  word.     Kazbne  is  the  Russian  for  a  cabin. 

Esquimaux.  — This  word,  which  would  perhaps  be  better  written  Eskimo, 
is  derived  from  a  word  indicating  a  sorcerer,  or  shaman,  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  northern  tribes.  Forster  says,  that  "  in  the  language  of 
the  Abenaki,  Eskhjidntzik  means  "eaters  of  raw  fish."  This  may 
also  be  true,  but  the  northern  Ti'nneh  use  the  word  Uskee'mi  with 
the  above  signification,  and  apply  it  to  the  Esquimaux.  From 
this  the  word  Husky  (meaning  Esquimaux)  is  derived,  and  is  univer- 
sally used  by  the  Northern  Hudson  Bay  voyageurs.  It  is  also  found 
in  the  Broken  Slave  jargon  with  the  same  meaning.  The  Innuit 
name  Kag-iiskehni,  or  house,  where  the  shamans  conduct  their  dances 
and  incantations,  may  be  derived  from  the  same  root.  In  the  diction- 
aries we  find  Esquimau  (singular),  and  Esquimaux  (plural),  defined  as 
a  "  tribe  of  Indians,"  &c.  Sufficient  has  already  been  said  to  indicate 
the  erroneous  character  of  this  definition.  It  would  be  much  better 
to  employ  the  single  term  Eskimo  in  a  collective,  and  also  an  indi- 
vidual sense,  as  the  etymology  of  the  word  is  obscure,  and  the  pro- 
nunciation Eskimos  is  not  in  common  use,  although  to  be  found  in 
the  dictionaries.  Their  own  word  Innuit  is  vastly  preferable,  and 
should  properly  take  the  place  of  the  disputed  term.  The  Davis's 
Strait  Eskimo  call  the  Greenlanders  '■'•Askir 


532 


APPENDIX. 


Igloo  or  Iglu.  — The  name  is  applied  by  the  Esquimaux  to  their  tem- 
porary ice  houses,  not,  as  asserted  by  Richardson,  to  their  winter 
houses,  which  are  built  under  ground.  The  latter  are  known  as 
tdpeks.  The  igloo  is  peculiar  to  the  Arctic  coast,  where  it  is  usually 
built  as  a  shelter  while  travelling.  The  Norton  Sound  Innuit  are 
familiar  with  the  word,  and  on  showing  one  of  Hall's  pictures  to  one 
of  them,  and  inquiring  if  he  knew  what  it  was,  he  immediately  re- 
plied that  it  was  an  igloo,  but  that  they  were  only  used  as  above  de- 
scribed, and  never  necessary  on  Norton  Sound,  where  the  villages  are 
close  together.     In  Davis's  Strait  topek  means  a  tent. 

Innuit.  —  The  name  (meaning  people)  applied  to  themselves  by  all  the 
Orarians,  except  the  Aleuts  and  perhaps  the  Eastern  Siberian  natives 
of  the  same  stock.  It  is  in  use  from  Greenland  to  Bering  Strait,  and 
thence  to  the  vicinity  of  Mount  St.  Elias. 

iRKtiTSK.  —  The  capital  of  Eastern  Siberia,  situated  on  the  Angara 
River,  which  flows  out  of  Lake  Baikal,  about  one  hundred  and  sixty 
miles  from  the  Chinese  boundary  line  of  1787.  Sometimes  con- 
founded with  Yakutsk,  which  see. 

Kadiak. — The  name  of  the  largest  island  south  of  Aliaska.  It  is  a 
derivative,  according  to  some  authors,  from  the  Russian  Kddia,  a  large 
tub  ;  more  probably,  however,  it  is  a  corruption  of  Kanidg,  the  an- 
cient Innuit  name.  The  inhabitants,  according  to  Coxe,  called  them- 
selves Kanidgist  or  Kanidgmut.  This  name  is  almost  invariably 
misspelled  by  English  authors,  as  Kodiak,  Codiac,  Codiack,  Kadiack, 
and  in  other  similarly  absurd  ways.  The  above  is  the  only  correct 
spelling. 

Kamchatka.  —  The  native  name  of  the  great  peninsula  which  separates 
the  Ochdtsk  from  the  Bering  Sea.  The  above  is  the  true  phonetic 
spelling;  the  common  method  is  a  gross,  unnecessary,  and  decidedly 
objectionable  error. 

KamlAvka.  —  A  water-proof  shirt,  made  of  the  intestines  of  the  seal  or 
sea-lion,  and'  used  while  travelling  in  their  kyaks,  or  in  rainy  weather, 
by  the  Aleuts  and  Esquimaux. 

KegiktowrCk.  —  The  native  name  of  a  village  on  Norton  Sound.  This 
has  been  variously  misspelled,  Egictbwit,  Iglutbtvik,  &c.  It  is  de- 
rived from  k'lkJiiuk  (an  island),  from  two  small  islets  which  lie  off  of 
the  cove. 

KikhtCk.  —  An  island  ;  in  the  Innuit  tongue.  Variously  modified,  it 
stands  for  different  islands,  as  Khtukluk,  an  island  on  the  southern 


GLOSSARY. 


533 


coast;  Kcgikhtiitsahuk,  Whale  Island,  near  St.  Michael's  ;  Kcg'ikhtuh- 
hak^  the  islets  off  Golsova  River ;  and  Kcgikhtuk,  Besborough  Island. 

KoLosHES.  —  A  word  applied  by  the  Russians  to  natives  of  the  Thlinket 
stock.  The  peculiar  ornament  worn  by  the  married  women  is  else- 
where referred  to.  This  somewhat  resembles  a  trough.  The  Aleu- 
tian word  for  trough  is  Kaluga,  which,  changed  to  a  diminutive  in  the 
Russian,  became  Kalushka  (little  trough).  From  this  the  name 
Kalbsh  was  derived  by  corruption,  and,  after  long  usage,  was  adopted 
as  a  name  for  the  Thlinkets  by  the  Russians. 

KwiKHPAK.  —  A  term  derived  from  Kweek  (a  river),  and  pak  (a  suffix, 
meaning  large),  and  used  by  the  Innuit  of  the  Yukon  delta  to  desig- 
nate one  of  the  sloughs  which  form  the  delta.  From  the  circumstance 
that  the  Russians  usually  entered  the  Yukon  by  that  slough,  they 
naturally,  in  ignorance  of  any  other  name,  applied  it  to  the  whole 
river,  which  is  laid  down  under  that  name  in  most  Russian  charts. 

LCJVTAK. — The  Russian  name  applied  to  the  skin  of  the  sea-lion,  or 
large  seal,  when  prepared  for  use.  It  is  derived  from  the  Kamshadale 
lakhtdkh  meaning  the  large  seal  (y\k.Q.  phoca  jubata)  which  inhabits 
Bering  Sea.  The  Innuit  name  of  the  same  seal  is  muklok,  a  word 
which  is  also  used  by  the  Russians  to  designate  sealskin. 

Mahout  or  MAhwOt.  —  A  word  of  obscure  origin,  used  by  the  Russians 
to  designate  large-sized  line,  made  from  walrus  or  muklok  skin,  by 
the  Innuit,  and  used  instead  of  rope  on  Norton  Sound.  It  is  of 
very  great  strength,  but  becomes  soft  and  flabby  if  kept  wet  for  any 
length  of  time.  These  lines  are  cut  around  the  skin,  and  are  some- 
times two  hundred  feet  long  in  one  piece. 

M6-RE.  —  The  Russian  word  for  "  sea." 

OsERA.  —  The  word  meaning  "  a  lake"  in  Russian. 

OsTROF.  —  An  island.  Plural  Ostrava,  diminutive  Ostrovbk,  plural 
Osirofki,  all  Russian  words. 

OsTROG.  —  The  name,  of  Yakut  derivation,  used  in  Russian  to  denote  a 
stockaded  post  or  village.  All  the  early  Russian  settlements  in 
Eastern  Siberia  were  thus  defended,  and  called  ostrbgi.  Thus  we 
have  Aiiadyrsk  bstrog,  meaning  the  stockaded  village  or  settlement  at 
Anadyr. 

Papoosh.  — The  Russian  name  of  a  bunch  of  tobacco-leaves,  weighing 
half  a  pound,  or  less,  and  tied  with  the  stem  of  one  of  them,  while 
green. 


534 


APPENDIX. 


Parka.  —  Plural  pdrki,  usually  rendered,  in  ¥.r\g\\s,\\,J>drkies.  A  Russian 
word,  meaning  an  upper  garment  of  skin  or  fur,  with  a  hood,  and  not 
open  in  front.  They  are  used,  with  various  modifications,  by  almost 
all  northern  nations.  The  Russian  word  for  "  shirt"  is  quite  dif- 
ferent. 

PoMozHNiK. —  From  pomogite,  the  Russian  verb,  meaning  "to  assist." 
The  term  is  usually  restricted  in  Russian  America  to  the  secretary  or 
assistant  of  the  bidarshik,  or  commander  of  a  trading-post. 

Pood.  —  A  Russian  standard  weight,  being  thirty-six  pounds  avoirdupois, 
and  containing  forty  Russian  pounds.  The  standards  of  measure  are 
the  arshin  of  twenty-eight  inches,  and  the  sarzh'en  or  fathom,  which  is 
seven  English  feet. 

PooRGA.  —  A  Russian  word  meaning  a  snow-storm  attended  with  high 
wind.  It  is  dreaded  by  all  travellers,  and  sometimes  proves  fatal  to 
those  who  are  so  unfortunate  as  to  be  travelling  without  means  of 
shelter.     It  is  a  simoom,  with  cold  and  snow  substituted  for  heat  and 

sand. 

PovARXiA.  —  Literally  a  kitchen,  but  also  applied  to  houses  built  for 
travellers'  shelter  on  the  bleak  plains  of  Siberia.  These  houses  are 
also  called  zeinbwi  (from  zhnoi,  winter)  meaning  a  winter  house  or 
shelter. 

Pr^snik.  —  A  holiday,  or  saint's  day.  There  are  eighty-six  of  these,  be- 
side Sundays,  in  the  Russian  calendar.  No  good  Greek  Catholic  will 
work  on  a  prasnik,  except  in  case  of  great  necessit}^  They  are  a 
fruitful  cause  of  idleness,  indolence,  and  vice. 

Pratoka.  —  The  Russian  name  for  sloughs,  or  arms,  which  leave  a 
river  or  other  body  of  water,  and  afterward  re-enter  it.  They  are 
extremely  common  on  the  Yukon. 

ReekA.  —  The  Russian  for  "  a  river,"  the  dimunitive  being  rccchka,  and 
the  plural  7-eekee  or  rccchkce. 

Remex.  —  Fine  sealskin  line.     Collectively  irmni.     See  Bahiche. 

ShamAx. —  Derived  from  the  Yakut  shaindn  meaning  "holy,"  but  now 
understood  as  meaning  a  sorcerer,  or  "  medicine-man,"  among  the 
aborigines.  This  word  and  its  derivatives  have  been  adopted  into 
the  English  language  by  lexicographers,  but  Webster  puts  the  accent 
wrongly  on  the  first  syllable.  It  is  also  in  use  in  German,  French, 
and  Russian.     Some  authors  have  mistaken  it  for  an  Indian  word. 


GLOSSARY.  535 

SoPKA.  — A  Russian  word  meaning  strictly  a  volcano  or  volcanic  peak, 
but  also  applied  to  any  solitary  peak,  in  common  usage.  Vcsolia 
Sbpka  means  "  Cheerful  Peak." 

SvER.  —  A  Russian  word,  meaning  "  north."  The  Russians  have  two 
sets  of  words  to  denote  the  points  of  the  compass,  one  of  them  in 
use  in  the  vernacular  is  given  below  ;  the  other  has  been  adopted 
bodily  from  the  German,  and  is  especially  in  use  among  navigators. 
The  Slavonic  terms  are  as  follows  :  — 

Sver,  North.  Vbstok,  East. 

Uzh,  South.  Zapad,  West. 

Svernoi  vostochnoi,  Northeast.  Svernoi  zapddnoi,  Northwest. 

tizhni  vostochnoi,  Southeast.  Uzhni  zapadiioi,  Southwest. 

Svernoi,  Northern.  Uzhnoi,  Southern. 

Vostochnoi,  -  Eastern.  Zapddnoi,  Western. 

Ty-6wn  or  Tyone. — This  word  is  as  widely  distributed  as  Caesar  and 
its  derivatives,  and  has  much  the  same  meaning.  It  denotes  a  chief 
or  head  man.  The  Yakiit  word  is  toygon ;  the  Japanese  tycoon  or 
zigoon  ;  the  Tartar  Khan  is  not  improbably  the  same  root.  Wherever 
the  Russians  have  gone,  they  have  carried  this  word  with  them,  and  it 
is  in  common  use  among  the  Aleutians  and  those  Yukon  tribes  who 
trade  with  the  Russians.  The  Chinook  tyhee  may  be  an  accidental 
resemblance.  The  Innuit  do  not  use  it,  as  they  prefer  their  own 
words  with  the  same  meaning,  viz.  :  Omdylik  and  Ongiuk. 

Tltndra.  —  i\  rolling,  grassy  plain  without  trees,  such  as  are  found  in 
Northeastern  Siberia.  There  is  no  corresponding  English  word.  The 
plural  is  tundri.  The  Russians  call  the  white-fronted  geese  {A.  Gam- 
hellii)  tundrini.  The  same  word  is  sometimes  applied  to  wander- 
ing tribes,  such  as  the  Yukdgirs  and  Koridks. 

Unalaklik.  —  A  village,  on  the  river  of  the  same  name  which  falls 
into  Norton  Sound.  It  has  been  incorrectly  written  Unalakleet  and 
Unalachleet. 

Unalashka.  —  The  largest  of  the  Fox  Islands.     See  Alaska. 

Uprovali'sha.  —  Literally  a  director.  Applied  in  Russian  America  to 
a  chief  trader,  or  commander  of  a  Redoubt,  who  generally  has  also 
the  supervision  of  several  less  important  posts  or  forts  {adcnbchki), 
which  are  in  charge  of  bidarshiks. 

Yakutsk.  —  The  capital  of  the  Yakut  Province  in  Eastern  Siberia.  It 
is  situated  in   latitude  63°  north,  upon  the  river  Lena,  about  twenty- 


536  APPENDIX. 

seven  degrees  east  of  Irkutsk.  Wheat  matures  here,  though  the  sum- 
mer is  very  short,  and  the  earth  at  the  depth  of  a  foot  is  always 
frozen. 

Yukon. — The  Enghsh  corruption  of  the  Indian  word  Yukbnna.  This 
word,  which  is  common  to  all  the  Ti'nneh  who  reside  on  its  banks,  is 
not  exactly  represented  in  English  by  the  phrase  "  great  river." 
Kdkhat  vci^'Axss,  "river  "in  the  same  dialect,  and  Ketakakhat  means 
"small  river."  The  sense  in  which  Yukbnna  is  used  is  more  like  that 
in  which  we  use  the  word  "  sea  "  when  referring  to  the  whole  body  of 
oceanic  water.  We  have  no  words  in  the  English  which  exactly 
express  the  whole  idea.  We  may  approach  it  by  saying  that  it  means 
"  the  x\ve.r,  par  excel/eiice.^^  It  has  been  frequently  spelled  Youkon,  and 
also  Yuco?i  and  Yoiican ;  but  Yukon  represents  the  phonetic  value 
according  to  the  rules  which  are  followed  in  this  volume. 

Zapor.  —  A  word  used  by  the  Russians  to  denote  the  fish-traps,  or 
weirs,  built  by  the  natives  on  the  Yukon,  as  elsewhere  described. 
The  Yakuts,  I  am  informed,  catch  fish  in  a  similar  manner,  but  the 
Kutchin  tribes  do  not  understand  the  art. 


APPENDIX    B. 

POPULATION    OF    ALASKA. 

Corrected   from    Russian   estimates,   and,   if  anything,  above   rather  than  below  the 
actual    number. 


Sitka 

Remainder  of  Alexander  xVrchipelago    . 
Stikine  River      ...... 

Chilkaht  River 

Yakutat  Bay       ...... 

Copper  River  ...... 

Chugdch  Gulf     ...... 

Kenai  and  Aliaska  Peninsula 

Kadiak  Group. 

St.  Paul  Harbor 

Other  Settlements  ...... 

Afognak      ....... 

Woody  (Lesnoi)  Island  ..... 

Spruce  (Velowy)  Island      .... 

Chirikoff  Island  (Ukamok)    .... 

Unga  Island        ...... 

Catherina  Archipelago. 

IJnalashka      ....... 

Umnak        ....... 

Amlia 

Atka 

Attn 

Other  Islands 

Pribyloff  Group. 

St.  Paul's 

St.  George's        ...... 

Nushergak  River 

Kuskoquim  Delta       ..... 
Upper  Kuskoquim  ..... 

Coast  from  Cape  Romanzoff  to  Stuart  Island 
Coast  of  Norton  Sound     .... 

Kaviak  Peninsula 

Sledge  Island 

St.  Laurence  Island         ..... 
The  Diomedes    ...... 

Arctic  Coast 

Yukon  Indians. 

Ingaliks       ....... 

Koyukuns        ....... 

Unakhatdna 

Tenan  Kutchin  ..... 

Kutcha  Kutchin  ..... 

Other  Tribes 

Resident  on  the  Yukon      .... 
Total 


349 


483 


419 


150 

153 

200 

6^ 


25 
125 


26,843 


1000 
1500 
1300 
1800 

250 
1500 

600 
1500 

450 
800 
350 
214 
100 

164 

445 
100 

150   ! 
220 

155 
150   j 

250   I 
95 

500 

250 
1500 
3000   I 
1000   1 
1500 

100   j 

300   , 

150 
1000 

2000 
500 
300 
4C0 


Russians  and  Siberians         ...... 

Creoles  or  half-breeds       ...... 

Native  tribes 

Americans  (not  troops) 

Foreigners  (not  Russians)     ...... 

Total  population 
The  actually  civilized  population  is  about  thirteen  hundred. 


483 

1,421 

26,843 

150 

200 

29.097 


APPENDIX     C. 

STATISTICS    OF    THE    FUR    TRADE    OF    ALASKA, 


1797  to 

1821. 

1786 

I82I 

1842 

Total 

Kind  of  peltry. 

to 

Sold  in  the 

to 

to 

production 

1797. 

Exported. 

Colonies. 

1842. 

1862. 

in  76  years. 

Sea  otter  skins 

114,195 

86,644 

10,392 

25,416 

25.899 

262,546 

Sea  otter  tails     . 

72,559 

71,130 

8,411 

23,506 

25,797       201,403 

Beaver  skins  . 

428 

56,001 

15,025 

162,034 

157.484       390,972 

Otter  .         . 

5>o39 

17,768 

2,145 

29,442 

70,473        124,867 

Fur  seal 

557,024 

1.767,340 

377,642 

758.502 

372,8943,833,402 

Black  and  silver  fox  . 

15,046 

15,112 

10 

17,913 

)                       1         66,081; 

Cross  fox        .         .         . 

20,369 

24,535 

482 

26,462 

[  77.847      93,848 

Red  fox     . 

20,665 

35.456 

1,273 

45'947 

)                 141,188 

White  fox      . 

1. 517 

5.130 

30 

13,628 

r,    ,-,-           32,307 

Blue  fox     . 

68,361 

45.904 

55.714 

\    54.134     222,n3 

Marten   .... 

200 

17,921 

342 

15,666 

12,782'      46,911 

Wolverine. 
1  Wolf      .... 

1.234 

1,564 
201 

100        2,898 

24'          225 

Mink .         .         . 

5.349 

61 

15,481 

1,872;      32.763 

'  Black  bear      . 

2,650 

5.355 

1.993        9.998 

1  Musk  rat    . 

250,000 

1,300,000  1,550,000 

Hair  seal 

? 

27, 

? 

? 

27 

:  Wild  cat  or  lynx 

1,819' 

? 

6,927 

8,746 

j  Pounds  of  ivory     . 

27,792 

51,622 

2,016 

234.040 

27,550 

343,020 

Pounds  of  whalebone 

35.172 

72,396 

4,608 

124,390 

? 

236,466 

Pounds  of  castoreum     . 

281 

..S; 

■  879 

2,447 

Note.  —  These  estimates  are  unquestionably  below  the  truth.  The  Company  sys- 
tematically underrated  their  profits  and  the  amount  of  the  annual  production,  fron\ 
motives  of  policy.  This  will  be  evident  to  any  one  who  will  coinpare  the  production 
of  furs  as  stated  in  the  Reports  published  in  St.  Petersburg  with  the  amoimt  as  given 
in  the  Reports  published  at  Sitka. 

The  number  of  musk-rat  skins  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  Reports,  but  is  given  on  the 
authority  of  officers  of  the  Russian  American  Company. 

The  above  does  not  include  the  number  of  skins  obtained  by  the  English,  Ameri- 
can, and  Sandwich  Island  trader,  which,  in  the  continental  furs,  has  averaged  one 
third  annually  since  1850,  in  addition  to  the  figures  given  in  the  table. 


539 


APPENDIX      D. 


METEOROLOGY. 

Meteorological  Observations  at  St.  MichaePs  Redoubt,  Norton  Sound,   1842-43,  by 
Lieutenant  Zagdskin,  I.  K.  N. 


\  July  25th  to  31st,   1842.     No  clear  days.     One  cloudy  day.     Five  rainy  days.     No 
aurora.     General  average  of  temperature  +57°.o6  Fahrenheit. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


8  A.  M. 

+S6°-59 
+62  .50 
+50  .00 


+60°.  03 
+67  .43 
+57  -31 


+590.40 
+64  .62 
-+■55  -69 


Midnight. 


+52^.25 

+55  -62 
+47  -75 


August  1st  to  13th  and  24th  to  31st,  inclusive,  1842.     (Clear  on  the  14th.)     Eleven 
cloudy  days.     Ten  rainy  days.     No  aurora.     General  average  +52°. 76  Fah. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


+52°-57 
+63  37 
+43    81 


Noon. 
+  570.78 
+67  -43 
+47  -08 


4  P.  M. 

+53°-93 
+65  .18 

+44  -93 


Midnight. 
+46°  80 

+54  -5° 
+44  -93 


September  ist  to  30th,   1842.     Five  clear  days.     Twenty-one  cloudy  days.     Four 
rainy  days.     No  aurora.     General  average  +47041  Fahrenheit. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


+46°.oi 
+56  -75 
+38  .18 


Noon. 

+53°-87 
+65  .18 

+49  -43 


4  P.  M. 
+48°  .93 

+57  -So 
+42  .12 


Midnight. 
+40°.87 
+48  .87 

+30  .88 


October  ist  to  31st,  1842.     Four  clear  days.     Fifteen  cloudy  days.     Twelve  rainy 
days.     No  aurora.     General  average  +330.23  Fahrenheit. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


+31^ 
+43 


+37°i5 
+52  .25 
+25  .81 


+33°-55 
+43  -81 
+23  .00 


Midnight. 
+31O.16 
+41  .00 
+  16   .25 


November  ist  to  30th,   1842.     Three  clear  days.     Twenty-two  cloudy  days.     Six 
rainy  or  snowy  days.     No  aurora.     General  average  +220.35  Fahrenheit. 


A.  M. 


Noon. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


+210.00  +250.39 

+38  -75  +44  -11 

-  2    87      I     +7-25 


+210.34 
+42  .12 
—  I    19 


Midnight. 
+  21O.74 
+41    .00 

—  I  -75 


December   ist  to  31st,   1842.      Eight  clear  days.      Fourteen  cloudy  days.     Nine 
rainy  or  snowy  days.     No  aurora.     General  average  +00.77  Fahrenheit. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


8  A.  .M. 
—  0O.62 
+30  .87 
—23    68 


+  3°-05 
+30  .87 
—21  .43 


4  P.  M. 
+  i°.07 
+30  .32 
—22  .26 


Midnight. 

+    1O.61 

+29  -75 
-24-. 25 


January  ist  to 
No  aurora 


>th,  1843.     Four  clear  days.     Seven  cloudy  days.     One  rainy  day. 
General  average  — 5°i4  Fahrenheit. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


8  A.  M. 

—  7°-i4 
+  26  .48 
-35  -50 


—  10.23 
+28  .63 
-28  -75 


4  P.  M. 
—  60.OO 

+24  -n 

—32  .68 


Midnight. 
—  6°.  20 

+21    .32 

—35  -SO, 


January  12,  1843,  observations  at  St.  Michael's  discontinued. 


540 


APPENDIX. 


Observatiotis  taken  at  Nuldto,  1843,  by  Lieutenant  Zagoskm,  I.  R.  N.     Lat  64°  42'  \\"  N. 
andLon.  157°  56'  18"  W.  G. 


Jan.  28th  to  31st,  1843.     Two  clear  days.     Two  cloudy  days.     No  rain,  snow,  or 
aurora.     Average  — 25°.  10  Fahrenheit. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


8  A.  M. 
-30°.oi 


—33 


-22°.37 

-15    25 
—2,2>  -25 


—23" 
—16 


Midnight. 
—24°.  79 
—  19  .18 
—31    .00 


Feb.  1st  to  28th,  1843.  Fifteen  clear  days.  Six  cloudy  days.  Seven  snowy  days. 
Aurora  in  the  N.W.  and  EN.E.  (Mag.)  from  the  6th  to  12th  inclusive,  every 
night.     General  average  —2°. 59  Fahrenheit. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


8  A.  M. 
—  8°.ii 
+33  -12 
—40  .00 


+  7°07 
+36  .50 
—  16  .37 


4  P.  M. 
—  o°.io 
+29  -75 
—19  -75 


Midnight. 
—  80.81 
+24  .61 

—35  -50 


March  ist  to  31st,  1843.  Three  clear  days.  Seventeen  cloudy  days.  Eleven 
snowy  days.  Aurora  on  the  7th  from  8  P.  M.  to  i  o'clock.  General  average 
+22°.96  Fahrenheit. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


A. 

M. 

Noon. 

4  P. 

M. 

Midnight. 

19= 

.18 

+29C 

.48 

+25°.5o 

+  17= 

.67 

38 

.18 

+41 

.00 

+41 

.00 

+Z7 

.06 

18 

.06 

+  5 

.00 

+  7 

•25 

—17 

•50 

April  1st  to  30th,  1843.     Three  clear  days.     Cloudy  sixteen  days.     Eleven 
days.     Aurora  on  the  6th.     General  average +22°.  10  Fahrenheit. 


snowy 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


8  A.  M. 
+27°.89 

+42    .12 

+  8  .38 

tit 

+  19  -53 

4  P.  M. 

+3i°.28 
+42  .12 
+  17  -48 

Midnight. 

+  i8°.o8 

+42   .12 

—  7  -37 

May  1st  to  31st,  1843.     Five  clear  days.     Seventeen  cloudy  days.     Nine  rainy  or 
'snowy  days.     No  auroras.     General  average +44°.2i  Fahrenheit. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


A.  M. 

Noon. 

4  P.  M. 

Midnight. 

45°.02 

65  -75 
21  .88 

+49O.OI 
+60    .12 
+  26    .94 

+47°-99 
+60  .12 
+29  .19 

+34°-67 
+52  -25 
+  17  -48 

June  1st  to  20th,  1843.     One  clear  day.     Sixteen  cloudy  days.     Three  rainy  days 
No  aurora.     General  average  +65°.4i  Fahrenheit. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


8  A.  M. 

Noon. 

4  P.  M. 

Midnight. 

+62°.75 
+70  -25 
+48  .87 

+  77°.2I 

+86  .00 
+57  -87 

+76°-37 
+84  -31 
+59  -oo 

+5i°-3o 
+57  -87 
+39    87 

June  20th,  observations  at  Nuldto  discontinued. 


METEOROLOGY. 


541 


Ohserz'ations  at  the  EkSgtnut  Mission,  Lnt.  61°  55'  N.  aftd  Lou.  161°  iS'  56"  /F.  G., 
by  Lieutenant  Zagoskin,  I.  R.  N.     1843. 


Sept.  13th  to  30th,  1843.     No  clear  days.     Eleven  cloudy  days.     Seven  rainy  days. 
Pale  aurora  on  the  22d.     General  average  +45°. 56  Fahrenheit. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


+44°- 1 1 
+  51  .68 
+34  -81 


+50°.  15 
+57  -87 
+42  .68 


4  P.  M. 

+49°-03 
+62  .37 

+43  -25 


Midnight. 

+37°-94 


+46 
27 


October  ist  to  31st,  1843.     ^"^  clear  day.     Fifteen  cloudy  days.     Fifteen  rainy  or 
snowy  days.     Aurora  on  the  24th.     General  average  +37°. 73  Fahrenheit. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


8  A.  M. 
+35°.26 
4-41  -16 
+20  .75 


Noon. 
+400.95 
+52  -25 
+34  -25 


4  P.  M. 

+39°.98 
+50  -56 
+33  -12 


Midnight. 

+34°-83 
+42  .12 
+24  -13 


Nov.  1st  to  30th,  1843.     Two  clear  days.     Twenty-four  cloudy  days.     Four  rainy 
or  snowy  days.     No  aurora.     General  average  +19°. 74  Fahrenheit. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


S  A.  M. 
+  i8°.54 
+38  .75 
—  17  .50 


Noon. 
+22°.I3 

+44  -n 

—10  .75 


4  P.  M. 
+22°.38 
+42    .12 

—10  -75 


Midnight. 

— 16°.92 

+38 .75 

-15  -25 


Dec.  1st  to  4th,  1843.     0"^  clear  day.     One  cloudy  day.     Two  snowy  days.     No 
aurora.     General  average  — 13°-94  Fahrenheit. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


-i9"-32 
-  7  -25 
-40  .00 


Noon. 
—  1 2°  .30 
+  10   .07 
—29   .31 


tP.  M. 
-120.86 
■  9  -5° 


-32 


Midnight. 
—  II°.3I 

+  9  -50 
— 40  .00 


December  4th,  observations  at  the  Mission  discontinued. 


Observations  at 


Redoubt,  Lat.  61°  34'  02"  N.  and  Lon. 
by  Lieutenant  Zagoskin,  /.  R.  N.     1 843  -  44. 


37'  II''   IV.  G., 


December  15th  to  31st,  1843.     Eleven  clear  days.     Four  cloudy  days.     Two  snowy 
days.     No  aurora.     General  average  — 2  7°.  22  Fahrenheit. 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


-29^.24 
-  I  .06 
-44  -50 


Noon. 
—26°.  23 

—  o  .50 
—41  .68 


4  P.  M. 

-250.89 
—  4  .00 
—41  .68 


Midnight. 
—270.69 
—  4  .00 
—42   .25 


Jan.  1st  to  31st,  1844.     Eight  clear  days.     Thirteen  cloudy  days.     Ten  snowy  days. 
Pale  aurora  on  the  20th.     General  average  — 00.38  Fahrenheit. 


Average    . 
Maximum     . 
Minimum 

Feb.  1st  to  5th,  1844.     One  cloudy  day.     Four  snowy  days.     No  aurora.     General 
average  +230.95  Fahrenheit. 


-t-    I'-'.C2 

+35  -37 
— 49  .00 


Noon. 

—  0O.06 

+37    06 

—31  .00 


4  P.  M. 
—  0O.13 
+32  .56 
—31    .00 


Midnight. 
—  1O.2I 
+38  .75 

—35  -50 


Average  . 
Maximum 
Minimum 


8  A.  M. 
+230.80 
+.34  -25 
+  7  -25 


Noon. 
+260.27 
+  25  -25 
+  16   .25 


4  P.  M.  Midnight. 

+25°.37  +220.89 

+25  -25  +25  -25 

-f-16   .25  I       +   2   .75 


February  5th,  observations  at  Kolmakoff  Redoubt  discontinued. 


542 


APPENDIX. 


YUKON  TERRITORY 
(Scientific  Corps  W.  U.  T.  Ex.) 


Temperature  at 


January . 
February 
March     . 
April     . 
May. 
June      • 
July    .     . 
August 
September 
October 
Norember 
December 


1866-67. 
Nulato. 


1866-67. 
Unalaklik. 


1865-66. 
St.  Michael's. 


Mean.       Max.     |    Min.  Mean.      Max. 

—18°    +  150  j— 49°  —10°    +16° 

-13°     -I-   250    '-47°  

4-15°     -+-  38°    1-40°  

-1-27°    -1-49°  o  

-(-46°    +  74°  '  +22°  

-1-650 .'  +  90°  .="  -i-40  ?  

+60°  .>  -i-i20° .'  -1-40  ?  


-45= 


—11°    -I- 


4-19°    +36°    —  1° 

4-  6°    4-29°    —28° 

160    -560    -h  3°    +32°    -34° 


4-40° 

55-    ■ 

+  Si° 

61° 

+  S3" 

63° 

+55° 

bq- 

+40°? 

60°.' 

+33° 

47° 

4-  6° 

26°     - 

+  5° 

35°   ■ 

Max. 

Min. 

^..30 

-36° 

39- 

44- 

-  3- 

41° 

4-  6° 

55° 

+27° 

bi" 

-h42° 

b^o 

+46° 

b9° 

4-46° 

+30" : 

-)-20° 

—19° 

-31° 


UNALASHKA, 

Observations  /or  temperature  at  Iliiiluk. 
(Veniaminoff.) 


Average  for 

.830. 

1S31. 

S 

% 

§■ 

« 

s 

% 

s 

% 

.£ 

a 

< 

Ek^ 

p; 

^ 

.5 

•  S 

% 

S 

« 

0- 

>5 

S 

0!k 

Old  Style. 

. 

January    . 

20 

25 

22 

39 

4 

35 

28 

30 

28 

41 

ID 

31 

February      . 

25 

33 

26 

44 

0 

44 

26 

29 

2b 

48 

II 

37 

March      . 

17 

24 

18 

45 

I 

44 

26 

30 

24 

41 

7 

34 

April    . 

38 

41 

35 

50 

29 

21 

32 

3« 

30 

46 

lb 

30 

May 

39 

43 

37 

55 

32 

;i 

37 

41 

3b 

■^- 

27 

25 

June     . 

4b 

4b 

42 

57 

39 

45 

48 

42 

5^^ 

34 

24 

July          .        .        . 

50 

53 

47 

71 

42 

29 

47 

48 

44 

b4 

39 

25 

August 

54 

5« 

51 

77 

"^u 

33 

47 

51 

44 

b2 

39      23 

September 

42 

45 

42 

50 

28 

22 

40 

43 

38 

52 

32      20 

October 

35 

38 

36 

46 

28 

21 

35 

39 

35 

45 

23 

22 

November 

28 

31 

30 

44 

15 

29 

32 

35 

32 

40 

21 

19 

December    . 

24 

26 

23 

41 

9 

32 

30 

Zl 

29 

39 

14      25 

Average  . 

35 

38 

34 

" 

0 

77 

3. 

40 

34 

6a       7     57 

METEOROLOGY. 


543 


O!>sen>atio>is  at  Iliiiliik,  continued. 


Average  for 

1832. 

1                       1833. 

S 

1^ 

S'    1      . 

t 

^ 

s 

% 

V. 

CLh" 

t>^ 

^ 

.s 

< 

0^ 

Ph' 

« 

•s  1    t 

0- 

^ 

% 

c< 

" 

^ 

S        a: 

Old  Style. 

January    . 

2S 

32 

24 

41 

7 

34 

29 

33 

29 

39 

18 

21 

February 

34 

37 

33 

4b 

25      23 

33 

36 

32 

42 

18 

24 

March       ... 

^4 

3^ 

32 

64 

46 

30 

37 

3S 

S9 

20 

39 

April    . 

36 

39 

37 

4« 

26 

22 

7,7 

40 

3S 

48 

18 

20 

May 

4S 

46 

3« 

62 

32 

30 

43 

45 

40 

62 

37 

2S 

June     . 

47 

SO 

46 

66 

41 

2.S 

46 

48 

42 

67 

43 

24 

July.         .         .         . 

S2 

ss 

49 

70 

43 

27 

53 

58 

51 

76 

"^ 

32 

August 

S4 

s« 

S3 

77 

42 

3S 

!  50 

54 

47 

74 

38 

36 

September 

40 

46 

40 

S9 

26 

33 

44 

48 

44 

55 

32 

23 

October 

S4 

38 

3S 

48 

24     24 

35 

40 

34 

49 

20 

29 

November 

SS 

3S 

34 

48 

26     22 

26 

31 

26 

37 

6 

31 

December    . 

.9 

31 

30      46 

18  ,  28 

26 

28 

26 

39 

5 

34 

Average 

Average  for  5  years 

39 

42 

38      77        7  1  70 

.38 

41 

36 

76 

5 

71 

37    40.5 

36 

77 

0 

77 

Means  1828.                     i 

Spring.  Summer. 

Autumn,  i  Winter. 

36.60'      51.5 

38.70  1    36.27 

SITKA. 
Year  ending  Octoher  31,  1868.     U.  S.  Coast  Survey. 


Mean 
Temp. 

Rainfall. 

Fair  days. 

Cloudy 
days. 

Rainy 
days. 

Snowy 
days. 

Inches. 

January .... 

29.2 

7 

18 

3 

February    . 

36.4 

435 

9 

20 

12 

0 

March    .... 

37-8 

572 

4 

27 

5 

13 

April.         .         .         . 

44-7 

1-37 

8 

22 

10 

0 

May         ...         . 

45-5 

7.55 

9 

22 

18 

June  .... 

55-3 

1-93 

II 

19 

4 

0 

July        .... 

55-6 

4.20 

3 

28 

18 

0 

August 

^    564 

4.01 

6 

25 

14 

0 

September      . 

51-9 

6.81 

10 

20 

0 

October      . 

49.2 

7.27 

3 

28 

14 

0 

November 

36.6 

14.62 

6 

24 

iS 

5 

December  . 
Annual  means 

30.2 

3-24 

7 

14 

6 

3 

44.07 

68.07 

106 

260 

134 

26 

544  APPENDIX. 

Means  of  Fourteen  Years'  Observations  at  Sitka,  1849  to  1862. 
(Russian  Observers.) 


Spring. 

Summer. 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Whole  year. 

Thermometer,  degrees. 

:  Barometer,  inches  .     . 

Rainy  clays    .... 

Rainfall,  inches .     .     . 

41-3 
29.836 

55 
13-995 

54-3 
29.929 

15.408 

44.2 
29.749 

30.814 

31-9 
29.730 

57 
22.931 

42.8+ 
29.721 

245 
83-33 

APPENDIX    E. 


LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE  OF  IMPORTANT  POINTS. 


Locality. 

Latitude. 

Longitude. 

Authority. 

San  Francisco,  California 

37  47  52 

122    23    19 

U.  S.  Coast  Survey. 

Victoria,  Vancouver  Island 

48  25  30  123  20  05 

«               a                « 

Fort  Simpson,  B.  C 

54  33  42  130  23  46 

" 

Village,  Tayakhonsity  Harbor  . 

54  46    0  130  35     0 

Tebenkoff 

Cape  Kygani  or  Muzon 

54  42     0  132  43  48JU.  S.  Coast  Survey. 

Gardner  Harbor         .... 

54  49     0  131  45     oTebenkoff. 

Anchorage  Tongas  Harbor  . 

55  03     0  131  25     0 

fitolin. 

fitolin  Harbor 

56  31  301 132  20    0 

Zaremba. 

Mouth  Chilkaht  River  .... 

59  14    0 134  24  10 

Tebenkoff 

Mouth  Stikine  River 

56  40    0 

T32    20      0 

Adm.  ch.  2431. 

Mouth  Taku  River        .... 

5827     0 

133  54    0 

Vancouver. 

Mount  Edgecumbe,  2,855  feet  . 

57  02  48 

135  40  12 

Vasilieff 

Cupola,  Governor's  house,  Sitka  . 

57  02  47 

135  17  08  U.  S.  Coast  Survey. 

Mount  Vostovia,  3,216  feet 

57  03  23 

135  12  57      " 

Lincoln  Harbor,  Noquashinski  Bay 

135  25  56      " 

Cape  Spencer    

58  12  30 

136  34    0  Vancouver. 

South  Point,  Lituya  Bay 

58  34  30 

137  16    0  La  Perouse. 

Mount  Fairweather,  14,000  feet 

58  57    0 

137  27     0  Vancouver. 

South  Point,  Bering  Bay 

59  33    0 

139  42     0 

Mount  St.  Elias,  16,000  feet      . 

60  22  36 

140  54    0 

" 

Western  Mouth,  Copper  River     . 

60  30    0 

145  54    0 

Serebranikoff. 

Fort  Constantine,  Port  Etches  . 

60  20  18 

146  52  50 

Belcher. 

Cape  Elisabeth 

59  09    0 

151  51     0 

Vancouver. 

Coal  Point,  Chugachik  Bay 

59  37  12 

151  22  36 

Archimandritoff. 

Redoubt,  St.  Nicholas,  Kaknu  River    . 

60  32  12 

151   19  i8Heldt. 

Mouth  of  Knik  or  Fire  River   . 

61  08    0 

150  07  30  Vancouver. 

Mouth  of  Suchitna  River 

61   16  30 

150  37     oTebenkoff. 

Redoubt  Volcano,  11,270  feet   . 

60  28    0 

152  38    0 

Iliamna  Volcano,  12,066  feet 

60  05  30 

153  07  30, 

Cape  Douglas   ..... 

58  52  30 

153   16     0  Vancouver. 

Flag  staff,  St.  Paul,  Kadiak  . 

57  47  45 

152  20  57  U.  S.  Coast  Survey. 

Ice  Depot,  Woody  Island 

57  46  57 

152  18  37I     " 

Three  Saints'  Harbor    .... 

57  06  48 

153  25  30  Archimandritoff. 

Katniai  Village,  Aliaska   . 

58  02  36 

154  52  48  Vasilieff 

House,  Coal  Harbor,  Unga  . 

55  24    0 

160  49     0  Tebenkoff. 

Village,  South  Harbor,  Unga   . 

55  10  48 

160  27     0  Kashevaroff. 

Shishaldin  Volcano,  8,955  feet 

54  48    0 

163  59  30  Krenitzin. 

Isanotski  Volcano,  5,525  feet    . 

54  39    0 

164  32     0 

1 

35 


546 


APPENDIX. 


Locality. 

Latitude. 

Longitude. 

1 

Authority. 

Entrance  Iliuliuk  Harbor,  Unalashka  . 

53  25  30 

166  49     0 

Sarycheff. 

U.  S.  C.  S.  astr.  st.  Ulakhta  Harbor 

53  53  58 

166  32  47 

U.  S.  Coast  Survev. 

Makushin  Volcano,  5,691  feet 

53  52  30 

166  45     0 

Tebenkoff 

Bogoslova  Volcano,  1,000  feet  . 

53  52 

167  39     0 

Krenitzin. 

S.  W.  point  Svechnikoff  Bay,  Amlia  Isl'd 

52  02  18  173  10  30 

Salamatoff. 

Anchorage  E.  side  of  Atka  Island    . 

52  10  30  174    0  30 

" 

Village,  Korovinsky  Bay 

52  II  54  174  22  30 

fitolin. 

Korovi'nski  Peak,  4,852  feet 

52  23  30  174  02    0 

Pavloff. 

Sitkin  Peak,  5,033  feet  .... 

53  03  30 176  06  24 

Ingestrom. 

Peak  Sea-Otter  Island,  Kanaga 

51  55  18  177  30  30 

Salamatoff. 

Anchorage,  Slavarassi  Bay    . 

51  47    0  178  02    0 

" 

Anch.  Kiriloff  Bay,  Amchitka  . 

51  25  30  180  45    0 

Gibson. 

Khiistoff  Peak,  1,873  feet      . 

52  08    0  181  41     0 

" 

Cape  Wrangell,  Attu  Island     . 

52  58    0 187  34    0 

" 

Flagstaff,  Chichagoff  Harbor,  Attu 

52  55  42  186  47  18 

" 

Fort  Alexander,  Nushergak  River    . 

58  57' 06  158  18  24 

Wrangell. 

Fort  St.  Michael,  Norton  Sound   . 

J63  28    0161  51  54 

Kellett. 

(63  28    0  161  44    0 

Zagoskin. 

j  63  52  33  160  40    0 
^  63  53  33  160  30  16 

Kashevaroff. 

Unalaklik  Post,  Norton  Sound 

Zagoskin. 

Besborough  Island         .... 

64  06  30  161  07    0 

Khramchenko. 

Aziak  or  Sledge  Island     . 

64  29  30' 166  01  30 

Beechey. 

Cape  Rodney         

64  39    0|i66  18    0 

" 

Cape  Spencer,  Port  Clarence    . 

65  16  42 

166  47  48 

" 

Cape  Prince  of  Wales  .... 

65  33  30 

167  59  12 

" 

Cape  Spanberg          .... 

66  42    0 

163  34    0 

" 

Cape  Lisburne,  849  feet 

68  56    0 

166  08    0 

" 

Cape  Beaufort  (coal  vein) 

69  13    0163  34    0 

" 

Icy  Cape 

70  20    0  161  40    c 

" 

Point  Barrow 

71  27    0156  15     0 

" 

Demarcation  Point         .... 

69  40     0  141  07  3o!Dease  &  Simpson. 

West  Cape,  St.  George's,  Pribyloff  Islands 

56  38  18:169  44    0  Archimandritoff. 

West  Cape,  St.  Paul,  Pribyloff  Islands 

57   10  12  170  or  06  Tebenkoff. 

Cape  Upright,  S.  E.  Ft,  St.  Matthew  Isl'd 

60  18     oil 72  04     0  Liitke. 

Cape  fitolin.  North  Point,  Niinivak  Island 

60  31     0  165  50     0  Tebenkoff. 

S.  E.  Cape,  St.  Lawrence  Island  . 

62  57     0  169  24     5  Pavloff. 

N.  W.  Cape,  St.  Lawrence  Island     . 

63  51   12  171  29     oBeechey. 

Ukivok  or  King  Island,  750  feet    . 

64  58  30  167  58    o'Khramchenko. 

Fairway  Rock 

65  38  36  168  43  42  Beechey. 

Middle   of   Channel    between    the    Dio- 

S  65  48  36  168  56  30  Adm.  ch.  2435. 

medes,  U.S.  boundary  line     . 

l  65  47  48  168  58     0  Tebenkoff 

End  of  Sandspit,  Plover  Bay    . 

64  22  25  173  30  32  Prof.  Asaph  Hall. 

East  Cape  of  Asia          .... 

66  03  06  169  43  48  Beechey. 

Mouth  of  Anadyr  River    . 

64  35  40  183  28   10  Russian  charts. 

Cape  St.  Thaddeus,  Kamchatka   . 

62  40     0  180  36  20        "             " 

Amatignak  Island.     Most  southern  point 

J  51    19     0  179  c8  30  Gibson. 

of  Alaska  Territory     . 

)  51    12     017905     oSalamatoff.                 ! 

APPENDIX    F. 


VOCABULARIES. 


The  spelling  of  the  vocabularies  obtained  from  other  authors  has 
not  been  altered.  Most  of  them  should  be  pronounced  as  in  German. 
In  Saur's  vocabularies  "i"  is  always  short,  otherwise  as  in  German. 
Stimpson's  is  reduced  to  the  Smithsonian  standard  as  given  in  the 
instructions  in  Ethnology  and  Philology.  In  my  own  the  pronunciation 
is  as  in  English  with  the  following  rules  :  "  u "  is  long  as  in  Luke, 
otherwise  as  in  cup  ;  "  a  "  as  in  father  ;  but  all  vowels  followed  by  a  con- 
sonant in  the  last  syllable  of  words  are  short,  unless  otherwise  indicated. 
Long  "  a "  in  the  last  syllable  is  denoted  by  the  addition  of  the  letter 
"h";  "ch"  as  in  church;  "kh"  like  German  "ch"  in  n'clchcr :  "g" 
always  hard  ;  "  th  "  soft  ;  and  "  ng  "  a  rolling  nasal,  as  in  French. 

I  am  under  great  obligations  to  Mr.  George  Gibbs  for  advice  and 
assistance  in  this  part  of  the  work. 

My  own  vocabularies  were  collected  wath  the  utmost  care,  and  verified 
many  times  over,  before  I  left  the  country. 

I  have  phonetically  translated  from  the  Russian,  Wrangell's  Innuit 
vocabulary  of  the  Kuskoquim,  as  in  its  former  state  it  was  inaccessible 
to  many  students. 


548 

APPENDIX. 

STOCK. 

ORARIAN. 

Family. 
Tribe. 

Aleutian. 

Innuit. 

Unalaskan. 

Atkan. 

Ugalakmut. 

ChugAtchig- 

Koniaginut. 

NushergAg- 
mut. 

Man 
Woman 
Wife 
Boy 

Girl 
Chief 

Taggiach 

Angaginak 

Agegai 

Toioch 

Aiyagar 
Aiyagai 

Akwin 
Agnak 

Niigulpeuk 
Aganak 

Nukalnyak 
Aganok 

NCdiga 

Agiun 
Agnak 

Achadok 
Taiaghu 

Ogegilikin 
Toigon 

Aggeakak 
Tuyukh 

Angaiyou- 
Katagak 

Water 
Snow 

Tanach 
Kanich 

Taangak 
Kaneek 

Mik 
Kanichtehak 

Tangak 
Anneg 

Mik 
Kannikak 

Ice 
Rain 

Kelach 
Chichtach 

K'thak 
Chiutakik 

Tchaguk 
Kitichtouk 

Tschigo 
Kidak 

Tiiaciiirik 

Schliachluk 

Land 

Island 

Fire 

Reindeer 

Fish 

Knife 

Good 
Bad 

Big 
Little 

Hot 

Chikitch 

Chananak 

Nignach 

Ithayok 

Kach 

Kamlich 

Macheeselik 
Macheedoli- 
[kan 
Anianach 
Angnunada- 
[kalak 
Akivakselik 

Chegak 

Taangik 

Kignach 

Itkayech 

Koach 

Ungazchi- 

[ship 
Chizchelik 
Malcheesh- 
elikan 
Tangoellik 
Angonolokn 

Akvachelik 

Nunna 

Xouna 

Noona 

Kightak 

Knok 

Toondoo 

Ekachlewt 

Tschangielk 

Azigtoak 
Asseelrok 

Anguk 
Meyuk 

Nogtoak 

Noima 

Kightak 

Knik 

Nunka 
Ulviak 

Antoak 

Knik 

fchadaic' 
Noshek?* 

Knakhk 
Kana-et 
T'katlink 
Xowgiichak 

Antvadouk 

Anishkak 
Mikango- 

[shak 
Magakhtok 

Cold 

Kinanach 

Kinganalik 

Nglia 

Apachtok 

Potznatok 

Nuglia 

I 

You 
He,  she, 
[or  it 
Yes 
No 

Tinn 
Thinn 

Inan 
Ang 
Kogcho 

Atakan 

Alach 

Kankjanim 

Sitchin 

Tchann 

Atyoon 

Keen 
Ingaan 

Ikoon 
Aang 
Maselikan 

Roingnia 
L'bitt 

Gum 

Koo-i 

'Tlpit 

Oum 

Choo-i 
Chl'pit 

Oona 

Ang 

Pedok 

Hwignia 
'Lbit 

Tkna 

One 

Two 

Three 

Four 

Five 

Six 

Attokan 

Alluk 

Kankoon 

Shitchin 

Chang 

Attoon 

Ataouchik 

Aipa 

Pinnaduk 

Schtamik 

Talimik 

Aghvinik 

Atchimuk 

Malgook 

Pinnagon 

Schtaman 

Talimin 

Akwiljin 

Acheluk 

Malogh 

Pingaien 

Stamen 

Taliman 

Agowinligin 

Ataouchik 

Aipa 

Pinanvak 

S'chamit 

Talimit 

Awiunat 

Seven 

Talann 

Olung 

(2  repeat) 

Malchulin 

Malchfigun 

(2  repeat) 

Eight 

j 

Kanitchin 

Kamtsching 

(3  repeat) 

Inmolgin 

Inglugin 

(3  repeat) 

Nine 

Sitchinin 

Sitching 

(4  repeat) 

Koulmujan 

Kollengaien 

(4  repeat) 

Ten 

Atik. 

Nasuk 

(5  repeat) 

Koulin 

Kollen 

Koulin 

1  Authority. 

Saur. 

Saur. 

Gibbs. 

Wrangell. 

Sauer. 

Gibbs. 

*  The  Ru.ssian  for  knife  is  Nozhik. 


COMPARATIVE    VOCABULARIES. 


549 


Kuskwogmut 

Yugut 
Agnak 
Niiliga 
Tangiala- 

[vak 
Nozeachuk 


Mik_ 
Kanik- 

[shak 
Chiko 
Chliaktuk 

Nouna 

Knik 
Tiintu 
IkaloLik 
Chivichuk 

fkuk 
iKnuignag- 
Chakliuk 

[pak 
Untouch- 


Kikhcha- 
[tuk 


Hwihka 
'Lpit 


Atauchik 

Malkhok 

Painaivak 

T'chamik 

Talimik 

Akhvinok 


Ekogmut. 

Yuk 

Ok'hanak 
Nillikhuh 
Tanigowil- 
[uk 

On'g'iuk 

Muk 
Un'yuk 

Cheekuk 
Ibizhukh- 

[tuk 
Nii'nuh 
Tikestuk 
Kam'ik 
Tiin'tuk 
Xukut 
Chivvik 

Asukhtuk 
Asseetuk 


On'g'uk 
Meekuk 


Unaligmut.        Mdhle 


Yut  lE'nuk 

Ogh'anut     lOk'anok 
Nuliay'ka    {Niileeka 


PuneeghuhiPiineeghuh 
Ong'iuk       lOmaylik 

'Muk  llm'mik 

SlachliktukjUphiin' 

Seko  iSeko 

Igesikh'tuk  See-uluk'tuk 


Nu'iineh  jNu'nneh 
Kegikhtuk  iKikhtuk 
'Knuk  jlk'nik 

Tuii'tiik       ;Tun'tuk 
Ekot'lewit    Ikothlewik 
Chivvik         Chow'ik 


Asikhtok 
Aseetuk 

On'g'uk 
Mi'kuk 


Naku'ruk 
Asliu'ruk 

Ong'yruk 
Mikidu'ruk 

Kushunguk 


Kiitsu'ng' 
[uk' 
Ning'luk-     Kwikhta-     AHapah 

[tuk  [nah 

Hvvih  Wunga        jWunga 

Ik'hl'wit       Ikh'lepit      ill'Iewit 


Kaviagmut- 


E'nuk 
On'g'nut 

Niileega 


Puneeghuh 
Amaylik 

Immuk 
Kaniktuk 

Seko 
Igwanuluk 

Nu'nneh 

Kikhtak 

Iknuk 

Tun'tuk 

Ekotli'luk 

Chivvik 

Naku'ruk 

Asiuruk 

Ongydu'ruk 
Miksurovv- 

[ruk 
Kushung'uk 


!Allapah 

I  Wunga 
Il'lepit 


U'na 

Hvvokah       Wah 
Peetuk  Peetuk 

Atovvchuk  Atowsik 
Mahlru'kh  Malaruk 
Pingaien  Pingaiuk 
T'stamen  'Se'stamat 
Telemut  Telemat 
Ichuksut 

Maluksip- 


U'na  iU'na 

Wah  Wah 

Peechuk       *Peeluk 


Greenlandic. 


Cliu'ldfiU- 
mut. 


Inniik  Yuk 

Arnak  Anak 

Nulla  ,Nulikert 

Merklitok  IMogileraek 

Niviarsiar-  ^Annaechae 
Eniilek 


Imek 
Goviksoak 

Irosok 
Keipserluk 

Niina 

Kichertak 

Ingnek 

Trikto 

Aulisigak 

Sovvik 

Giksok 
Asseenar-    j 

Angvvok      I 
Kutkiok 

Kirsapok 

Niglek         I 

Uanga 
Iblit 

Oma 
Aak 
Nagga 


Muk 
Kanig 

Chiggo 
Nepchfig 

Nun  11  a 
Ketchet 

iRi^gg 

Koinaik 
Cha'vvik" 


Agwini:ileet 


I  Ainaakhva-  Maloodin 
i  [nam  [ulit 

iPinaiviak 


Atovvsik 
Malrukt 
Pinyusut 
Setemat 
Telemat 
Aghvvinu- 

[leet 


Atow'simuk  Atausek 
Mahlronik     lArlaek 
Pinyusu'nik  'Pingajuak 


Staminik 
Telemunik 
Aghwinu'li- 
[muk 


Sessumat 
Tellimat 
Arbouek 


nuleet  Mahluditaghvvin'iileet 
PinganiTilit    Pinaiuksip-  Pinyusunilaghvvinialeet 
[nuleet 


Chtamiak-   Kiilinolit 

[vanam 
Kullnuk      (Ku'linak 
BaerT^  i       Dall. 


Arlekh         ! 

Arbouek-    ; 

[pinyusut; 


Gooin 

Goot 

lEn'kau 
Ee 

Al'eah 

Atchig         I 
Maelruk 
Pinai-ig       I 
Stamoch      | 
Telimaet 
Arvingt 

JMararvingtl 
Pingaivingtl 


Kulinotylit  Koolinotv- 

[luk 
Kolin  Kooleet 


Dall. 


Dall. 


Kollimloet   Stamiluelig 

Kodlinuk      iKollit  iKoela  I 


Dall. 


Egede.    |  Hall  (part). 


*  Same  in  both  dialects.     Substantive  and  adjective  forms  given. 
t  Malriik  (two,  noun),  Mahlronik  (two  of  anything),  /par  ox  Aipa  (a  pair),  often  mixed 
in  vocabularies. 


APPENDIX. 


STOCK. 

INDIAN. 

Family. 

Thlinket. 

1 

(Middle  or 
AhtenA. 

Tribe. 

Kygini. 

j  Sftkakwan.   1    Stakhfnkwan. 

1     YAkutat.      j      Ugalentsi. 

Man 

Eetling 

Kakh           tKa 

Ka                Tagoan 

T'keehl 

!  Woman 

Ladder 

Shawath       Shahwat 

Sha-wut       Kaivaht'hel 

Shaat 

Wife 

I'tsar 

Eeshel         iAchshet 

Siet                 . . ' 

Boy 

1 

Eetlinga- 

Kissanee     !Yetekw' 

[hutzo 

1 

■Girl 

ladderhut- 

Shaat'k 

Shaketsko 

iKelikiits-        

[zo 

i           [kuki 

Chief 

Itlauata 

Ankao          Ankowa 

Kumahete    Kulyahaityeh 

Kaskayuh 

Water 

Hunt'I 

Hee-en         Hehn 

Hein             Kahvah 

T'li-you 

Snow 

Towow 

T'lait           Kleht 

Ha-it             Heti 

Nataga 

Ice 

Kelk 

Teeght         Teekh 

Titz              Tetstch 

T'ten 

Rain 

*Talla 

Seev-va        Seewh 

Seiw             Kiilveh 

Kvah-yan 

Land 

Klik 

Ta-uk           Klatk' 

Hittik          iTstcha 

T'tstchesh 

Island 
Fire 

Kwai 
Lannu 

Kat'h 

Tithkaan      K'hann 

Tzakutshu 
Kun 

f'khun 

Takgak  "  ' " 

Deer 

Kait 

Keeahkan    Kohkan 

Natllage 

Hyanaya 

Annahyeh 

Fish 

*Tseenah 

Ahhaat         Tach 

Haat 

Tyahyehya 

T'klukyai 

Knife 

*Kutkwaii 

H'leeta        Kleeta 

JTh'leita 

Good 

Lai 

Akai            'Yek-keh 

Kutzu-uva 

Bad 

Tarner 

Klaikoas-     Klehtlnnsh- 

IKii<;hiatri 

1 

[kai 

[keh: 

Big 

You-one 

Atleen 

Atklehn 

'Aht'layn 

Kulavgeh 

Talkhak 

Little 

Ehudso 

Akwitko 

Yehkokeuk 

Yakulkutz- YakiUchkh 

Talchu- 

[uneh 

Hot 

Hunan 

Tahal 

Yettah 

iStehuvalia  Katiesti'eh- 

[kokl 
Coosa-aat    Koteetl'ka 

Noalkhun 

Cold 

Tut 

Teetsaht      Coos'ah't 

Atriych 

I 

*Tee-a 

Khat             Hutt 

Khutak        Hoo-oo 

Schi 

V'ou 

*Tah-a 

Mahyeh       AVeh 

iWay-eh       !Ih 

Nenn 

He,  she, 

*Lah-a 

Youta           Hooh 

Yoo'ta          1   

[or  it 
Ves 

*Aang 
*Kum 
Squanson 

Aha              Ah 

1 
Ee               '   -  -  - 

.Vo 

Klekha         Klehk 

Tikh 
.Tsatlayk 



S'tchelkai 

One 

Klaikh 

Klehch 

f'ikinkeh 

Two 

Stun 

Taiegh 

Teh-uch 

Tee-ukh       Loatel 

Xatavakha 

Three 

Klunet 

Nitgh 

Xusk 

Noutik         Tatlkoa 

Taak'eh 

Four 

Stansien 

Tahkoon      Tahkone 

Tahkoan      Kalakakuya 

Tinnki 

Five 

Klaith 

Ketcheen     Keechin 

)Kechin         T'soaneh 

Alcheni 

Six 

Klunitch 

Klaitoosee  Klehtoosha 

1 

Kleet-ho-     Tsin 
[sho 

Kastaani     | 

Seven 

Sekwa 

Taghatoo-^ 

T'hiitoosha 

Tuhaatwo-  Latetsin 
[sho    ^ 

Kontsegai 

Eight 

Stansioner 

Nitghtatu- 

Niskatoosha 

Nututwo-     Katetsin 

T'kladenki 

[so 

[sho 

Nine 

Klathsqu- 

Kooshak      Koshuku 

Koshuk        Kutkteh 

T'klakoleh 

[anson 

Ten 

Klath 

Chinkat 

Chinkat 

Chinkaett    ,Yakakh 

j 

Plazha 

Authority. 

Gibbs. 

Lisiansky.  '       Gibbs. 

Gibbs.     1    Wrangell. 

Wrangell. 

■"■  Skitagett  village. 


COMPARATIVE    VOCABULARIES. 


551 


Kutchin)  Tinneh. 


Teuan-kutch'in.  Kutchikutch'in. 


(Western  or  Tana)  Tinneh. 


Kaiyuhkhatana*    Kaivukhatdna 
(Ulukuk).         (Nohhe 


Unakhatina.    j 


Nushen 
Kissin 


Ts'kanikna 


Tenah 
Soltanah 
Ote 
Chulkoya 


Keisenkoovah  iTenahkotloh  Neechit 


Tin'jee 
Trin'joh 
At 
T'tsieah 


Keeshka 
Milni 
Ingach 
MU-tnee 
lurkoun 
Alch-nin 


Tahsi 

Patchih 

Luka 

Kvaki 

Pohallen 

Tsooheelta 

Tigilnich 
Talchih 


Aba 


Tai-one 

Too 

Vuh 

T'hun 

Tatrchan 

X'luih 

N'os 

K'hun 

Mitzikh 

H'lee-weh 

Klahsih 

Nezoon 

Klahkah 


Kah-keh 

:chu 

Zah 

T'tfin 

T'sin 

Nun 

iN'jiih 

Ko 

Vut-zaih 

iT'thluk 

R'sih 

Nirzih 

jNizikvvah 


N'choh  Choh 

N'sutloh  T'sul 

Honalkoh 


Th'kitchan  Kunikiih 

Schi  Utun 

Nunn  Nun 

Ennun  Yohunneh 


Silki 

Ticha 

Touki 

Tinki 

jTskiln 

Koutsini 


!Ah-hah 

N'tah-gah 

Chethlukeh 

iNahkehtih' 

Tahguh 

Tingah 

Ketudsinala 

Niketahgah     Nihkeeti-iek 


Needha 

Nih'-kudh 
Sih 
Nun 
Yahtun 

A-ha 

No-k\vah 

Chithluk 

Nikai 

Tie-ik 

Tahng 

Cheetluku'nl: 


Kintschougoni  Tahtsuntseh    Etsehdetsen- 
[ekai 
L'takouli  Xeketiingkeh  Nikeetang 

L£;itschitchou   Mintsuhtl 


Tenahyu' 
Sultana 
Ote 
Yukeeoza 

Kohtlyozah 

Tyone 

Too 

N'litahgah 

T'hun 

At"khun 


Tahkoona 

Anoyah 

Neliyuh 

Klahkadona 

Neezoon 

Tsatklahka 

N'koh 
Nookootsah 

At'kleebdh 

Azu' 
Sih 
N'neh 
M'mh' 

Hoh 

N'tyahoh 
Kavthlukeh 
Ntav-keh 

JTok'ah 

iTenikeh 

Ketudnala 

Tenankavt- 

{  [luka 

Tenanotav- 

(keh 
Niltadinkeh 


Tenahyu'  Tenah 

T'sult  Solt'an 

Ote  Ote 

Sak'hee  Kee-os 


Tyone 

Too 

Ntaugah 

Than 

At'kuneh 

Noo 

Tah'uk'n' 

Anovh' 

Tht'kakh' 

T'kadone 

Nezroon 

Ts'talagha 

N'tsooh 
Nookoojah 

Honalikoh 

Atzu' 
Sih 
N'neh 
M'mh' 

Ah 

N'tah 

Kaythlukeh 

N'taykhneh 

Tokhneh 

Tenikhneh 

Ketsinala 

Tonankay- 

[thiiket 
Tonanotav- 

[keh 
Tl'kad'nkay 


Soltanyoza 

j  Tyone 
I  Too 

JNutahgah 
T'tun 
At'khun 

JD'ash 

[K'hun 

jMitzikh 

iMahmuh 

T'lahkadona 

Nahzoon 

T'soklahka 

N'koh 
Nookatzah 

Aleebuh 

Azu' 
Sih 
N'neh 
M'm'uh 

Hoh 

N'tahguh 
Kaythluket 
N'tayuhkeh 
Tonkah 
Tinkee 
Ketudsinala 
Tonankavth- 
[luket 
Tonanotavu- 
[keh 
Nihkadinkeh 


Menchudneh-JKaytlukukul-  Nikoznala-      Kaythluket- 
[kokwa       '             [la       [kavthluk-            [kulveh 
I                                   [ehkulla 
Kli-oujoun        Chilodeltah     Chithlukcho-  Nikognalah     Nikoznarlta     Neekoznala    | 
[tein; I j 


Wrangell. 


Dall. 


Kennicott. 


Dall. 


Dall. 


*  The  Ulukuk  and  northeastern  Tngaliks  are  among  the  most  widely  separated 
branches  of  that  great  tribe.     The  latter  live  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tananah  River. 


552 


APPENDIX. 


COMPARATIVE   VOCABULARY   OF   EAST   SIBERIAN   TRIBES. 


English. 

Chukchee. 

YUKAGIK. 

Kamshadale. 

TUNGOOSE. 

Yakut. 

Authority. 

Stimpson  &  Hall 

Saur. 

Saur. 

Saur. 

Saur. 

Man 

Ke-lowl-tee 

Toromma 

Uskaams 

Bey 

Kissce 

Woman 
Boy 

Na-oois-kun 
Nin-kai-kai 

Luhundze 

Pahatsh 

Ogo 

Girl 

Ni-okuk-ka 

Vaiendendi 

Ch-tshitshoo 

Choorkan 

Keesa 

Infant 

Nin-nai-mukka  Lukoolu 

Pahatshitsh 

Kootian 

Kutuogo 

My  Father 

En-pan-dskin 

Etchea 

Is-ch 

Amai 

Agam 

My  Mother 

En-panhv 

Amea 

Naz-ch 

Eni 

lyt 

Husband 

Omnurinkalow 

Yadoo 

Skoch 

Edee 

Crim 

Wife 

Komningnoak 

Alwaley 

Squa-aw 

Akee 

Yaghtarim 

My  Son 

Ni'niki 

Antoo 

Pa-atsh 

Oal 

Daughter 

Ho7ookiikah 

Marhloo 

Sooguing 
K'tshidzshi 

Ghoorkan 

Keesim 

My  Brother 

Eshamatiinga 

Tshatsha 

Akan 

Oobagim 

My  Sister 

Saketuns;a 

Pawa 

Kos-choo 

Ekin 

Agasim 

People 

Tsuts-tsin 

Ommo 

Quaskoo 

Beyil 

Omung 

Head 

Lahwoot 

Ink 

T'choosa 

Del 

Bass 

Hair 

Keru-gwee-te 

Manallae 

Koobit 

Nioorit 

Assim 

Face 

Loel-kun 

Xeatsha 

Qua-agh 

Itti 

Sirai 

Forehead 

Kai-il 

I-oanguitshel 

Tshilgua 

Omkat 

Suis 

Ear 

We-loot 

Oonomma 

E-ew;  e-ewt 

Korot 

Kugach 

Eye 

Dil-yate 

Angzsha 

Nan  nit 

Kasak 

Nose 

Yukah 

longul 

Kaangkaang 

Ogot 

Mooron 

Mouth 

Ekuruge 

Anga 

Kuz-ha 

Amga 

Aiyach 

Tongue 

Eleel 

Onnor 

Nutshel 

Enga 

Till 

Teeth 

Retinta 

Tody           [bi 

Kuppet 

Itsh 

Tees 

Beard 

Aalute 

Angenbuguel- 

K'ko-ookat 

Tshurkan 

Buitik 

Neck 

Aetin 

Jomuel 

Hitle 

Mi  von 

Moinung 

Arm 

Hand 

Fingers 

Menyeet 

Guer-eelte 

Rylyet 

Nungean 

Nugan 

Pe-enditsha 

Settoo 
Settoo 
P'koida 

Illi 

Gal 
Kabr 

Nails 

Wer-oot 

Onz-shil 

Ko-uda 

Osta 

Tiugrach            | 

Body 

My-sho 

Tshul 

Inga'tak 

Ettim 

Leg 
Foot 

Oet-got 
Yer-oot 

Noel 

' 

Th-quatshoo 

Boodel 

-Attach                ! 

Toes 
Bone 

Kah-oo-note 
Akfavi 

Amun 

T'hamtshoo 

Isni 

Umok 

Heart 

Leel-ge 

Tshooenzsha 

Nokguek 

Me  wan 

S  uracil 

Blood 

Pao-kooroogin 

Liopkul 

-Mtfsson 

Soogial 

Ghan 

Chief 
Friend 

Horem 

Alnindsha 
Aght-ma 



Kallal 

Doghor 

House 

Yaraiiga 

Numa 

Kisut 

Dzsho 

Balagan 

Kettle 
Arrow 
Axe 

Koo-keng-oo 
May-ar-kum 
Ad-doo-at 

Kukua 

Noomundzshi 

Kvasqua 

Tabor 

Suc;ai 

Knife 

Waal -ye 

Tshagoia 

Watshoo 

Busak  ;  buhak 

Canoe 

[(boat) 
Shoes 

Kai-e-\vyte 

Aktshel 

Bat 

[(boot) 
Sky 

Graskut 
Aa-yuk 

Kundshu 

Kochan 

Gioolbka 

Chattan 

Sun 

Tee-re-kee 

Jelonsha 
Kininsha 

Qua-atsh 

Nultian 

Kuin 

Moon 

Yeel-gin 

Begh 

Ooi 

COiMPARATI\'E   VOCABULARY 


553 


English. 

Chukchee. 

YUKAGIR. 

Kamshadale 

TUNGOOSE. 

1         Yakut. 

j        Authority. 

Stimpson  &  Hall. 

Saur. 
Lerungundshia 

Saur. 

Saur. 

Saur. 

Star 

Enger-tee 

I 

Osikat 

Solus 

Day- 

\E'-imh 

Pondshirka 

Ining 

Kuin 

Night 

Mill/cum 

Emmel 

Kolkwa 

Golban 

Tuin 

Light 

Darkness 

Morning 

Pondshirka 

Emmitsh 

Unhaiel 

Te  k 

!  Sirdik 

Kharanga 

Erdee 

E'gci-oy 

Evening 

Poinjuletsk 

Moorak 

Ke-esse 

Sprmg 
Summer 

Pora 

Saas 

Alaniin 

Puga 

Anganal 

Sacin  ;  soyin 

Nada 

iWinter 
jWind 

La-ldmdrole 

Zshendsha 

Illejennie 

I-endu 

Kisun        [san 

Tyil 

Eting 

[Thunder 

Eel-kow-wow 

Ashdoo 

iLightning 

Yenka-ga-ka 

Borongille 

Tapkitan 

Tshagilgan 

Rain 

Pee-na-gee 

Tiba 

Tshukatshoo 

Oodan 

Samir 

Snow 

I-lyle 

Pukoelli 

Imandra 

Char 

Hail 
Fire 

Tarchandiva 
"Lotshel 

Bota 

Tollon 
O-at 

Pennulia 

Pangitsh 

Water 

Lee-me-oo-nut 

Ondzshi 

Ee-ee  ;  i-i 

Moo 

Oo 

Ice 

Tin-tin 

larka 

Bookus 

Boos 

The  Earth 
Land 

U  teska 
Yerigen 

Tor 

Levje 

Svmt 

Sirr 

Sea 

Ta-oo-tee 

Tshobul 

Ningl 

Nam 

Baighal 

River 

Way-am 

Onnong 

Okat 

Yrris 

Lake 

Geetkin 

Jalgyl 

Koel 

Vallev 

Ltiwiigin 

Pondshorkoni 

Chodu  sasir 

Hill,  mountain 

Nup-per-am 

Pea 

Aal 

Seer 

,  Island 

Eeloer 

Ommul 

Samatsh 

Arre 

Stone 

Woo-kwin 

Pea 

Dzshool 

Taas 

Salt 

Tdu-tah 

Logodunshinu 

Pepum 

Tak 

Tus 

Iron 

Kelgwit' 

Lundul 

Quatshoo 

Timur               1 

Tree 

Wood 

Leaf 

06-te 

Wce-iveer 

Tshall 

Ebdernia 

Mass 

Paldshitsha 

Seberdak 

Bark 

Oo-til'-yeet 

Tsangar 

Oorta 

Chatteuk 

Grass 

Wa-utch 

Oolega 
Et 

Tiikiskin 

T'haltal 

Oolra 

Dog 

Hyd-tydt 

Tababa 

Kossa 

Nin 

It 

Kai-ing-ha 

Wolf 



Fly 

Egg 
Feathers 

Quamotih 
N'gach 

Zachsirga 
Simmit 

Xontondaul 

Oomta 

Walgaldiigin 

Pugelbi 

Detle 

Charungatshae 

Duck 

Ondzshinonda 

Alshingush 
Etshoo 

Neki 

Fish 

Een-a 

Annil 

Olra 

Balvk                1 

Name 

Neve 

Hagaach 
Attagho 

Gerbin 

Aatta                1 

White 

Neel-yuk-ki- 

Po-innei 

Geltadi 

Irungk 

[ing 

Black 
Red 

Noo-ki-ing 
Sha-liik-ki-ing 

Aimaivi 
velenni 

Koolani 

Chara 
Kasil 



Tshaang 

Blue 

Shaywaircnv 

Lubanzshanni 

Keochtinoo 

Yellow 
Green 

Payuta-td-lin 

Tshakolonni 
Tshakolonni 

Tshulban 

Keoch 
Keoch 

Nochsonne 

Great 
Small 

Nimiyen'ki 
Ftihikin 

Tshomoi 
.ukun 

Ekzsham 
Nukishoo- 

Oolachan 
Kutshugai 

Strong 
Old 

Addi 

....    [kan 
Sagdi 

Kittinach 

fitke 

Good 

Ma-chin'-ka 

554 


APPENDIX. 


Bad 

Cold 

Warm 

I 

Thou 

He 

We 

Ve 

To-day 

Yesterday 

To-morrow 

Yes 

No 

One 

Two 

Three 

Four 

Five 

Six 

Seven 

Eight 


Chukche 


Stimpson  &  Hall,  j 


Nine 

Ten 
Twenty 

Eating 
Drinking 
To  run 
To  dance 
To  sing 

Sleep 

To  speak 

To  see 

To  kill 
To  sit 
To  stand 
To  go 
To  come 


At-kin 

Tuk-i-yu'-yurk 

Qino 

Ichem 

Tua 

'Ell' kail 

I  Gar-ont' 
Ennai 

le-iviii 
Er'-go-let 
Sow-soo  ;  i. 
|Ta-ap 

En'-ge  ;  nira 
IMeer-er 
Oo-doke 
Ger-ar'k 
jMidle-din'ge 
jNam-te 
Yeranrt-ting 
(One-asink 


Kamshadale.       Tungoose. 


Saur. 


Adkang 


I  Komma 
Kiz 


Men-eet-ke 

I    

Mun-kom-it-too 
iMun-ee-quee 
Mun-kitchen-ta 
|Mun-ee-do-dite 
|Men-tee-pa-ga 

Min-yil'-ki 

Mun-tow-tow-a 
I 
Mun-ee-leer-pit- 
[kol 
Mun-tin-pit-ko 
Min-wa-ko-mo 
Kal-kutkwin 
Kanto-ah 
Kai-et'-ki 


Pondzshetsh 
IPugatsh 
Matak 
Tat 

Tundal 
Mitek 
Titlak 
iPondzshirko- 

[ma 
iNengandshe 
Ongoie 
Tat 
iOiley 
Irken 
Antachlon 
lalon 
lelahton 
Enganlon 
Malghialon 
Purchion 
Malghialach- 

[lon 
Chuniirki-el- 

[lendzshienj 
Kuni-ella  Komtook 


Daangoo 

Aati 

Bokuan 

La 

Iski 

Kemmis 

Xittanoo 

Tshusquat 

Tsaascha 

Koomdas 

Kilkoas 

Ittachtenu 

Tshoktenu 


Iguin 

Ghochsin 

Bee 

Boo 

Nongenatshe 

Nonganoobe 

Ellia 


Ya 

Atcha 

Oomun 

Dzshur 

Elan 

Digon 

Tongon 

Kilkok 

Etgatanok 

Tshokotenok 


Tshaktanak     Tshakatenok 


Attachongo- 

[niella 
Langdal  (ate) 
Ondzshok 
Tshuenzshi 
Longdok 
Jagt'ak 

lunzshuk 

Aniak 

Umat 


Tshomkotak 
Kaskumtuker  Katshat-ko- 
I  [tako 

Koldakoo 


Kaschiatsh 

K'hogdasitch 

K'tsheem- 

[gutsh' 


Ookladai 


Kahalkan        ! 

Kwatshqui- 

[kotshl 


Timnee 

Ettegas 

Min 

En 

Ginne 

Buissiga 

Issige 

Begun 

Beghassse 

Sarsin 

Ak  ;  ah  ;  eh, 

Soch 

Bir 

Ikke 

Ews 

Tirt 

Bes 

Alta 

Setti 

Ogos 

Tagos 

On 

Surbey 

Assiben 

Issiem 

Suir 

Inkullas 

Toy 

Oomkella  (to 

[sleep,  tui) 

Ittare  (speak, 

[kapsir) 

Unar,  koer 


Ong-hak  Kasichtshitsh    Tur 

Ingherghodak  Kowisitsh        Choorli            Bar 
Koquasitsh     | 


The  Chukchee  vocabulary,  due  to  the  kindness  of  George  Gibbs,  Esq.,  was  col- 
lected on  the  Ringgold  and  Rodgers'  Exploring  Expedition  by  Dr.  William  Stimpson, 
Director  of  the  Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  has  not  hitherto  been  published. 
Those  words  in  italics  are  from  a  vocabulary  kindly  obtained  by  Prof.  Asaph  Hall  of 
the  U.  S.  Eclipse  Expedition  in  1869,  at  Plover  Bay.  The  remainder  are  by  Saur 
Irom  Billings's  Expedition,  a  rare  and  inaccessible  work.  I  have  introduced  them 
here  for  the  convenience  of  the  philologist  who  may  wish  to  compare  the  languages 
of  Eastern  Siberia  with  those  of  Western  America  ;  and  also  for  the  benefit  of  the 
American  traders  who  may  visit  the  coasts  of  Northern  Kamchatka,  the  Ochotsk 
Sea,  and  the  Chukchee  peninsula. 


WESTERN    ESQUIMAUX    DIALECTS. 


555 


WORDS   TOWARD   VOCABULARIES   OF    THE   WESTERN 
ESQUIMAUX   DIALECTS. 


I       English. 

Arm 

Accoiiche- 

[ment 


Ekogmut. 


Arrow 
Anns 

Axe 

Autumn 

Aurora 

Ashes 

Another 


[(other) 


Alive 

Afraid 

All 

Brother 

Bear 

Beaver 
By  and  by 

Boat  (skin) 
Boots    (deer- 
[skin) 
Beluga 
Buy  (to) 

Bring  (to) 
Bones 

Blood 

Bad 

Boy 

Beard 
Bullet 

Belly 
Black 

Bag 

Be  still 


Khot 
Tah'kuh 

Kolkab'uk 
(JuksiVk 
Ig(')r;hi-uk 
.Aghu'k 
Eeminah 

Tukunerikh 
[tuk 


Keemi 

King'iikshuk 

Takokuk 

Maluktok 
Atata 

On'g'iuk 
Kamu'uk 

Stii'-uk 
Keepu'chu 

[wuk 
Tizhu 
Nunokut 

Owk 

Asseetuk 

Tanigowiluk 

Oongut 
Koh 

Oksii'k 
Tii'ng'ulera 

Stamazu'tika 
Konilorino 


Break  (to)        Chikumuk 


Back  (the)       P'koke 
Backbone        Inarutmuk 


Unali^inut. 


Taleet 


Etuk 


Alinga 
Kissim'mi 

Oonuguh 

Tokoguh 

Paluktuk 
Atako 

Un'g'iruk 
Kumguk 

'Tokuk 


Ti'zhil 
Nunow- 

[runguk 
Owk 
Asseetuk 
Illegah 


Taluk 
Iringh'uruk 

Kagahrit 
Ituk 

Kol'habuk 


Irigee 
Kissim'mi 

Arpeeugh- 
[ul 
O'kiluk 

Poloktuk 
Atata 

Oomiak 
Kamuk 

Seesuuk 
Towksik 

Ki'zu 
Sownerit 

Owk 

Ashu'ruk 
Illigat 

Oomeet 
Kagahruk 


Naweektuk 


Kaviagemut. 


Teleghuh 


Kagahrit 
Etuk 

Kolhabuk 


ChugAchig-     Kuskwdg- 
mut,  tnui. 


H'hut 


lYagatsutik 


Ikhiik 
(Angry,  Ik- 
[nitsuk) 
Kalkanak 


Alinokh 
Kissim'mi 


Kikhiiyet 


Ung'owrug- 
[huh: 
O'kluk         Laklak 


JAsak 

1 
Oonuevak 

Alantak 

Annak 
Ooni 


Palukhtuk   "Stneek 
Nunako         


Oomiak 
Kamuk 


Seetiiuk 


Kizu 
Sownerit 

Owk 

Aseeuruk 

Illeegat 

Oomit 
Kahgahriik 


Narweetuk 


Naru'tiguh 


ali 
[akh 
Kinyuli 

(Bay,  Na- 

[naenak) 

Anyak 

Natasiak-  Kamiksak 
[uak  ? 

lOotvak 

Kepuziyu 


Tijskiu 
(Bank, 

[Ts'na) 
Kayukak 
Chakhliiik 
Tangialii- 

[vak 
Oonik 
(Brave, 

fTugak) 
Aksiak 
(Below, 
[At'chimi) 


Owk 


Tapnikh- 
[tuk 


(Before, 

[Chunimt- 

[pih) 

(Behind, 

[Kanul- 

(klimtiu) 


556 


APPENDIX. 


English. 


Ekogtniit.       Unalig'mut.     Mdhletnut.      Ka^'iagntut. 


Cliugachig-       Kusk-w6g- 
niut.  rniit. 


Belt 

Body  (the) 
Blanket 
Bed 
Bow 

Beads 

"     (small) 
Boil  (to) 
Birch  (wood 
[or  bark) 
Breeches 
Bird 
Breasts 
Bark  (of  tree) 

Burn  (to) 
Berries 

Carcajou 


Cache 

Contog 

Cry  (to) 

Come  (imp.) 
Coming 

Come  in 

Cut  (to) 

Cap 

Chin 

Caps  (gun) 


Kappazhu'- 
[tika 
Kotigunka 
Oolik 
Atlekhka 
Ookelubuk 


Topsih 


Ooliet 


Topsih 
,dolit 


Chu'ng'i         Shungow- 


Kokhlatuk 


Kukhlik 


Peshgik'- 

[shih 
Chimowrik 

Kawilsak 

Ogigityuk 


Kakolik 

Ting'mvuk  Ting'mvuk 
.....'..     Meeluk 

Ahmeelu-       

[ruk 


Chung'ow-     (Blue, 

[ruk  [Vetok) 

Tikhlit 

Chunazu 

Illenuk 

Kakhlik  

Ting'mvuk  Oonushak  1'inmyak 

Nukh'tkutit 


Kagit 


Akpik 

'  Kuftsik 

i 

Mum'teguk 

Kantak 

Kuziame 

Tiyuk 
Ki'-vuk 


Kahwik 

Shekhiliuk 

Puhutuk 

Kiuriing'er 

Kaghi 
Kiaruk 

,Enesehtuk 


Akpik 
Kahwik 

Mu'pteguk 
Puhiituk 
Kiurfing'er 
Titi 


Xangat 


(Clouds,       (Clouds. 

[Amedl'-     [Taliguk)! 

gok)|  j 

(Copper,      (Copper,     | 

[Kanugak)     [Kaniikh)! 

^(Calm,         I 

!       [Kunik) 

I  (Current,    ■. 

!  [Chagvak) 
Tikina 


Tigut 


Nat'chiik       Nasota 
Tamilu 


Keepeegah     

Nashuk       ;  Xashuk 


KabiJlon 


Nuhyawutut     Illyahutik 


Chain(small)     

Chief  On'g'iuk 


Kalimurik 
Omavlik 


Cold 
Chew  (to) 


Ningluktuk    Kwikhtrina  Aliapdh 
Tamaluk  


Omavlik 
Allapah 


(Coal, 
[Kumavit) 
(Cup, 

[Walyuk) 
llMlyakhu  | 
INachak  j 
(Cousin, 

[Tunka) 

(Castor, 

[Alvuki-, 

ta'khk) 

{(Crane,        I 

[Kinatuli)' 


Daughter        Ikhinuk 
Dog  Ki'tmuk 

Deer  (rein-)   Tu'ntuk 
Day  Okhtuk 

Day  (yester-)  Ikpukzuk 

Day  (to-)       jOobluk 


Angaizu-      (Clay, 

[gok  (Maga'vuk) 
.Apakhtok    Pignakhtok 

!    (Cowardly 

I    [Alantak) 


Puneeghuh  Punceghuh 
Kimukhter  Kiyukmuk 

Tu'ntuk       Tu'ntrik 
Oonakuni     Ooblami 
Ukwowuk    Ikhpukhe- 
[ruk 
Oghanukh-  Ooblubuk 
[P"k 


Puneeghuh 
Kiyukmuk 

Tu'ntuk 
Ooblami 
Ikhpi'ikhe- 
[ruk 
Ooblumee- 
[ni 


Panja 
Pee-ukhta 

Kana-et 
Achnik 


Panagha 
Annakhuk- 
[kta 

Tu'ntu 

jEeghnik      1 


WESTERN    ESQUIMAUX    DIALECTS. 


557 


English 


Day  (next) 

[Deerfat 

[Door 

Dance 

Drum 

Don't  know 
f(I) 

Drill 

[(cotton) 
Duck 
Dead 
Drink  (to) 

Darkness 
Dance- 

[house 
Drunk 
"Dead" 

[drunk 
Day  before 
[yesterday 

Eat  (to) 

^Eye 
Ears 

[Eyebrows 
j   [and  lashes 
i  Enough 


Egg 

I  End  (the) 

Evil  Spirit 
Enceinte 

Earth 
Ermine 

Father 

Fox  (red) 

Fire 

Fat  (deer) 

Flint-and- 

[steel 
Forget  (to) 

: Forgot  (I) 
Feet 

Fingers 

Finished 

Fish 

Face 


Poelu'hrit       Poelehruk 

Chowyut       jKilyu 
N'utloka        iKiome 


Newat'chi-    |Ogikhluk 
[muk 

Ooksii'ktuk  I    

Tuku'leruk   I    


Ekdgmut. 


An'mik 


Unalig'  nmt. 


Oonaka 
Tu'nuk 
Talo 


Ooblu'kuk  Ooblaku 
Kownuk  iKownuk 
Tdluk  Taluk 


Vuktuk 


Ooniik 
Kaghi 


Muksu'k- 
[tuk 


Tamaluk,       Nu'khwah 

[Nu'guh 
Eekhka  Eekhka 

Cheeudik      iSheetik 

Kumnkaya-  I    

[nuk 
Tah'wutun'   Tahwatli 


Munyit 


Nu'nuh          |Nu'na 
Cheekeet      I    


Atakah 
Kamy'uk 
Kanuk 
Ookuk 


Eetigunka 

S'tamen 

Tahwiitun' 

Nukut 

Keenuk 


[Atahkah 

Ki'iviuk 

iK'nuk 

Tfinfik 

iK'ne 

Oowukhter 

Oowukhtuk 
lEeteegun 

I       .        [1^^ 
Ewahgun- 

!     ,  [ka 

,  rdtnah 
JEkot'lewit 
I  Keenuk 


Kaviagmut.   ^^"f^i^f^' 


Poelehruk 


Kionee 


Poelehruk 


Kilvukuk 
Kiome 


Agikhluk 


(Don't  wan  1 

[Pee-ukh 

[naktual 


rrikorik 

Tukorik 

Immurukh- 

[tuk 

Dawktrdv 

Kaguskee- 

Kaguskee- 

[me 

[me 

Eniiktuk 

Emiktuk 

Keemik- 

[shoktuk 

Oonalageni 



Nugeru'n- 

Nugeriin'g- 

[ger 

[er 

Isik 

Eereegah 

Shee'un 

Seetiga 

Kabulot 

Kabuloot 

Munik 
fishoah 

Pesu'ktah 
Ching'iag- 
I haruk 

Niineh 


Arpugah 

Kivuktuk 

Ik^nik 

Kownuk 

I'kne 


Munyit 


Nu'nuh 
Chikarik 

Atataghuh 

Kiyuktuk 

I'knuk 

Kownuk 

I'kne 


Peuktung-    Poyuk- 

[er:        [tunger 
Peukhtuk    iPoyuktuk 
Itkiinka       [Itugunka 

Inuwutgha  ilnuwutgha 

Inyektuk  JTimunilli 
Ikothlewik  Ekoth'luk 
Keenyuk      Keenyuk 


Petoghdr 

[yuda 
Eengaliak 
Chutik 
(Eagle, 
[Kotskalak) 
(East, 
[Oonadr- 
[gatak) 


Katlagak 


Attaga 
Ka-ukhgak 
Knakhk 
Oghok 


Shwo-ahi 
EgakhlVik 


A'us/cwdg- 
mut. 


(Deep, 

[Tf 
Kaziachi 


[1^ 


Tinmik 

Tukumal' 

Meekha 

Talkh 
Akumea- 

[vak 


Neega 

Wetatik 
Chu-utik 
Kayagmi- 


[ut 


Tukukakh 

(Ear-rings, 

[Aklatit) 

(Eagle, 
[Nitigovak) 
Nuni 
Pagillgak 

Attu 

Kavyachak 
Knik 
Anignakh 


Swogat 

Tawatik 
Ikalouk 


55^ 


APPENDIX. 


English. 


Forefinger 
Second  do. 

Third  do. 

Finger 

[(little) 
Fawn  (rein- 
[deer) 
Far  off 

Foot  (one) 
Feather 

Frozen 

Fish 

[(salmon) 
Fish 

[(small) 

Fat  (very) 

Frightened 


Grouse 

[(white) 
Gloves 
Gun 
Go  (I) 
Gift 

Good  by 

Good 
Good 

[(very) 
Girl 

Give  (me) 

Go  (away, 
I  imp.) 
Gun  nipple 
Grass  (dry) 
Give  (to) 

Goose 

Grave 

[(burial 
l^place) 
Get  up  ! 


Ekogmut. 


Unalig'jnut. 


Yaksikh- 
[tuk 


Komloko- 
[wuk 

Takhiyuk- 
[puk 

Nutagut 


Ookilera 
Alingu 

Okv'iziguk 

A'zigak 

I'oktuk 

Tawi'hueh 
Asi'ikhtuk 


Okan(')ki 

[muk 
Tizhil- 
[wun'ganuk 
Ayee 


Wukut 
Peekee- 

[tumka 
Tin'g'um 

[yuk 
Kun'g'uk 


Hands 


Tahkok 
Ahkolinak 

Ekeelipak 
Ekit'hl'kuk 


Oonasik- 

[suk 
fishegeet 


Mahlemut.   j  Kaviagnmt. 


Nokwiok 

Oonasee- 

[shuk 
Itigi 
Shu'luk 


Takiyiik- 

[puk 


Oonasik- 

[shuk 
As'higeet 


Chugdchig-      Kusk^ogmut. 


Takyukh- 
[puk 


Arkazi'gi- 
[ul 
A'gzigite 
Shukpun 
lakhtok 
Chikeeka 


Asikhtok 
Nakiiru- 

[rumuk 
Puneeghuh 


Anee 
Ih'gut 
Ting'myuk 

Mukeeta 


Arkaziuk    JArkaziuk 


A'regat 
Shukpun 
Oloktuk 
Cheekee- 

[kha 
Owloktut 

Naku'ruk 
Areegah 

Agnishuk 

Pchulunga 


Asigat 
Shiipun 
Chani'iksuk 
Cheekee- 
[kha 


Naku'ruk 
Areegah 

Puneeghuh 


Anee 


Annisok- 
[tuk 

Molu'ruk    I    

Pinikhserit  Pinikherit 
Aychilunga  Aychilunga' 


Tingmyuk    Tingmyuk    Ting'amet 


Kevak 


(Black  fo.x, 

[Tvlnrdgit) 
(Blue  fox, 
[Ikhnikhtu- 

lya) 

(White  fo.x, 

[Oolegik) 
(Fox  cub, 

[Peyagak) 
(Fresh, 
[Nutakapak) 


llguk 
[(Fishnet, 
'  [Kugya) 

Niklikhtok 

Tagiakvak 

(Fish  trap, 
[Talpyahk- 
[nyat) 

'(Fly,  a 

[Chuyuvat) 


Eekhchika 
(Grandfather, 

[Apnugliuk) 
(G'ndmother, 

[Annugliyuj 
Knuignagkrdv 


Nozeiitchuk 

Yaguzhgu 

Ayagu 

Chan'git 


Mukeetin     Mukeeter 


Mukt'n 


Aregut-        Aregut-        Aregi'itguh     Yahguchutik 

■  [ghuh  [ghuh 


WESTERiN    ESQUIMAUX    DIALECTS. 


559 


English.         Ekogmut. 

Unalig-mut. 

Mdhlemut. 
Ookulik 

Kavidsmut.  ^  ^''"Zf^- 

KuskivogmFd. 

Hare               

Kiyu'kth- 

Ookulik 

(Hawk,  Nap- 

[luk 

(tak) 

Hungry        Nugi-ukh- 

(lam) 

Nugashrdv- 

Nu-iyih 

(How  much  ? 

[(to  be);           [tung' 

[Nuhgee 

[tunga 

[Kahitugat) 

Head 
Here 

Nashkok 
Marni 

Nuskogwa 
Marni 

Nahkowa 
Marni 

Neiikowah 
Marni 

Nash-kwa 

Honikho, 

[Khwahna 

Hot 

Kutzung'- 
[uk 

Kushu'ng'- 

Kiishu'ng- 

Magakhtok  Kikhchatuk 

[uk 

[uh 

Hill  (a) 

Ing'reet 

Irgut 

Hatch  or      (Heat, 

I     [opening,           [Kaltok) 

[Oolmyak 

Hand(one)|Du'mak 

I'hee-it 

A'zieghih 

A'zeegih 

Aicha            (Hill,  Ingak) 

t(palm) 

Hair  (long) 

Nu'yut 

Nii'shak 

Nushak 

Nusha         iNuvat 

Heavy 

kuhu'* 

Okamy- 

Okamy- 

[chuk 

High  Yukh- 

[chuk 

[tuli 

Hair  (short, 

Mulkiit 

Mikseet 

Mikseet 

iMilkut 

[or  fur) 

Hat,  or 

Nahshu'n 

Nashown 

(Hatch  or 

[head- 

[opening, 

[cover 

[Oogliilvik) 

He 

Oona 

Oona 

Oona 

Oona 

Oom 

Ikum,  Ta-una 

Hammer 

Kaksutok 

(Hail,  Kak- 
[hutat) 

Husband 

On'g'un 

Weena 

House 

N'nuh 

N'nuh 

Topek 

In'nuh 

T'na 

Ina 

[(native, 
[winter) 

Hear(imp.) 

Neechee- 
[wu'nikin 



(Him,  Oo- 

[min) 

His 

Emiiluh 

Oomnia 

I 

Hwik 

Wunga 

Wunga 

Wunga 

Kii-ih 

Hwana, 

[Hwihka 

Ice 

Cheekuk 

Seko 

Seko 

Seko             Chaguk 

Chiko 

Iron 

Iknuguwit 

iNakhtidek 

Nilkhagak      ' 

Indian  (an) 

Attowch 

U'ng'uleet 

(Inlet,  Ikakh) 

Island 

Tikestuk 

Kegikhtuk 

Kikh'tuk 

Kikhtak 

(Itis,  Pe- 
[tankhtok) 

Idle 

Ksalera 

Erihe-shuk- 
[til'nga 

Intestines 

keetunka 

Ezhigliyilk 

lump  (to) 

Matlukhter 

Knife 

((clasp) 

Chowic'hi- 
[muk 

Peekniik- 
[tok 

Knees 

Seesgow- 

[kah 
Netoka 

Sitgowa 

Tushir'iiga 
Tushirukh 

Kamukala 

Sitgowa 
Nalu'kiga 

1 

Know  (I) 

Know  (I 
[do  not) 

Nachunle- 
[reetuk 

Snikha'hi- 
[tuk 

[tuk 

Kvak 



Kyak 

Kvak 

Kvak            Kvak 

Kahvak 

[(bidarka) 

I'anou  trom  Uie  Ru 


or  some  other  language. 


55° 

APPENDIX. 

English.         Ekdgmut. 

Unalig>mJit. 

Maklemiit. 

Knvidgmut. 

Chugdchig- 
miit. 

Kusk-wdgmiit. 

'Kayak(3        

Bidarli- 

(Kettle,  Gan- 

[holed) 
Knife            Chi\vik 

[mva 
Chowik  ' 

!         [chavak) 

Chiwik 

Chiwik 

Nowgu-        Oolvak  and 

[(sheath) 

[chak*      [Chivichuk 

Kettle          G'hun 

( Kamlavka, 

[Imukhna- 

[tikh) 

Kill  (I) 

Tukuchee- 
[okuk 



(To  kill) 
[Chikalizgyu 

Long  ago    \   

Akwowow- 

Ikhpukhe- 

(Low,  Yukh- 

[ghne^  [ruk-g'ale- 
[iikne 
[igiluk- 

[kalnauak) 

Laugh  (to) 

Igiluk- 

Ninliakhta 

1         [tu'nga 

[tu'nga 

Legs             Erukha 

Eru'khga     Nee-u'gha 

Nee-ugha 

(Lonely,  Nu- 
[nanituh) 

Large           Ong'uk 

On'g'uk        On'g'yruk 

Ong'ydii'- 

Anishkak 

Ontouchpak 

1             [ruk 

Lie  (to)        Akloghtut    Iklu'ten        Shugalu'-    'Shiigalu'- 

Ikliuk 

1                               [rutenj          [ruten                      |                         | 

Land            Nu'nuh 

Nu'nneh      Nu'naeh 

Xu'nuh         Nouna          Nouna             | 

Light  (not   Tankikh- 

1    

(Lightning, 

Tankikh'ch- 

[dark)               [tuk 
Lake             Nanimuk 

1 

[Knukh) 

[tiik 

j    

Nannokh 

Nanvik 

Like  (simi-ilyuka           Muku'chi-    Amutna-      Amutna 
[lar)                      !            |muk          [sfmukj 



Like  (to)      Chang'woh  Keenkuka      i    

(Long,  Tat- 

[khlih) 
(Lightning, 

Lie  down     Enokhtuk       1    



[(to)                                 ! 

[KmgVak) 

Lips 

Kankah           i    

1 



(Losh,  Man- 
[agnat) 

Light  (not 

Ookarmite-    Kowmari- 



(Lead,  Khov- 

[heavy) 

[naratuk                      i              [tuk 

[akak) 

Lamp  (oil) 

Nunitikh 

Nahnuk 

(Little,  Ikhi- 
[tut) 

Tu-elik 

Mother 

Ahkuk         Ah'kah- 

Ah'kee- 

Ah'kee'uh 

Anneh 

Annih 

[ghuh            [ghuh 
Yiit  (or)       Yut               Inn'uk 

Man  (one) 

Enuk 

Xiigliikhpi-  Yu'gut 

[ShukI 

[uk! 

Mink 

Magmu'tic   Emugemu'- 

Tughiuk- 

Emagemu'-j    |Amagmutak 

[tukchuk 

[puk 

[tukshuk 

Moon 

Aghi-aluk    Ighaluk       iTatkuk 

Takuk 

Taankuk 

Tang'uk 

Mittens 

Arektwik     Aretfigh       Artkutik 

Arkatuk 

(Mouse, 
[Ahwilnat)' 

Mouth 

Kahnuk        Kon'ogha    ;  Katkuk 

Kanga 

Kanuk,(Pahi, 

[of  rivers) 

More 

Chilee 

T'selli           Sidi 

Suli 

Chali               i 

Much 

Omathlok-  Omaloktuk 

[tuk 
'Yuet           lln'nuet 

Omilarokh-i    Amilikhtiik     t 

[tuk 
[n'nuet        ;Nugulpeuk  Nukalnvak 

Man 

In'nyuet 

[(people) 

1 

1(2  men)|                         j 

Mirror 

iTagaktu 

Tagiukh 



Tangiuguk 

Morning 

Oonma-       '    

jkum'                      i 



(Month,  Tan- 
[g'ak) 

Mine 

Hwih'pi-     1    Wun'gukh 

(How  much, 

[kuk-                     1                     1 

[Kahitugat) 

WESTERN    ESQUIMAUX    DIALECTS. 


561 


English.         Ekogniiii. 


Meat  Kummuk 

[(flesh) 
Marmot        Cheekeet 
[{S.  Parryi) 
Mosquito    iMuhko-kih' 


Uiialig'mut.     MdhUmut. 


Make  (to) 


Moss 
Me 

|Name  (a) 
Nose 

New 
Night 

No 

Nails  (fin- 
[ger&toe) 
Never 

[mind 
None 
Neck 

Near 

Needle 
Now 

Otter 

[(river) 
Other 

Oil 

Only 

Open 

Old 

Old  man 
Old  woman 


Parki 
Porcupine 

Pipe 
Powder 

[(gun-) 
Powder 

[flask 
Present  (a) 

Pain 

Paddle 

Quick 


Choweeze- 
[rukhl: 

Ogh'wo 


Kan'uk 


Nutakuk 
Oonuk 


Peetuk 
Stiikuh 


Nung'u'tuk 
Wee-akuk 

Ooguksi- 

[khtuk 
Ming'kung' 
Hwat'ovv 

Chinnikuk 

Astldrijk 


Tow'kwun 
Eegeerasha 

Ukuthluk 


Atku'k 


Kweenyuk 
Poeyokh- 

[kuk 
Poeyokh- 

[kugwik 
Cheekee- 

[kha 
Oknikhtuk 

Ung'-wah- 
[wung' 

Padoga- 

[muk 


King'ow'- 
[cha 

Nutak 

Oonukh'- 
[tuk 

Peetuk 


Chikarik 


Choweetuk 


Kin'g'uk 


Nutak 
Ooniik'tuk 


Peechuk 


Kaviaginut.        "'^!rf/'^      K  iiskvjdg7nut 


Shanara-      Shanara- 

[tuk  [tuk 


Minku'n' 
Pdkmummi 


Atla,  I'par 

Ooksook 
Keemi 


Ateguk 
Kweenyuk 


Cheekee- 

[kha 
Arrah 


Pukmummi 

Pumi-ukh- 
[tuk 
Atla  or 

[I  par 
Oahoruk 
Kissimmi 


Ootukok 

Ung'ichuk 

Okukshak 


Artegi 
Elanko- 

[chik 
Kiinyuk 
Achara 

Aradok- 

[shawol* 
Chikeeka 

Arrah 


Cheekeek 


Choweetuk 


At'kah 
King'ogha 

Nutak 
Ooniik'tuk 


Peeluk 


Peeseekak 

Pumiukh- 

[tuk 
Atla 

Ookheruk 
Kissimmi 


Ung'ichuk 
Ahkok'tuk 


Artegi 
Elanko- 

[chik 
Kunyuk 


Chikeeka 
Arrah 


Kumik 


Kinga 


Oonuk- 

[hakh 


(North, 
[Niaghtok) 


Kyukhpak- 
[hakak 


Ahillkhuk 

Kalganakh-     i 

[tilli 

Mikughuk 

(Fossil  Mam- 

[moth,  Cha- 

[giinik) 

Kumagitit 

Kwinidv 


Oonuk 

Chashi'tuk 
(Net,  Kiigy- 
|ah) 
(Not  so, 

[Ikliutik) 

Khwatuya 

(Narrow, 

[Igiikiniik) 


Minkuk 
Oowignilnuk 


Ignik 


Kolummuk  Kolummuk  Kolummuk 


(Owl,  Igcha- 
[khtugali) 

Oochinukh 

jAganiikhliu- 
[vak 

Atkuk 
(Poplar,  Au- 


(Pike,  Imakh- 
[ping'at) 


Akhnakhtu- 
[ah 


36 


562 


APPENDIX. 


English.     I    EkSgniut.    \  Unali^mut. 


Rabbit 
Rain 


River 


jKuyiikth-    [Mukagh- 
I              [lukj  [wuk 
Ibizhukh-    llgesikhtuk 
j              [tuk' 
Kweek 


Rope  (or      Tapkuk 
[rawhide 
[line) 
Ring  (a) 
Run  (to) 


Rock 
Red 

Raven 

Sister 
Son 

Sable 

[(Am.) 
Sun  (the) 

Star 

Seal  (large) 
Seal  (small) 
Sled  (dog-) 

Snowshoes 

Ship 

Snow 

Sleep 

Sew  (to) 

Salutation 

Sell 

Smoke 

Sea 

Small 

Summer 

Sit 

Steal 

Sing 

L       


Topkok 


Yeemukh    Cheen-muk 
Kahwikh- 

[kukla 
Tulu'kaguk 


Anligu't- 

[kuh 
Ig-ny-akuk 


Kagu'-ish- 
[uk 
Okokhtuh 

lAghi-at 


Kamiik 
Tun'g'yuk 

Un'yuk 

Chammf 

Keepuk- 

[huktung' 
Ap'zik 
Immukhpik 
Meekuk      jM'ikuk 

Kee-uk        Kee-ukh 

Aku'm 


Ookalayt- 

[siuk 
Seulu'ktuk 

Kuk 
Okle'-nok 


O^agok 


At-luk'hk- 
[guh 
Kutun'ru- 
[ghuh 

Kuft'chik- 

[chuk 
Mut'chuk 

Aghzut 

Muklok 

Niyuk 

Kumowt 

Tun'g'luk 

Ung'izukh 

[puk 
Slakhlik 

[tuk 
(to)  Kow- 

[ukhtiinga 
Minki 

Chammf 


Akeechuk 


dpsuk 
Togas  uk 


Mdhlemut.    \  Kaviagmtit. 


Ookalaj^t- 

[siuk 
Igwanuk- 

[tuk 
Kuk 
Ne-uk 


Ku'lun 
Akparo'k 
[tuk 


Ahkeea-       Ahkowru- 

[ghuhj  [ghuh 

Keetun-       {Erin'ughuh 
[rowgu-j 
[ghuhj 
Kavea't'-     jKahvit'- 

[cheiikj        [chu-uk 
Shfikeen-     iMut-chuk 

[yuk 
Ooblu'ge-    |Ooblu'giuk 

[uk: 
Muklok       '  Muklok 


Niksuk 
Oonayut 

Tugeluk 

Oomiak- 

[puk 
Uphun 

Shinik 

Keeliukh- 
[tiinga 


Akeechuk 


Nitsuk 
Oonayut 

Pusu'ge-uk 

Oomiak- 

[puk 
iKaniktuk 

Shinik 

Keeliuk- 

[tunga 
Chammi 


Akeechuk 


Chugdchig-  I  Kusk-w6g7nut. 


Kitichtouk  Kitok  & 

[Chliatuk 
Kii-ik  Kwak 

Nukchakluk 


Is'suk  I  Is'suk 

Togayuk     jTogaysuk 
Mikidu'ruk!  Miksurow- 
[ruk 
Oopine-       jOopane- 
[tuki     [rokhpuki      [rokhtuk 
Akomi         I  Akaweeten  I  Akaweeten 


Yahmakh 
Kawikhtuk 


Mukhta- 
[chuh 


Matchak 
Mittak 


(Sky, 
[Amigliuk) 


Annyii, 

[Katagak 
Innakht'un 

(Swan,  Oo- 
[kukhpik) 

(South, 
[Kanagag- 
[tok) 


Immokh 
Mikong'- 
[gashak 


(Rub,  to,  Mi- 
[chak) 

Kivagok 

Kolkaguk 

Agnawik 
Ig-ny-ak 


Kakhchich-    | 
[uak| 
Akhtah 

Mittit 

Makliokh 
Isliiigwak 
Ikamchak 

(Storm,  Anu- 
[gowak)t 
(Smell,  to,  i 
[Naghachiik) 
Kaniikshak 


Tigalikh-     :Tigalikh-     ilktigalik       Iktigalik 

[tuk!              [tuk  I 

Ewahgun    |    Ahti'ik  Ahtu'n 


Minka 


Keepushnu- 

[vak 
Punkh 
Imakhpuk 
Ikhushut 

(Swan,  Kug- 

[yuk) 

(Sand,  Kagu- 
[yak) 


(Shout,  to. 
[Wikhpuga- 
[kuh)i 


WESTERN    ESQUIMAUX    DIALECTS. 


56: 


English. 


Skin 

Smoke  (to- 
[bacco,  to) 
Split  (a) 
Selfish 
Shoot  (to) 
Spring 

Straight 

See  (to) 

Slow 

Speak 
Skin  boat 

[(open) 
Spectacles 

[(snow) 
Socks 
Scissors 
Small 

[(very) 
Strong 
Stand 

Strike 

Sorry 
Steel  (& 

[flint) 
Shot, 

[(small) 

Soup 
Stick  (a) 
Shaman 


Then 

That 
Take  off 

Toes 

There 

Teeth 
Tail 

Track 

Tree 

Throat 

Thumb 


Ekogmiit.      Utuilig'  ntiit. 


M'tu'kukh- 
[lih 


Oopenukh-  Upahnd' 

[kuk;  [kuk 

Nakhlu'ti-  i    

[mut 

Tamukha-    Kenureega 
[kuh 

Chugof-       1  Shukich'uk 
[kenuk 


Apt'kah 
Ongiuk 


Koleruk 


T'huk 
Namikhtun 

Tingilu'- 

[ghuk 
Kunu'kuk 
Kineet 

Ting'am- 

[yukzhuti- 

[kat 

Yu'khukuk 

Okoghwuk 


Okoktuk 
Oomiak 


Hu'dinka 

Naput 
Kiin'geluk 


Mdhlemut.     Kavidgmiii. 


Chugdchig- 
miit. 


Ah'muk 
Towgaha- 

[lunga 
Koperuk 

Shupe-ga 


Naluruk 

Keniarigah 

Chukich'uk 

Okoktuk 
Oomiak 

lugak 

A  till  ok 
Shalishik 
Mikiru- 
[rummuk 


Ungatku'- 
[otuk 

jPik'pun 

Im'na 
Itome- 

[lun'ga 
Inuwiitgha 


Metomikh- 
[layunga 
Ewahgun- 

[ka 
Tuhmahni   Tuhmarni    iTuhmarni 


Yunglitok 
Shiipega 


Towtuk 


Oomiak 


(Sky, 


[Khl'a 


Pik'pun 

Im'na 
Mutow- 

[lunga 
Iniiwiitgha 


Ki-u'tik 
Pammegii-a 


Keegu 
Pum'kok 

Til' mi 

Oakpik 


We-ahkote 
Ahzoon 


Kuskivdgmut. 


Kaglageh- 
[gik 

(Thunder, 
[Katlkhek) 


Kalkhtik 

Anyak  | 

(Ship,  Shu-     I 
[nak) 

Kiplia-unik 
(Short,  Nan- 
[ilnuk) 

I  (Sweet,  Nil<- 
[neekiik) 
(Sour,  Agi- 

[nak) 
(She,  Oona) 
(Send,  to, 
I  [Atakh) 


Tungalkh  & 
[Analkhtuk 


Oakpik 


Oonakhwina 
jl-gazhgiii 


I  Yani,  Oong'- 

i  [nani 

Honti  ?        [Hiiyutik 

. .    '(That  way," 

j  [Yavit) 

I  (This  way, 

[Ookavit) 
Nigoga'k-    Xikigwakh- 
[tok  [tut 

i(True,  Pach- 

I         [ikhpiak); 


t    Literally,  "  to  shoot  geese." 


564 


APPENDIX. 


English 


Ekogmut. 


Unalig'  mut.     Mdhlemut.     KaviAg»iut. 


Chugackig- 


KuskwogmUt. 


Tube  (of 
[any  kind) 
Tongue 
Tell 
,  Tippet 

Thread 

Thank  you 

Tobacco 

I  Tobacco 
!  [bag 

Tired 


Village 
Valley 
Vein 


Wife 

Woman 

Wolf 


AVood 

Walrus 
Whale 
Waukhne 
I  Work 

[Walk 

Where 
Why 
When 
Winter 

We 

jWind 

Weather 
Whiskers 
Wolverine 
Warm 

Want  (I) 
Want 

[water  (I) 
I  Watched 

(I) 
'Whiskey, 
[(lit.  water) 
White 
Who 


Oolii'ka 


Speseeba 
Tag'hwuk 
Stamasdu- 


Shupeli 


Oowa 


Oociwuk 


Muganokh- 
[tuktuk 

Nu'nut 

Kweega 

Ewahliik 


Nulikhuh 
Okh^anak 
Kigiilu'nuk 

Muk 

Kubu'chuk 

(none) 

I-eekhtuk 

Nahkhoh 
Cheent 

Ooksu'k  ' 


Oovolig'he- 
[ruk 


Kanukhtuk  Kaniikhtuk 
Komash: 

[ruk 


Koyana 
Tahwakh 


Nuliayka 
Ogh'anut 
KuMunuk 

Muk  (or 

[Tanuk) 
Ookiik 

Ah'zubuk 

(none) 

Ekotlevvit 

Tigulukh- 

[tuk 


Novv'khwa 
Sheen 
A'kavvu 
Ooksu'kh- 
[tuk 


Onakluk-      A'nowah 
[tuk^ 

...    j  Selami 
...   lU'ng'eet 
Kopshik 


0()knuk 

Pe-uk'htuk 


Hakhokoli 
Keenuh 


Nuleeka 
dkanok 
Am'ahguk 

Im'mik 

Kiriik 

Oogerfik 
Ah'gahwah 
Ekothlewik 
Chowetuk 

Kagalu'k- 

[tuk 
Nahmi 
Shiiklu'ten 
Mamaghu 
Ooke-ii'kh- 
[tuk 
Wurgut 
A'nowah 


Oo'meet 
Kopfwik 
Onoktuk 


Koyana 
Tabakh 


Nfileega 
On'g'nut 
A'maghuk 

Im'muk 

Kuzuk 

Oogeruk 
Ah'gahwak 
Ekothlewik 
Chowetuk 

Pesukhtuk 

Nahmi 
Suklii'ten 
Mamaghu 
Ooke-O'kh- 
[tuk 
Wurgut 
A'nowa 


Oomeet 
Kopfwik 
Onoktuk 


Oolwa 


(Take.Tkhu) 
Siwoghat .' 


(Thick,  Oo- 

[kugalgyuh) 

(Thin,  Kimi- 

[gilnagak) 

(They,  Oo- 

I  [nut) 

(Their,  Illeit- 

[nuk) 
Pliushga-     (Thunder, 

[gak  [Kalik) 

(Took, 

[Tkhwahka) 


Nuliga 

A'ganak       A'gnak 

Kaykhli-         

[nak 
Mik  (or)       Mik 

[Mokh 
(West,  Oo-  (Willow, 
[agagtok)        [Chagatit) 

Azvik 

Akhwik 


Tah'nuk       Tah'nuk 


lokto-apin 
Immuru'n-  Immurii  n 

Towtukuh 


Keenuh       1  Keenuh 


Tah'nuk 


Keenuh 


Magarakh- 
[tok 


Katakhtu 


(Walrus  skin, 
[Amakhkak) 


Nani 
Chahkwa  . 

(Woollen, 
[Tunulkhih) 

lAnuka 

Kavchak 
Peeukhtuha 


(Weep,  to, 

[Kanu) 
(Well,  Yu- 

[guntfiyah) 
Oogolkak 
(Whose, 

[K'yah) 


WESTERN   ESQUIMAUX    DIALECTS. 


56- 


English. 


What 
Window 

(lodge) 
Water 

(deep) 
What  do 
[you  call  it 

Year  (last) 

Year  (next) 
Yukali 


EkSgtnut.      Unalig'  niiit.     Mahlentut.     Kavidgmut. 


Kiyu'khuh  Chumuk 
Tahruk  


Chumuk      iChummuk 
Issukhtok 


Tow'unga 


You  (thou)  Jkhl 'wit 
Yes  Hwokah 


Young 

[woman 
Young 

[man 
Young 

Year 


Ete-aroke 


Utluh'unee  Iparni 


Iparni 


iNukut 

llk'hlepit 
Wah 


Nugachli- 

[pe-uk 
Ooksii'k- 

[puk 


Iparga  Iparga 

Ikolu're-      jlkolure- 

[wik  [wik 

I'llewit         I'llepit 
Wah  Wah 


Okanakne- 

[okseokj 

Enuknii-     | 

[gatpekak' 


'Tlepit 


Chuleyegni 


K7iskiv6gviut. 


Chaitun 
(White  fish,  ; 
[Kahukhtut) 
(Walrus  tusks 
[Tuliuk) 
Chastun- 
[piakh-tkhu 

(Your, 

[I.'pitiuk) 
Nihit 


'Lpit  ! 

(You  pi.    _     ! 

[L'pinuk) 


Ooksiukh- 

[tumak 


;66 


APPENDIX. 


WORDS   TOWARD  VOCABULARIES   OF  THE  TIXXEH   TRIBES. 


English. 


\ulato 
In'galik, 


Ulu'kuk 
In'galik. 


Tanana 
In'galik. 


U nakluitana .     Tetidn  Kutckin. 


Arrow 
Axe 
Awl  [also 

[Woodpeck 
Ashes 
Autumn 
Aurora 

Alive 
All 

j  Alder 
Another 
Arm 
Anus 
Afraid 

Angry 
Above 


Buttocks 
Boy 

Brother,  elder 
Brother, 

I  younger 
Beard 
Body 
Belly 
Beaver 
Birch  (and 

[birch  bark) 
Black 
I  Bad 
j  Boots 
I  Buying 
'Beads  (black) 
Bring  {also 

[negative) 
Blankets 
By  and  by 
Bow 
Be  quiet 
Back 
Backbone 
Brown  bearO^ 
Brown  bear<i 
Black  bear 
Breasts 
Break 

Bullets 
[Belt 
1  Brown 


K'oh 

Muk'le-klala 

Tikelklala 

er) 

Khklatz 

Santdkha 

Yo-ikukhte- 

[tan 
To-ikhklala 
Etutsiin 
Kokhtle' 
K'tenni 
Tenakohna 
Tenakayet 
NeFukut 


Notokhi'in 


K'oh  K'oh 

Mukle'kklala  Mk'le-klala 


K'oh 
Klatkleh 


Tutchonka 
Tohchili 


Hklatz  Hklatz 

Santuh  Santakha 


Tod'kI6hn 

Tahklu'suh 

Kokhtle' 

K'yu'yah 

Tenakohna 

Tenakahyet 


Tenatlut  Tenatliit 

Keelyoza         Sakhi 


Su'gha 

Tenatogha 

Tenazik 

Tenam'it 

No-yuh 

K'leh 

Tatle'klutz 

T'satklaka 

Kakentiik 

Oonkat 

Seewoya 

N'tah 

Tsudah 
Klat 

Klikhtiin 
Ta-lek 


Su'gha 

Tenatogha 
Tenazik 
Tenamit 
Xoyuh 
j  K'leh 

JTatle'kluh 
jStalagha 
Kakaytuk 
jOwudukhat 
Seewoya 
N'tah 

iTsu'dah 
Klat 

Klikhtun 
Tahlek 


Tenanitle'nah    

Klahziih  Klahwurah 


Tutklu'kem 


Katena 
Tenakohna 


iNeliikiit 


Yuki-oza 

Sughuh 

Sihutlana 


Tenatogha 
Tenazuk 


S'dogho 
Sitzik' 
Semit 
Noyuh  I  Kakiih 

Kekh  K'ekh 


Kowo'latzuh    H'kluhyah 
Klasantah       ,  Hohtsun 
Yo-ikokhte-    jYukhoi 
[tan 


Etutsun 

Kokhtr 

K'tenni 

Sukoh'na 

Sukayet 


Khu'nti 
•Klohtsek 


Sukh'an 


Mukyahunal-  Niltsiit 
[hohn 

Mahutzuh 

No'tuk'hun 


Suhklut 
Kee-os 
Su'ghuh 


Tenatsu'-ah 
Tukadaki'it 


Tatsunzaga 
Tsohutklaka 

Kohtle'zuh 

T'sohklaka 

Kakentiik 

Oonkhat 

Kiinkat 

Tenanitlezih 

N'tah 

Tsutah 

Tsudah 

Klat 

Klat 

Klikhtun 

Ktil'kas 

Talek 

Talek 

Tenaniinah 

Stodsunah 

Tenanitle'niih 

Sununah 

Klahwuzi'ih 

Kvu'vah 

Tsvonuh 

Yuvuki 

Sus 

Sitsu-ah 

Khodat-eeo 

Takadolchiit 

Kotleh 
K'theth 


Kotlay  Kutatluh 
Kutzudlukuh  Thulsth 
Tl'ukhotle'         


I  Kotleh 
K'theth 


Chulkoyah 

Munokh'iya 


Taughuh 
Suht-zutah 


T'suh 
Ahltoh 


Xazunki'illay 
Ootaskhat 


Itsohutzoht 
Tuhtuh 


Yuterokhtana 


Sih 
Si^is 


Ng'ketchito- 

[wuh 
Kuhatluh 


VOCABULARIES    OF    THE    TINNEH    TRIBES. 


567 


English. 


Xtddto 
In'galik. 


Ulu'kuk 
In' gnlik. 


Tanatid 
In'galik. 


Unakhatdna.     Tendn  Kutchin. 


K'en 


Bone 

Boils  (it)         '    

Bird  (small)  Vah'tuh 
Beads  (white)  N'tulla 
Blood  Lukohna 

Boat  (not         Medoyah 
[skin  boat) 

Beaver  |    

[(spring) 
Bag  I    


Beetle 
Bad  (very) 


K'en 

Neelkoh  _ 
Klahyuduh 
N'tulla 
L.ukhoyna 


Menoholnoi 
T'satklaka- 

[hiilan 

Breeches         ,  Katsikh 

Beads  (red) 


Kokhlematz 

Kakoza 

Nilkullay 

Medoya 


Nokhkutla 


Tazokuniyoza 
Oolodiktuh 


K'en 


(skinb.)  Tsee- 
[kokh 


1  Beads  (blue) 
I 
Box 


Cap 

Come  (here) 

Crooked 

Chief 

Cloud 

Copper 

Cold 

Call 

Catch 

Chin 

Chew 

Child  (boy) 

Child  (girl) 

Coals  (of  fire) 

Coward 

Comb 

Crow 

Cheek 

Chest  (the) 

Cut 

Caps  (gun) 

Chain  (small) 

,Cloth 


Kohnsitana 
Tenadaku'na 

Klakataluona 

O'hni 
Tidulzikh 
Tyohn  (Russ. 
[der.) 
Sodah'uh 
Tasl^okutla  _ 
Atzu'  or  Azu' 
Azut'le 
Ooneenluh 
Tenayahduh 
Teek'ush 
T'saki_         1 
Sultayu'rah  j 

T'ass 
Atzik' 

N'teekali 


Katzikh  Katzikh 

Tenatlukozehj    

Tsu-i-iik  !    


Nilku'-i 
Tahneh 
Ki-ee,  Tlekh'- 
[koh 
Tiheeleeya 

Meeyuhhot- 

[kliyah 

Hutsosklaka 

Sitkh'geh 


Tenadaku'na 


Klakataluoh- 
[na 

Oh'ni  Oh 

Tidulzeekh 
Tyohn 


Azu' 


Teniyaduh 
Nukutsah' 


M'tayktuka 
Klahwhu'n 


Coming  in 

[(I  am) 
Canoe  (birch)  Medoy 
Chinbone 


Kentudohyah 

JKakanraykta 

Kovvo  jKowo  and 

[Melogutaha 
Dentrastokh  iDentrastokh 


Dead 
:  Dance 
;Dog 

jDog  (little) 
Don't  know 


Tohn'kloh 

Eevoh 

Klikh^k 

Klikhvoza 

Tustini 


'  Medoyah 
Teniyatl'nuh 


Tl'atleragh 

K'tokhlav 

Klikhk 

Klikhyu'rah 

Aso 


Ty-ohn 
Yoh 

Atzu 


Tenivahdiih 


Yukioza 
Tenahkotloh 


Klakatalu- 

[ohna 
Ko-oh'ni 


Tyoh'n 


Ohtziveh 


Atzu' 


T'ass 


M'taytluka 
Kulana 
Tenanakluh 
Tenatsle'nah 


Medoya 
Tenatl'nuh 


Tolkloh'n 
Kulik 
Klikhk 
Klikhvoza 


Sihvaduh 


Keelyoza 
Nukothtr 


[yoza 


Tutchohn 

Sinatle' 

Steeatlenah 


Kowo 


Medoya 
Sihvatl'nuh 


Tohnkloh 
Keeleek 
Klikhk 
Klikhvoza 


Vahkutl 
Kunikuh 


Athle'choht 
Suhdiyuh 

Chulkoya 
Meekit 


Totsuh 
Tunt('ikhr 


Sohteentuk 

Tohwohlutzoh 

Klankovah 


Wiltsusinee-    Tohsuhu'h      jShohnoh 
; [g^ I 


s68 


APPENDIX. 


English. 


Drink  (I 

[want  a) 
Duck 
Door 


Niildio 
In'galik. 


Drum{native) 
Dressing 

[hides  (rub;bing) 
Dressing 

[hides  (sera 
Day 
Down 

Deer  (rein-) 
Daughter 

[(elder) 
Darkness 
Dish 

[(wooden) 
Drink  (imp.) 
Don't  want 


Tukat 

Nintal 
Kotoneet'ho 
[na 


ping) 

K'lut_ 

Kalitahwa 

Anoyah 

S'tenah 

K'takhl' 
Klok 


Tukat 


Die  (will)         Kladazutloh 
Driving  dogs  Hotlugatikhl' 


Daughter 

(younger) 
Dogs  coming 

Eye 

Ear 

Eat 

Evening 

Egg 

Elbow 

Enough 

Eyebrows 

Eyelid 
Ermine 
Earth 
Eating  fish 
Eat  (imp.) 
Eat  meat 

Eyes  shut 
Enceinte 


Father  Tukalah 
Fox  (red)  Kohulkoi 
Fox  (white)        


Ulu'kuk 
Jn'galik. 


Nintala 
Dotkayt 

Shosh 
Nogatagus- 

[yesth 
K'tagastluk 

Klut 

Anoyah 
S'tenah 


Klok 


S'tlah 
Klukazutli 


Tenanoga        Tenanoga 

Tenatseragh    Tenatseragh 

Keehoh 

Kutsuntah 

Kakah'ziih 

Tenatzus 

T'saluh 


Tanana 
In'galik. 


Keehohn 


Forget 
Fat 
Fawn 
Forehead 
Foot 
Face 
I  Far  off 
Flesh  (meat)   Nulana 


Menoltinah 

Kokoh     . 

Kuhkoya 

Tenakadiih 

Tenakiih 

Tenanah 

Xeelfiht 


H'klatz 

Kutasikhtr 

Keehohn 


Tukkala 

Tass'kerr'tak 

Kulzismah- 

[yah 
Menoltinah 
Kokoh 
Anoyiiza 
Tenakadiih 
Tenakiih 
Tenanah 
Xeeloht 


H'lut 
Notowoh 
Mitzikh 
Tuhyenuh 

Tle'kohoza 
Kyikhklok 


Tohodusnee 
[ga 


Tenanoga 

Kohohn 
Hutzintiih 
E-yo-za 
Tenatzu's 
Etutsun 
Tenanotle'to 
[huga 
Tenanotaka 
Kowozi'n 


Keehohn 


Tuhkalah 
Koholkoi 


I  Menoltinah 
Kokoh 


Unakliatdtia. 


Tukat 


H'klut 
Mitzikh 


K'tahkhr 
Klok 


Tendn  Ktitchi. 


Tutsun 


Tehketsana 


Mutzikh 
Mitshee 


Tutlok 


Sunoga 

Sutzohoh 

Keehoh'n 

Vekhlerakht 

Kakazza 

Sitzu's 

Etutsun 

Sunotu'tla 

Sinutaga 

Khlatz 
Keeshohn 
Keehohn 
Nulanoish- 

[ohn 
Sinatlusutle 
Bohon'koh 


Tukalah 
Xahkiitla 


Menoltinah 

Kokt.h 

Kuhkoya 

Suhkadiih 

Suhkakuna 

Sunan' 

Xeek'leh 

Xulana  (hu- 

|man,  Sinhin) 


Sintaga 
Teetze 
Sihtzuhoh 


Tuh 


X'nuh 


Metah 


T'suhkoh 


VOCABULARIES    OF    THE    TINNEH    TRIBES. 


569 


English. 


Nulato 
In'  galik. 


Ulu'kuk 
In' galik. 


Tanand 
ht' galik. 


Tenan  Kutchii, 


Flv!  (they) 
Fly  (a) 
Flour 
Friend 
Fingers 

Firewood 

(willow) 
Firewood 

(poplar) 
Firewood 

(spruce) 
Fire 
Fish 

Fish  (I  want) 


Notokhl' 
T'hun 
Khlatz 
Konnah 
Tenanilot'lu'- 
[ka 


Tahku'na 
Mahmiih 

[(dry)  Telu 
Mahmukat 


Mikhlee-()hn 
Thiin 


Tenanilotlu- 
[ka 


Sitzin 


Ktlatla 


Fish,  salmon-lKhololu'suh 
[trout! 

Neliyuh 


small 
[salmon 
large 
[salmon 
whitefish, 
[large 
"  broad 


Khak 


N'tlagha 


Teliyuh 
'    "  sea      iTelmukkah 
'    "  round  Huh'ten 
'    "  hump- Kolokuh 

[backed, 
'     pike,       iKukivuh 
[(E.  estor)| 
'     sucker    iSunoyuh 
'     losh        JLugush 
'     mudfish  Undu'k 


Forehead 
Flint  (gun) 
Freeze 
Feathers 
Fishing 
Fish  gullets 
Finger  (one) 

Going  out  (I 
[am) 
Gun 
Give 
Go 
Grind 


Tenakaduh 
Matsd 

T'oii"""" 
Katsunilah 
K'lagh'h 
Tenatlot 


Klatrastokh 

Taltotla 

Ooskat 

Vehokhtl' 

Takadinikoh 

K'ton 


!  Green 

'Goose  (gray)  Tutsunah 
Goose  (white)  Hohkoh 

Good  Nazu'n 

Go  away  A  nee 

Good  to  eat  JTee-ukuts 

Grave  


Gloves 


iMeetagha 


Tahku'na 

jNIahmi'ih 

bukah 

Mahmukat 

Khokalim^^a 


Hkluguh 


Sunovuh 


Notokhtr 

Thun 

H'klatz 

Konnah 

Sinlotlagha 

Siizuh 

Tahgukhtr 

Stits 

Khun 
Mahmukat 


Fotkhakh        Kakh 


Telmukka 


I  Sunovuh 


Klatrostokh 

Tel  til 'tl  a 
Oo-oskat 
Notrastoi 

Kt'on 

Tutsiinah 

Hohkoh 

Nezu'n 

Notrastoy 

Kokohodeni- 

[khtl' 

Meloditikhta- 

jga 

Alakhtuki'ik 


Mahmuhyoza 
Tenakuh 
Matza 
Neekhnukh 


Taltotla 
Slowkhtoyt 


Sinlot 


Konihah 
Nothokhtr 


Tutsunah 

Nazun 
Xotrastokh 
Te-ukutz 
Aninukhta-        .... 

[khl'i 
Toziswintaga  iMinta: 


Tutsunah 

Hokoh 

Nazun 

Anee 

Te-ukiitz 


Mahmuh 


Hleeweh 


Matsa  [Klath 

Kohkutle'       |Asoht 


Tekuh 
Kutokhtukhr 


H'kah 


Nezun 
Xotrastokh 


Khunyeh 


:)/^ 


APPENDIX. 


English.  in'galik. 


JGrease  ,Hah 

Grow  I    ••■• 

Grouse  iTelkumma 

[(white)' 
iGrouse  Toltoya 

I  [(black) 

I  Hair  (long)  Tenatlu'ghiih 
! Hair  (short)  Kloghuh  (fur); 
Head  fFenatlikh 

Heart  Tcnatzaya 

I 

Hand  [    

Hand  (palm   :Tenanilotala 

[of)' 
[Hand  (back 


Ulu'kuk 
In'galik. 


1  [of) 

iHeel 

He 

Hot 


Husband 

Here 

His 


Tenanilotud- 
[sunah 
Tenakah 


H'hah 

Telkumma 

Toltoya 


Tenatlu'gha 
Tenattoku'na 
Tenavoygho 
Tenatsayuna 

Tenatlowot 


iTenanilotod- 
'  [sunah 


Tanana 
In'galik. 


H'hah 


Tenanilotah- 

[k 

Tenanilotod- 

[siina 


House 
Hear 
Hail 
Hungry 


I 

Ice 

I  Indian  (an) 

jldle 

Island 

Inside 

Iron 


fump 
Jerk 


Knife  (small 
,  [sheath) 

(Knife  (clasp) 


Ten'ah 
Ku'si 
(Hill,  Set'l) 


jTena 
Ku'see 


Ku-un 


Kun'noh 

Hot'likhhoni- 
[high 
Tatliokhtle' 

Kutlukat 


Sih 

T'un 

Tenahyu' 

Ko-ikhneega 

D'ash 


Keelikh 
Seel'tatsit 


Kutlukat 


!sih 

iT'han 


Kazaka* 


No'kanalkd- 

[ga 
lyumazu'la 


Nikhni'nal- 

[kuka 
Knife(sheath)  Klakadona      |T'kad(')hnn. 

Know  (I)         Mikhesunikh     

jKettle  iNaloi  ,   

:'Killing(actof)  Yeelkat 

Tenaku't 


■  Knee 
Knuckles 

Lips 
I-eg 


Yeelkat 
Tenanlukut 


Tcnatohman 
Tenat'na 


Nohulu'kiina 
Hiitlatlohn 


Tsohutklaka- 
[tikahohn 


Sih 
T'un 


Nu 
Yuh 


(Intestines, 
[Kutsayut) 


Klakadohna 
Mikhlusunikh 


Tsilikuh 
Tenatlu'ka 


H'hah 

Neeyakh 

Telmukka 

Toltoya 


K'luh 

Suhkoyuh 
Sitziieetle'- 

[nuh 
Sihtlowot 


Sihnlotodsu- 
[nah 
Sakatiitle 
No'nish 
(Heated, 
[Nilukoh) 


Weeyuh 


Kutlukat 


Sih 
T'un 


D'ash 


Tejidn  Kiitchin. 


Teehiih 
Sit-the 


Sinloh 


Yohunneh 

Nilkoh 


Nuhhotiyeh- 

'  [yuh 

(Hill,  N'tus- 
[thl') 

Chu-ih-uch- 

[kloh 

(Heavy, 

N'tokhl') 


Utun 
T'hun 


T'lakad<>hnr 

Yukahsih 
Tutletikh 
Suki'it 


Sitowanuh 
Tenatle'nuh    iSitle'nah 


Klahsih' 


VOCABULARIES    OF    THE    TINNEH    TRIBES. 


571 


E7iglish 

Niilato         \        Utu'kuk 
hi'galik.        I        In'galik. 

1         Tanafid 
In'galik. 

Unakhaidna. 

Tendn  Kutchin. 

Large 
,Love  (I) 

Lie  down 

N'koh 

,N'tsu 

Nutsoghuh 
M'katestah, 
[Mkat 

Hohnsiht' 
Nt'lokhah 

N'koh 
M'katestah 

Tastuh 

Hohnsit' 

N'tlaghah 

[Etakantah 
Kaykuntle- 

[tikh 

N'choh 

Lie  (you) 
Light  (not 

Hohnsit'          jHohnsit' 

[heavy) 
Like  (similar) 

Totonikhtle'    Kantah 

Lame 

'Lake 

Meenukut 
Sumah 

Lo-6hn 
Hillan 
Tenaloht 
Kli-ih' 

Ko-un' 

Katokhmun 

Seeyuh 

Tukhtu'n 

Tenikoh 

Kontokii'zza 

Klih 

K'uh 

Koneedenikh 

Kuhdchuh 

Takhmahi 

K'lotle' 

Tenahvu' 

Tenahio 

Sohkee 

Tenayu'za 

Tenayfiskissa 

Tenayukala 

N'kokhtenah 

Khassak* 

Nakala 

Mintaga 

Tutsitseega 

Yilkonikho- 
[tana 

Tenatzuhkit 

M'kiilla 

Tenatzih 

Sinket'chuk 
N'tyakho 

Tenakukhtle' 

Vun 

Leaf 

Many 
Much 

Lo'oh'n 

L'ohn 

Hutsoh 

Tenaloht 

L6-ohn 

Mouth 
More  (want- 

Tenaloht 



Sihloht 
Klihih' 

Sihl6kh 

1                  [ed) 
More  (on 

[hand) 
Morning 

Hoton'tah 
Sih'yuh 

Siyuh 

Sahi 
Kl'tazoh 
Tenejiih 
(Month, 
[Tikheesoh) 

Moose 

Tenekuh 

Tenekuh 

Teneekuh 
Kontokiizza 

Mosquitoes 

Milk 

Klih 

Make 

Takhmaya 

Tugutle'sikh 
Takhmya 

Ohtsiih 

Mix 

Mink 

Moss 

IMan 

Men 

Man  (old) 

Chihtsu'l 



Tenahyu' 

Tenalo 

Tenatle'tuh 

Tenayu'za 

Tenayfiskissa 

Tenayukala 

N'kokhtena 

Khassak* 

Nakala 

Meetagha 

M'neeloho- 

[ditolani 
Tutsitseega 
T'slatlugha 

Tenayu' 
Tenalo 



Tenalo 

Sohkee 

Tenayu'za 

Tenayuskissa 

Tenayukala 

N'kokhtenah 

Tinji' 
Tinji' 

Man  (stingy) 
Man  (poor) 
[Man  (one) 



iMan  (white) 
Mother 

Mittens 
Mirror 

Moose  fawn 

Nukc-ila 

NakAla 
Mintaga 

Mah 
Chutz 
(Mountain, 
[Nt'usthl') 





M'kViliay'" 

Tutsitseega 
(Mouse, 

[Teelsi'ih) 
Yukonikha- 
[tana 

Sitzukit 

M'kiilla 

Man  (dead) 

[Yukon 
Navel 

Tenatzukit 
M'kiilla 
Tenanitzih 
Klatona 

Not,  None 
Nose 

Sintzi 

Nose  (big) 
No 

Neck 

Sinket'chuk 
N'tah,  N't3'a- 
[khoh 
Sukiikhir 

Kakala 
Tenakiikhtr 

N't^ahoh 

Nutaga 
Sukkhoh 

572 


APPENDIX. 


English. 


Niilato 
In'galik. 


Nails  (finger)  Tenaniloku 

[na 

New  Etlerokhtikh 

Near  Likhkiita 

Needles  iKlotkan 

Night  Kleetakhle' 

Narrow  'Nt'chah'kuh 


Old 

Only 

Open 

Otter 

Other 

Oil 

Parki 
People 
Pipe  (tobac- 

[co) 
Pain  or  sick- 
[ness 
Powder 
Powder-flask 
Plenty 
Pull 
Paddle 
Ptarmigan 
Perhaps 

Quickly 


Rain 

River 

Rivulet 

River  (the) 

Rock 

Rabbit 

Raven 

Run  (imp.) 

Red 

Rope  or  line 

ISnow 


Klokhkee 

Etutsun 

Unketetzikh 

Melazohna 

K'tenni 

Hah 

T'ark 

Tenaloht 

Ku'nyuk 

Amah 

KokiTi'na 
Kohduh 
T'sahluh 

Toloi 

Telkumma 

'Rulhay 

N'tu'ghuh 


At'khun 

Kakhat 

Ketakakhat 

Yukonna 

Lu-oh'na 

Nuohneeyah 

N'teekah 

N'tu'wuh 

Tatluhkiits 

Noghalnuh 


Socks 
Scissors 


Snowshoes 
Sled 


Ulu'kuk 
In'galik. 


Tenaniloku'- 
[na 
Etlerokhtikh 
Neelku'tsa 
Toghvvtolee 


Tuhkeeyuh 


K'tenni 


T'ark 

Tenaloht 

Kii'nyuk 

Amah 

Kokuna 

Kohduh 

N'tsogha 

Ihl'ku't 

Toghuloya 

Telkumma 

Ilhay 

N'tu'wuh 


Mee-ukut 

Hunhuz 

Yukonna 

Lu-oh'na 

Nu-ohmyah 

Klahwhu'n 

Tadlokot 

Tat'lukuts 


Sable  (Ameri 
[can) 

Smoke  (fire-)  Hkhlit 
Smoking  (to-;Kteeh6hn 

[bacco)| 
Sealskin  |Kii'buk 

1 


Nokhalun'- 

[klok 
Alokhtighoh 
Nikhnomen- 

[olti 

Osh  Osh 

Tatatanfkh-     Khotl' 

Kahkyoza        Kakayoza 


Kanoketoka 
jKlaterosikh 


K'ah 


Eturughtigi 
Nihlku'tsah 
(Now,  Ato- 

[khoht 
Kl'tahah 
N'chahki'ih 

Tenakhl'tah 
Etutsun 


Tanatid 
In'galik. 


Unakkatdna.     Tenan  Kutchin. 


Melaz(Shn 
Kaythukeh 

T'ark 

Tanalo 

Tukak 

Amahlan 

Koku'na 


Tol6>; 

Telkumma 

'Rulhay 

N'tu'ghuh- 
[tukhtan 

Ookhl'kohn 

Takotenuh 
Yukonna 


K'oh 


Sinloku'na 

Etlerokhtikh 

Nihl'ku'tsa 

Klotkan 

Kleetakhl' 


Oktuhkee-"eh  Hutonuli 

:::..:::::  I  ::::::: 

Melazhona       Vusi-eh 


T'ark 

Tanalo 

Tokhak 


Kohku'na 

Kohduh 

T'kodah 

Toh'yoah 
Telmukka 
Iril'hay 


Kutchin 
Setidchi 


Avaneela 


Tohov 
Tahkoh 


N'tu'ghuh        N'tuguh 


Atkhun 

Kakhat 

Ketakakhat 

Yukonna 

Lu-6hna 

Belhfilana 

Tah-chohn 

N'tu'gah 

Tatl'kuts 

No'ghalnih' 


Tutl'chan 
Huneh 

Yukonna 

;Kah  ' 

Tut-chohn 
Konikoi 


Hotr 

Suhkuh 


Nokhalun'- 
[klok 


Ohsh 
Khotl' 


Suhkuh 

Hklit 
Takunlitah 

(Sable  trap, 
I  Hahkhl') 


Suchilch 


VOCABULARIES    OF    THE    TINNEH    TRIBES. 


573 


574 


APPENDIX. 


English. 


Take 

To-day 

This 

Tree 

Thunder 

Toes 

Thanks 

Thumb 

Thread 

Thimble 

Tired 

Torn 

Travel 


Vein  (or 

[blood-vessel) 

Village 

Very  hot 


mudto 

In' galik. 


Ulu'kuk 
In'galik. 


Tanana 
In'galik. 


iT'sawniih 
K'honih 


T'sawnuh 
Ka 


Nikhle'tu'nah    

Tenakahvu'-    Tenakahvu' 
[ghuh  [ghuh 


Unakhatdna. 


Muhkonoh 

Tsahuniih 

Khohni 

Tsowah 

Xikhltu'nah 

Skalo-uhl'ah 


Tendn  Kutchin., 


Marsee 


Tenakutr 
Kowok 


Lukohna 

Tsatlu'kee 

Atlebiih 


Suwatzuh-       Marsee 
[tusintoh 
ISuhkutle' 


Mersee 

Tenakutle' 

Kowok 

Menatluh 

Kowinestsone    

Kodatee-oh    '    (Tell  him 

(Yiikotsoh  onih) 
Hokhanid6se,( Little  toe,      !(Trave],  Nota- 
[Suhkulsimya)      [stokhl') 


T'sah 
Tsu'hwih 


Mahsi'h 


Water 
Water  (I 

[want) 
Water  (bring) 
Water  (he 

[drinks) 
Water  (I 

[drink) 
Water  (you 

[drink) 
Woman 
Woman  (old) 
Wife 

Wife  (my) 
Wife  (your) 
Wife  (his) 
Wait 
Walk 

Wood 
Willow 
Wing  (a) 
White 
Warm 
Wolverme 
What  ? 
Why  ? 
Want 

Wolf 

Won't  wait 

Weather 


Tu 
Tukat 

Tun'tah 
Tuku'nah 

Tiikadeh 

Tukatneh 

Solt'ana 

Sukala 

Oht 

S'oht 

N'oht 

M'oht 

Klat 

Hotreehoh- 

[tle' 
Tseekah 
K'as 
M'kohna 
Th'en 

Atzum'kulla 
Nitzikhtr 
Toh? 

Hokhenee  .•■ 
Kat  (a  suffix) 

Nikohna 


Lukohna 


H'hat  Xahuluku- 

[nohn 
Xuhunul-         At'klebah 
[kokhtl' 


Til 


Til 


Sol'tana 

Nuhusteh 

Oht 

S'oht 

N'oht 

M'oht 


Tu 
Tukat 


'Chu 


Soltana 


,Oitonv6ht 


Sohkala 

Oht 

S'oht 

N'oht 

B'oht 

Klat 


Trinjoh 


K'as 


T'hen 

Azu'm'kulla 
Nikhtsikhtle' 
T'mah  ? 


Nikohna 


Tseekuh  Tatl'khu'n      JT'sutz 

Tsutr  

M'koh'na  

L'kokhtr         I    

Honalkoh  , 

Niltsikh  Nikhtsikh       iNitsoh 

JToh .'  Kenee.^     

Keenogun  ?     Tohnloh  ?  

Vuhokudast-  Kat'  

[lohn 
Kuhkowu  -      Yus  Teekhi 

[null 

Noku'nuh        (What  do  you     

[want  ?   N't  atsohokat) 
Kutiteeya  


VOCABULARIES    OF    THE    TINNEH    TRIBES. 


575 


English. 


Kulato 
l)i' galik. 


We,  Ours 

Watching 

Walrus  skin 

Wives  (hav- 
i  [ing  2) 

;  Walking 

Winter 

Wind 

Wood  (green) 

IWild 

;  Where?  Hoti  ? 

fWho? 

What  say  ? 

What  for? 

Weasel 


Hweetaghuh 


Uiu'kuk 
In'galik. 


Neekun 
Ehnrutih 
Tseekokh 
Nilnekhotayu 


Tohtenni  ? 


You,  Your 

Yes 

Yesterday 

Yesterday 

[(Day  before) 

Young 

Year 

Year  (last) 

JYear  (next) 

I  Yawn 


Tohghultal 


Hoh  Hoh 

Kuhtohna        '    . .  . . 
Kutonakuh 


Kliightogo- 

[lugh 
He-ahghuh 

Oghuh 

Oghutlah 


'J'ana7td 
In'galik. 


Nakhalu't 


N'neh 


Unakhatana.     Tendn  Kutchin. 


T'seeyuh 


Nohun 


Hotreehotl' 

Hoydoh 
iHodeetsik'h 
T'sumah 

Nilkut 

Hoti 

Tumah 
jKunih' 

Kenoghun 


Kvinti 
Hwoi 


N'neh 


lAh  |Hoh  Ahhah 

iKohtohna        Kuhtona  Kotenneh 

Kodonhonot-      

[klah 

Katas'taguli-   Atakhlehih     |    

lleh  I 

Ohiitlan  Nee-ohodahl-  Hihtah 

[klut 

Oghniihnot-        

[klai 

KeehonotitaJ-     

[klut 
Ist'losh  


APPENDIX    G. 

NATURAL     HISTORY. 
LIST   OF   THE   MAMMALIA   OF   ALASKA. 


INSECTIVORA. 

Soricidee. 


Sorex  Forsteri,  Rich. 
Sorex  Cooperi,  Bach. 
Sorex  pachypus,  Baird,  n.  s. 
Sorex  Rossii,  Baird,  n.  s. 


Large  Shrew. 
Tiny  Shrew. 
White-sided  Shrew. 
Gray  Shrew. 


CARNIVORA. 

Felidae. 


Lynx  canadensis,  Raf. 


Canada  Lynx. 


Canidae. 


Canis  famiiiaris,  var.  borealis. 
Canis  occidentalis,  Baird. 

VulpeS    fulvUS,     I'.AIRD. 

Vulpes  fiilvus  var  decussatus. 
Vulpes  fulvus  var.  argentatus. 
Vulpes  lagopus,  Baird. 


Eskimo  Dog. 

Wolf. 

Red  Fo.x. 

Cross  Fox. 

Silver  or  Black  Fox. 

Stone  Fox. 


Mustelidae. 

Mustela  Penuantii,   Erxi,  Fisher. 

Mustela  americana,  Turton.  Marten. 

Putorius  vison,  Baird.  Mink. 

Putorius  pusillus,  A  &  B.  Least  Weasel. 

Putorius  noveboracensis,  DeKay.  DeKay's  Weasel. 

Putorius  Richardsonii,  Bonap  Ermine. 

Gulo  luscus,  Saiunk.  Wolverine. 

Lutra  canadensis    Saiune  Otter. 

Enhydra  marina,  Fleming  Sea-Otter 


Ursidae. 


Procyon  lotor,  Storr 

Ursus  horribilis?  Ord. 

Ursits  Richardsonii,  Mayne  Reid. 

Ursus  americanus,  Pai.i.as. 

Ursus  maritimus,  Linn. 


Raccoon. 

Brown  Bear,  Grizzly. 
Barren  Ground  Bear. 
Black  Bear. 
Polar  Bear. 


MAMMALIA    OF    ALASKA. 


577 


PINNIPEDIA. 

Phocidae. 


Phoca  Richardi,  Gray. 
Phoca?  Pealii,  Gill. 
"Phoca"  nauticus,  Pall. 
Pagomys?  larga,  Pall. 
Erignathus?  equestris,  Pall. 
Erignathus  barbatus,  O.  Fabr. 


Otariidae. 


Callorhiiius  ursinus,  Gra\. 
Eumetopias  Stelleri,  Gill. 


Hair-Seal. 

Smaller  Hair-Seal. 

Luvtak.     Lachtak. 

Nerpa. 

Banded  Seal  of  Cape  Romanzoff. 

Bearded  Seal. 


Fur-Seal. 
Sea-Lion. 


Rosmaridse. 


Rosmarus  obesus,  Illiger. 


RODENTIj 

Sciuridee. 


Sciurus  hudsoniiis,  Pallas. 
Spermophihis  Parryi,  Rich. 
Arctomy.s  pruinosus,  Gmelin. 
Castor  canadensis,  Kuhl. 


MuridsB. 


Hesperomys  leucopus,  \Yag.\. 
Arvicola  xanthognathus,  Leach. 
Arvicola  Gapperi,  Vigors. 
Arvicola  rubricatus,  Rich. 
Myodes  hudsonius,  Forster. 
Myodes  gronlandicus,  Rich. 
Myodes  trimucronatus,  Rich. 
Myodes  helvolus,  Rich. 


Red  Squirrel. 
Ivrashka.     Marmot. 
Siffleur.     Hoary  Marmot. 
Beaver. 


White-footed  Mouse. 
Yellow-nosed  Mouse. 
Redbacked  Mouse. 
Western  Field  Mouse. 
Hudson's  Lemming. 
Greenland  Lemming. 
Back's  Lemming. 
Tawnv  Lemming. 


HystricidcB. 

Erethizon  dorsatus,  F.  Guv.  Porcupine. 

Leporidae. 

Lepiis  glacialis,  Leach.  Polar  Hare. 

Lepus  campestris,  Bach.  Polar  Rabbit. 


PROBOSCIDE A. 

Elephantidce. 

Elephas  primigenius,  Blum.  Fossil  Elephant. 

3/ 


578 


APPENDIX. 


UNGULATA. 

Cervidce. 


Alee  americanus,  Jardine. 
Rangifer  groenlandicus,  Linn. 
Cervus  columbianus,  Rich. 


Cavicornia. 


Aplocerus  montanus,  Rich. 
Ovis  montana,  Cuvier. 
Ovibos  moschatus,  Blainville. 
Bos  americanus? 
Bos  priscus?  Forbes. 
Bos  crassicornis,  Forbes. 


Equidae. 


Moose. 
Reindeer. 
Black-tailed  Deer. 


Mountain  Goat. 
Mountain  Sheep. 
Musk  Ox.     Fossil  onlyi 
Fossil  Buffalo. 
Fossil  Bison. 
Fossil  Ox. 


Bquus  fossilis,  Forbes. 


Fossil  Horse. 


CETACEA, 


Balaenidce. 


Balaena  mysticetus,  Linn. 
Balaeua  Sieboldii,  Gray. 
Balaena  cullamach,  Cham. 
Rhachianectes  glaucus,  Cope. 
Megaptera  versabilis,  Cope. 
Balaenoptera  velifera,  Cope. 
Sibbaldius  sulfureus,  Cope. 


Bowhead. 

Japan  Whale. 

Pacific  Right  Whale. 

California  Gray  Whale. 

Humpback. 

Finner. 

Sulphur  Bottom. 


Physeteridae. 


Physeter  macrocephalus,  Li.n.n. 

Delphinidae. 

Globiocephalus  Scammonii,  Cope. 
Orca  ater,  (Oi'ii. 
Orca  rectipinna,  Cope. 
Delphinus  styx,  Gray. 
Delphinus  obliquidens,  Gill. 
Delpliinapterus  borealis.  Pea  i.e. 
Phoccena  vomerina,  Gill. 
Beluga,  sp. 


Sperm  Whale. 


Blackfish. 
Short-finned  Killer 
Killer. 
Porpoise. 

Bottle-nose  Grampus. 
Right  Whale  Porpoise. 
Bay  Porpoise. 
White  Fish.     See-su-ul 


(Inn.). 


SIRENIA. 

Manatidae. 

Rytina  Stelleri,  Brandt.  Sea-Cow.     (Extinct.) 


FISHES   OF   ALASKA. 


579 


LIST   OF  THE   FLSHES   OF  ALASKA. 

(The  fishes  collected  by  the  Scientific  Corps  are  yet  undetermined  ;  the  list  there- 
fore only  includes  the  most  common  species,  and  the  names  applied  to  them  by  the 
natives  and  Russians.) 

Marine  Fishes. 


Scientific  Name. 

Gadus  macrocephalus,  Til. 
Gadus,  sp. 
Gadus  gracilis,  Til. 
Hippoglossus  vulgaris?  Cuv. 
Pleuronectes  quadrituberculatus, 

P.A.LL. 

Platichthys  stellatus,  Gir. 
Clupea  mirabilis,  GiR. 
Clupea  sagax,  Jen. 
Thaleicthys  pacificus,  Gir. 
Hexagramma  Stelleri,  Til. 
Hemilepidotus  trachurus,  Pall. 
Hypomesus  olidus,  Gunth. 
Mallotus  villosus,  Mull. 
Hippocampus  ingens?  Gir. 
Orthagoriscus  aiialis,  Ayres. 
Eumicrotremus  orbis,  Gunth. 


English. 
Cod. 

Small  Cod. 
Tomcod, 
Halibut. 

Flounder, 

Spiny  Flounder, 

Herring. 

Pilchard. 

Ulikon, 

Sculpin, 

Sculpin. 

Smelt. 

Capelin. 

Sea-Horse. 

Sunfish. 

Globe-fish. 

Mullet. 

Rock  Perch. 


Kambal. 
Kambal. 


Golovarti. 


Ulikon. 


Fresh-"water  Fishes  of  the  Yukon. 


Saliuo  alpinus?  Linn. 
Salmo  purpuratus.  Pall. 
Onchorhynchus  orientalis,  Pall. 
Onchorhynchus  proteus,  Pall. 
Onchorhynchus  lycabdon,  Pall. 
Onchorhynchus  sanguinolentus, 

Pall. 
Onchorhynchus  lagocephalus, 

Pall. 
Coregonus  muksun,  Pall. 
Coregonus  nasus?  Pall. 
Coregonus,  sp. 
Coregonus,  sp. 
Coregonus,  sp. 

Luciotrutta  leucicthys,  Pall. 
Thymalis  Pallasii,  Cuv. 
Esox  estor,  Lf.s. 
Lota  maculata?  Lin. 
Catostomus  teres,  Mitch. 
Cottus?  sp. 
Entosphenus,  sp. 


Salmon  Trout, 
Purple  Salmon. 
King  Salmon, 
Salmon, 
Dogfish, 

Redfish, 


Kolsheh, 


Kholotusuh. 


Chowichee,     K'hak. 
Hoikoh, 

Nulaguh 

Krasnoi  riba,  Neliyiih. 


Salmon, 

Keezich, 

Nut'ghlaghuh. 

Broad  Whitefish, 

Maksu'n, 

Teliyi'ih 

Round  Whitefish, 

Krug, 

Huh'ten 

Sea  Whitefish, 

Morskoi  sigha,  Telmukkah. 

Nulato  Whitefish, 

.  Cighci, 

•Seeghuh 

Humpbacked    " 

Korabati, 

Kolokuh. 

Great  Whitefish, 

Naylima, 

Nt'lagha. 

Grayling, 

Koraski, 

Telmyah. 

Pike, 

Su'khuh, 

Khukiyuh. 

Losh, 

Nalime, 

Lugush. 

Sucker, 

Kraskee, 

Sunoyi'ih. 

Blackfish, 

Tchornyriba,  Undu'k. 

Lamprey. 

;8o 


APPENDIX. 


Kennicott's  Owl. 


BIRDS    OF    ALASKA. 


The  following  list  of  the  birds  obtained  in  Alaska  by  the  Scientific 
Corps  will  be  of  interest  to  many.  Those  who  desire  to  pursue  the 
subject  further  are  referred  to  the  publications  of  the  Chicago  Academy 
of  Sciences  for  1869. 

Italics  indicate  that  the  bird  is  new  to  science  or  to  North  America. 

K.  denotes  the  locality,  as  Kadiak  }_  ^.^^^  ^.^^^.^^_ 


S.         "         "         "         "  Sitka       ) 

Y.         "         "         "         "  the  Yukon  Territory. 

t          "       that  the  species  is  common  to  both. 

0.         "         "      "    eggs  were  also  obtained. 

Duck  H.wvk.                                        Falco  anatum.     t  0. 

Pigeon  Hawk.                                    Hypotriorchis  columbarius. 

to. 

Gerfalcon.                                         Falco  sacer.     Y. 

Goshawk.                                              Astur  atricapillus.     Y.  0. 

Sharp-shinned  Hawk.                     Accipiter  fuscus.     t- 

Brown  Hawk.                                     Ikiteo  insignatus.     Y. 

BIRDS  OF  ALASKA. 


581 


Swainson's  Hawk. 
Rough-legged  Hawk. 
Marsh  Hawk. 
Golden  Eagle. 
Bald  Eagle. 
Fish  Hawk. 
Great  Horned  Owl. 
Ketmicott's  Owl. 
Short-eared  Owl. 
Great  Gray  Owl. 
Sparrow  Owl, 
Snowy  Owl. 
Hawk  Owl. 
Hairy  Woodpecker. 
Downy  Woodpecker. 
Three-toed  Woodpecker. 
Golden  Flicker. 
Red-shafted  Flicker. 
Humming-Bird. 
Kingfisher. 
Dwarf  Thrush. 
Oregon  Thrush. 
Olive-backed  Thrush. 
Gray-cheeked  Thrush. 
Robin. 

Western  Robin. 
Stone  chat. 

Ruby-crowned  Wren. 
Golden-crowned  Wren. 
Water  Ouzel. 
Tit  Lark. 
European  Wagtail. 
Golden-crowned  Thrush. 
Water  Thrush. 
Orange-crowned  Warbler. 
European  Warbler. 
Yellow-rump  Warbler. 
Black-cap  Warbler. 
Yellow  Warbler. 
Black-cap  Flycatcher. 
Barn  Swallow. 


Buteo  Swainsoni.     Y.  O. 

Archibuteo  lagopus.     t  O. 

Circus  hudsonius.     Y. 

Aquila  canadensis.     Y. 

Haliaetus  leucocephalus.     S.  K. 

Pandion  carolinensis.     t  O. 

Bubo  virginianus.     Y.  O. 

Scops  Ke?inicottii,  Elliot,  n.  s.     S. 

Brachyotus  Cassini.     Y. 

Syrnium  cinereum.     Y. 

Nyctale  Tengmalmi.     Y. 

Nyctea  nivea.     Y. 

Surnia  ulula.     t  O. 

Picus  villosus.     S. 

Picus  pubescens.     f 

Picoides  hirsutus.     Y. 

Colaptes  auratus.     Y. 

Colaptes  mexicanus.     S. 

Selasphorus  rufus.     S.  O. 

Ceryle  alcyon.     f 

Turdus  nanus.     S.  K. 

Turdus  ustulatus.     S. 

Turdus  Swainsoni.     Y.  O. 

Turdus  alicite.     t  O. 

T.  migratorius.     Y.  O. 

Turdus  naevius.     t  O. 

Saxicola  ozfiafitlie.     Y. 

Regulus  calendula.     Y. 

R.  satrapa.     S.  K. 

Hydrobata  mexicana.     Y. 

Anthus  ludovicianus.     t 

Budytes  flava.     Y. 

Seiurus  aurocapillus.     Y. 

S.  noveboracensis.     Y.  O. 

Helminthophaga  celata.     Y.  O. 

Phyllopneuste  Kennicottii,  Baird.  n.  s.     Y. 

Dendroica  coronata.     Y. 

Dendroica  striata.     Y. 

Dendroica  astiva.     t  O. 

Myiodioctes  pusillus.     t  O. 

Hirundo  horreorum.     t  O. 


;82 


APPENDIX. 


Eave  Swallow. 
River  Swallow. 
Bank  Swallow. 
Waxwing. 
Great  Shrike. 
St.  Georges  Wren. 
Winter  Wren. 
Black-cap  Titmouse. 
Red  Titmouse. 
Hudson  Bay  Titmouse. 
Skylark. 


Hirundo  lunifrons.     Y.  O. 
Hirundo  bicolor.     Y. 
Cotyle  riparia.     Y.  O. 
Ampelis  garrulus.     Y.  O. 
Collyrio  borealis.     Y. 
Troglodytes  alascensis  Baird,  n.  s. 


St. 


T.  hyemalis.     S. 
Parus  atricapillus.     t 
Parus  rufescens.     S. 
P.  hudsonicus.     Y. 
Eremophila  cornuta. 


[George's. 


Pyrrhula  var.  Cassini. 


Americati  Btdlfijich. 
Pine  Grosbeak. 
Red  Crossbill. 
White-winged  Crossbill. 
Redpoll. 

Gray-necked  Finch. 

Island  F'uich. 
Snow  Bunting. 
Lapland  Longspur. 
Painted  Bunting. 
Savannah  Sparrow. 
NooTKA  Sparrow. 
Spotted  Sparrow. 
Lark   Sparrow. 
Gambel's  Finch. 


Pyrrhula  coccinea  var.  Cassini  Baird. 
Pinicola  enucleator.     f  [Y. 

Curvirostra  americana.  S. 
Curvirostra  leucoptera.  Y. 
yEgiothus  linaria.      Y.  O.    K.,  and 

var.  fuscescens. 
Leucosticte  griseinucJia.      t    O.      St. 

George's.     Bon.  not  auct. 
Leucosticte  littoralis  Baird,  n.  s.      S. 
Plectrophanes  nivalis.     Y.  O. 
P.  lapponicus.     Y. 
P.  pictus.     Y. 
Passerculus  savanna,     f  O- 
P.  sandwichensis.     S. 
Passerculus  anthinus.     t  O. 
Pass,  alaudinus.     t 
Zonotrichia  Gambelli.     Y.  O. 


BIRDS    OF    ALASKA. 


)«3 


Golden-crowned  Finch. 

Oregon  Snowbird. 

Black  Snowbird. 

Tree  Sparrow. 

Lincoln's  Finch. 

Rusty  Song  Sparrow. 

Kadiak  Finch. 

Fox-colored  Sparrow. 

Oregon  Finch. 

Rusty  Blackbird. 

Raven. 

AVestern  Fish  Crow. 

Clarke's  Crow. 

Magpie. 

Steller's  Blue  Jay. 

Canada  Jay. 

Canada  Grouse. 

Dusky  Grouse. 

Pheasant. 

Ruffed  Grouse. 

Oregon  Grouse. 

White  Grouse,  Corapatka. 

Rock  Grouse. 

Sand-hill  Crane. 

Little  Crane. 

Great  Blue  Heron. 

Golden  Plover. 

Semi-palmated  Plover. 

Black-bellied  Plover. 

Surf  Bird. 

Oyster  Catcher. 

Turnstone. 

Black  Turnstone. 

Northern  Phalarope. 

Red  Phalarope. 

English  Snipe. 

Red-breasted  Snipe. 

Longbeak. 

Knot. 

Purple  Sandpiper. 

Red-backed  Sandpiper. 


Zonotrichia  coronata.     S.  K. 
Junco  oregonus.     S. 
Junco  hyemalis.     Y.  O. 
Spizella  monticola.     f  O. 
Melospiza  Lincolnii.     Y. 
Melospiza  rufina.     S. 
Melospiza  insignis  Baird,  n.  s.     K. 
Passerella  iliaca.     Y.  O. 
Passerella  Townsendi.     S.  K. 
Scolecophagus  ferrugineus.     f  O. 
Corvus  carnivorus.     f  O. 
Corvus  caurinus.     S. 
Picicorvus  columbianus.     S. 
Pica  hudsonica.     S.  K. 
Cyanura  Stelleri.     S. 
Perisoreus  canadensis.     Y.  O. 
Tetrao  canadensis.     Y.  O. 
Tetrao  obscurus.     S. 
Pedioecetes  phasianellus.     Y.  O. 
Bonasa  umbellus.     Y.  O. 
Bonasa  Sabinii.     S. 
Lagopus  albus.     Y.  O. 
Lagopus  rupestris.     Y.  O. 
Grus  canadensis.     Y.  O. 
Grus  var.  fraterculus.     Y. 
Ardea  herodias.     S. 
Charadrius  virgin icus.     f  O. 
.4igialitis  semipalmatus.     t  O. 
Squatarola  helvetica.     t« 
Aphriza  virgata.     S. 
Hcematopus  niger.     S.  K. 
Strepsilas  interpres.     Y. 
Str.  melanocephala.     f  O. 
Lobipes  hyperboreus.     Y.  O. 
Phalaropus  fulicarius.     Y. 
Gallinago  Wilsonii.     t 
Macroramphus  griseus.     Y. 
Macr.  scolopaceus.     Y.  O. 
Tringa  canuta.     t 
Tringa  maritima.     f 
Pelidna  var.  americana.     f  O. 


584 


APPENDIX. 


Jack  Snipe. 

Baird's  Snipe. 

Least  Sandpiper. 

Sanderling. 

Little  Sandpiper. 

Tell-tale. 

Yellow  Legs. 

Solitary  Sandpiper. 

Tatler. 

Spotted  Sandpiper. 

Field  Plover. 

Buff-breasted  Snipe. 

Hudson  Godwit. 

European  Godwit. 

Esquimaux  Curlew. 

Curlew. 

Coot. 

American  Swan. 

Trumpeter  Swan. 

Snow  Goose. 

White-fronted  Goose. 

Canada  Goose. 

Western  Goose. 

White-cheeked  Goose. 

HuTCHiNs'  Goose. 

Black  Brant. 

Emperor  Goose. 

Mallard. 

Pintail. 

Green-winged  Teal. 

Blue-winged  Teal. 

Shoveller. 

Bald-pate. 

Great  Blackhead. 

Little  Blackhead. 

Canvas-back. 

Golden-eye. 

Barrow's  Golden-eye. 

Butter-Ball. 

Harlequin  Duck. 

Old  Squaw,  Safka. 


Actodromus  maculatus.     t 
Actodromus  Bairdii.     f 
Actodromus  minutilla.     f  O. 
Calidris  arenaria.     f 
Ereunetes  pusillus.     t  O. 
Gambetta  melanoleuca.     S. 
Gambetta  flavipes.     Y.  O. 
Rhyacophilus  solitarius.     Y. 
Heteroceles  brevipes.     t 
Tringoides  macularius.     f 
Actiturus  bartramius.     Y. 
Tryngites  rufescens.     f 
Limosa  hudsonica.     Y. 
Limosa  uropygialis.     Y.  O. 
Numenius  borealis.     Y. 
Numenius  hudsonicus.     t 
Fulica  americana.     Y. 
Cygnus  americanus.     Y.  O. 
Cygnus  buccinator.     Y.  O.     ?  S. 
Chen  hyperboreus.     Y. 
Anser  Gambelii.     Y.  O. 
Bernicla  canadensis,     t  O. 
Bernicla  var.  occidentalis.     S. 
Bernicla  leucopareia.     Y. 
Bernicla  Hutchinsii.     Y.  O. 
Bernicla  nigricans.     Y. 
Chloephaga  canagica.     Y.  O. 
Anas  boschas.     Y.  O. 
Dafila  acuta,     f  O. 
Nettion  carolinensis.     t  O. 
Querquedula  discors.     Y. 
Spatula  clypeata.     Y. 
Mareca  americana.     Y.  O. 
Fulix  marila.     t  O. 
Fulix  afifinis.     Y.  O. 
Athya  vallisneria.     Y.  O. 
Bucephala  americana.     Y.  O. 
Bucephala  islandica.     t  O. 
Bucephala  albeola.     Y.  O. 
Histrionicus  torquatus.     t 
Harelda  glacialis.     f  O. 


BIRDS   OF   ALASKA. 


585 


Steller's  Eider. 
Spectacled  Pjder. 


Polysticta  Stelleri.     K. 
Lampronetta  Fischeri.     Y.  O. 


Lampronetta  I  iichei 


Velvet  Duck. 

Surf  Duck. 

Long-billed  Scoter. 

Scoter. 

Pacific  Eider. 

King  Eider. 

Sheldrake. 

Red-breasted  Merganser. 

Brilliant  Corffiora/it. 

Double-crested  Cormorant. 

Violet-green  Cormorant. 

Gotiy. 

St.  George's  Fulmar. 

Fork-tailed  Petrel. 

Leach's  Petrel. 

Slender-billed  Petrel. 

Arctic  Skua. 

Sea  Hawk. 

Burgomaster. 

Pacific  Gull. 


Melanetta  velvetina.     t  O. 
Pelionetta  perspicillata.     t  O. 
Pelionetta  Trowbiidgii.     S. 
Oidemia  americana.     Y.  O. 
Somatena  V-nigra.     Y.  O. 
Somateria  spectabilis.     Y.  O. 
Mergus  americanus.     t 
Mergus  serrator.     t  O. 
Graculus  bicristatus  Pallas.     Y.  K 
Graculus  dilophus  ?     S. 
Graculus  violaceus  ?     S.  K. 
Diomedea  nigripcs.    S.    {Oceanic.) 
Fulmarus  Rogersi.     Y. 
Thalassidroma  furcata.     S. 
Thalassidroma  Leachii.     S. 
Nectris  tenuirostris  Temm.     Y. 
Stercorarius  parasiticus.     Y.  K. 
Stercorarius  Buffoni.     Y. 
Larus  glaucus.     Y. 
Larus  Haucescens.     S   K. 


APPExNDIX. 


Larus  leucopterus.     Y.  O. 

Larus  argentatus.     Y.  O. 

Larus  Hutchinsii.     Y. 

Larus  borealis.     Y. 

Larus  brachyrhynchus.     t  O. 

Chroicocephalus  Philadelphia,     f 

Rissa  tridactyla.     f 

Rissa   brevirostris   Brandt   not   auct. 

Xema  Sabinii.     Y.        [St.  George's. 

Sterna  macroura.     f  O. 

Sterna  aleutica  Baird,  n.  s.     K.     O. 

Hydrochelidon  fissipes.     Y.  O. 

Colymbus  torquatus.     Y.  O. 

Colymbus  arcticus.     Y.  O. 

Colymbus  Adamsii.     K. 

Colymbus  septentrionalis.     Y. 

Podiceps  griseigena.     Y.  O. 

Podiceps  cornutus.     Y.  O. 

Mormon  cirrhata.     f 

Mormon  corniculata.     f 

Sagmatorrhina  labradoria.     K. 

Cerorhina  monocerata.     S. 

Phaleris  cristatella.     K. 

Phaleris  microceros.     Y.  K. 

Phaleris  tetracula.     Bering  Strait. 

Phaleris  pusilla.     Aliaska. 

Si7norhyncluis   Cassini  Coues,   n.    s. 
Ounimak  Pass. 
Guillemot.  Uria  columba.     t  O. 

Foolish  Guillemot.  Uria  lomvia.     K. 

Californian  Murre.  Uria  californica.     S.  K.  O. 

Thick-billed  Murre.  Uria  arra.     K.    St.  George's  Island. 

Marbled  Guillemot.  Brachyrhamphus  marmoratus.     S. 

Wraxgell's  Guillemot.  Brachyrhamphus  Wrangellii.    S.    [S. 

Axctent  Auk.  Brachyrhamphus  antiquus.    Aliaska. 

The  above  refers  only  to  the  species  actually  collected.  Sundry 
others  were  observed,  but  not  obtained,  as  the  hooded  merganser  and 
the  European  lapwing ;  but  it  was  considered  best  to  catalogue  only 
those  actually  brought  home.  IVLany  of  which  the  eggs  were  not  ob- 
tained were  known  to  breed.  Future  collectors  may  be  expected  to  make 
additions,  both  to  the  number  of  known  birds  inhabiting  the  country, 
and  the  knowledge  of  their  geographical  distribution. 


AA'hite-wixged  Gull. 
Herring  Gull. 
White  Gull. 
Northern  Gull. 
Short-billed  Gull. 
Bonaparte's  Gull. 
Kittiwake. 
Red-footed  Kittiwake. 
Sabine's  Gull. 
Arctic  Tern. 
White-tailed  Tern. 
Short-tailed  Tern. 
Loon. 

Arctic  Diver. 
Adams'  Diver. 
Red-throated  Diver. 
Red-necked  Grebe. 
Horned  Grebe. 
Tufted  Puffin. 
White-breasted  Puffin. 
Labrador  Auk. 
hornbill. 
Crested  Auk. 
Little  Auk. 
Dusky  Auk. 
Least  Auk. 
Cassin's  Auk. 


5«7 


INSECTS    OF   ALASKA. 

INSECTS. 

List  of  Diurnal  Lepidoptera. 

Vcviessa  antiopa  Ochs.     Nulato,  IN'Iay. 
Erebia  discoidalis  Kirby.     Yukon  River,  May  and  June. 
Erebia  Mancinus  Doubl.     Nulato,  May. 
Grapta  f annus  Edw.      9      Yukon  River,  June. 
Melitcea  Helvia  Scudder,  n.  s.     Yukon  River,  June  15th. 
Melitcea  sp.  {?  M.  palla  Boisd.).     Fort  Yukon. 
Lycana  Lucia  Westw.     Yukon  River,  June. 

Fieris  venosa  Scudder.     Yukon  River,  June  and  July,  below  Nulato. 
Anthocaris  lanceolata  Boisd.     Yukon  River,  above  the  Ramparts. 
Colias  interior  Scudder.     Fort  Yukon,  June  25th. 
Papilio  Ttirnus  Linn.     Yukon  River,  June  and  July,  abundant. 
Papilio  Aliaska  Scudder,  n.  s.     Nulato  to  Hudson  Bay,  May  and  June. 
Farnassius  Evers9nanniiy[6nQ\..     Yukon  River,  June  15th.    (Siberian.) 
Species  were  noticed,  but  not  obtained,  which  may  have  been  other 
than  those  enumerated  above. 

List  of  Nocturnal  Lepidoptera. 

BOMBYCID^. 

Eupnpia  caja  Linn.     St.  Michael's,  August. 

Platarctia  borealis  Moschler. 

Fhragmatobia  Dallii  Packard,  n.  s.     June  isth. 

Gastropacha  alaskensis  Packard,  n.  s.     Yukon  River,  June  loth. 

PHALyEXID/E. 

Melanippe  hastata  Linn.     Yukon,  July. 

Coremia  sp.  indet.     Nulato. 

Hcematopis  sp.  indet. 

Anisopteryx  sp.  indet.     St.  Michael's,  September  20th. 

TINEID.E. 
Depressaria  and  three  other  unrecognizable  forms. 


List  of  Hymenoptera. 

APID^E. 

Bombiis  occidentalis  Greene.     Yukon  Valley. 
Bombiis  flavifrons  Cress.     Yukon  Valley. 


588  APPEiNDIX. 

Bovibus  frigiiius  Smith.  Nulato. 
Bombus  lacustris  Cress.  Kutlik. 
Bo7}ibus  Kirbyellus  Curtis  ?     Kutlik. 


Vespa  arenaria  Fabr.     Kutlik. 

Vespa  norvegica  Fabr.     Kutlik. 

Vespa  tt-ipundata  Packard,  n.  s.     Kutlik. 

Vespa  alaskensis  Packard,  n.  s.     Kutlik. 

POiMPILID^. 

Pompilus  luctiiostis  Cress.     Kutlik. 

FORMICID^. 

Formica  herailajiea  Linn.     Kutlik. 

UROCERID.E. 

Urocerus  flavicornis  Fabr.     Yukon. 


List  of  Neuroptera. 


Ptero?iarcys  biloba  Newman.     Nulato. 

Perla  sp.  (undetermined).     Yukon  River. 

Perla  sp.  "  u  a 

Perla  {Nephelion)  Da//ii,  Uhler,  n.  s,     Yukon  River. 

*Perla  severa  Hagen.     Unga  Island. 

AGRIOXIXA. 

Agrion  anncxiim  Hagen.     June  25,  near  Fort  Yukon. 
Lestes  sp.  $  (undetermmed).     Yukon  River. 


yF.schna  clepsydra  Say.     July,  near  Fort  Yukon. 

*yEschtia  sitkensis  Hagen.     Sitka. 

*yEschna  juncea  Linn.     Kenai,  Cook's  Inlet. 

*  Added  to  complete  the  list  of  known  Alaskan  species,  from  Hagen's  Synopsis  ot 
the  North-American  Neuroptera. 


USEFUL  PLANTS  OF  ALASKA.  589 


LIBELLULINA. 


CordiiUa,  like  C.  ana.     Yukon  River. 

Cordulia  Shurtleffi  Scudder.     June,  near  Fort  Yukon,  common. 

Cordulia  eremita  Scudder.     June,  near  Fort  Yukon. 

Diplax  ifitacia  Hagen.     June  25,  near  Fort  Yukon. 


PHRYGANINA. 


*Limiiophiliis  vastus  Hagen.     Kenai,  Cook's  Inlet. 
*Li»uwp/ii/us  perjurus  Hagen.     Kenai,  Cook's  Inlet. 
Limnophilus  ?  n.  s.     Nulato,  May  12th,  one  specimen. 
Cryptothrix  iitsularis  Hagen,  n.  s.     Nulato. 


LIST   OF    USEFUL   PLANTS    INDIGENOUS    IN   THE   TERRI- 
TORY   OF    ALASKA. 

RANUNCULACE^. 

Hepatica  triloba  Chaix.     Sitka. 

Coptis  trifolia  Sal.  " 

C.  asplenifolia  Sal.  " 

Aconitum  Napellus,  var.  delphi/iifolinm.     Sitka,  northward. 

CRUCIFER^. 

Nasturtium  palustre  D.  C.  Yukon  and  Unalashka. 
Cochlearia  fenestrata  R.  Br.  Norton  Sound,  north. 
C.  oblongifoUa  D.  C  "  "  " 

C.  anglica  L.     Kotzebue  Sound. 

LINAGES. 

Linum  perenne  L.     Fort  Yukon. 

LEGUMINOS.E. 

Trifolium  repens  L.     Sitka  (introduced). 
Lathyrus  maritimus  Big.     Sitka  and  northward. 
Hedysanun  Mackenzii  Rich.     Yukon. 

ROSACE/E. 


Ruhus  spectalnhs  Pursh.     Sitka,  Kadiak. 
R.  arcticHS  L,     Kotzebue  Sound. 

*  See  note  on  preceding  page. 


590  APPENDIX. 

R.  pedaiiis  Smith.     Sitka. 

R.  chamxmonis  L.     Sitka  and  northward. 

R.  7iutkamis  Mo^\     Sitka. 

Rosa  cmnamojfiea  L.     Yukon. 

Rosa  blanda  L.     Sitka. 

Pyriis  I'ivularis  Dough      Sitka. 

P.  samhucifoUa  Cham.  " 

GROSSULACE^. 

Ribes  rubi-icm  L.     Yukon. 

R.  hudsoniannm  Rich.     Yukon. 

R.  laxifloruvi  Pursh.     Sitka. 

R.  bradeosuni  Dough       " 

R.  lacicstre  Pursh.     Arctic  Coast. 


UMBELLIFER^. 

Archangelica  officinalis  Hoftm.     Sitka,  northward 
A.  Gmeliiii  D.  C.     Sitka,  northward. 


AKALIACEiE. 

Panax  horridnm.  Smith.     Sitka,  Radiak. 

CAPRIFOLIACEiE. 

Satnbucus pnbens  Michx.     Sitka. 

VALERIANACE^. 

Valeriana  dioica  L.     Norton  Sound. 
V.  capitaia  Willd.     Arctic  Coast. 

COMPOSIT.^. 

Arnica  aiigustifolia  Vahh     Yukon.     Kotzebue. 

A.  Chammissonis  Less.     Unaiashka. 

A.  obtiisifolia  Less.  " 

A.  imalashkensis  I^ess.  " 

A.  latifolia  Bong.     Sitka. 

Artanisia  vulgaris  L.  var.  Tilesii.     Norton  Sound 

Taraxacutn  dens-Iron  is  Desf.     Arctic  Coast. 


USEFUL  PLANTS  OF  ALASKA.  591 

ERICACE^. 

Vaccinium  Vitis-idcea  L.     Sitka.     Yukon. 

V.  myrtilloides  Hooker.       " 

V.  myrtillus  L.  " 

V.  Chatnissofiis  Bong.  "  Unalashka. 

V.  ovalifolium  Smith.  " 

V.  parvifoliufu  Smith.         " 

V.  Salicininn  Cham.     Unalashka. 

V.  ccEspitosum  Michx.     Sitka. 

V.  uligiuosutn  L.     Sitka,  northward. 
Oxy coccus  vulgaris  L.     Sitka,  northward, 
Arctostaphylos  alpina  Spreng.     Sitka,  northward. 
A.  uva  ursi  Spreng.     Unalashka,  northward. 

GENTIAXACEiE. 

Gentiana  aniarella  L.     Sitka. 

POLYGOXACE^, 

Oxyria  reniformis  Hooker.     Sitka,  northward. 

Rumex  salicifolius  Weinru.       " 

R.  acetosa  L.     Kotzebue  Sound. 

R.  domesticus  Hartm.     Sitka,  northward. 

Polygonum  viviparmn  L.     Sitka,  northward- 

EMPETRACE^. 

Empetrum  nigni?fi  L.     Sitka,  northward. 

SALICACE/E. 

Salix  speciosa  H.  &  A.     Yukon.     Kotzebue. 

S.  Richardsonii  Hook.     Kotzebue. 

S.  Bar  clay  i  Anders.     Kadiak. 

.S.  phyllicoides  Anders.     Western  Arctic  America. 

6".  sitkensis  Led.     Sitka. 

Populus  balsamifera  L.     Sitka,  northward. 


URTICACE^.. 


Urtica  dioica  L.      Sitka. 


592  APPENDIX. 

BETULACEvE. 

Betula  glandulosa  Michx.     Yukon. 
B.  nana  L.     Norton  Sound.     Arctic. 
B.  Ertfiatii  Cham.     Unalashka. 
Alnus  vindiis  D.  C.     Sitka,  northward. 
A.  rubra  Bong.  "  '' 

A.  incajia  Willd.     Kotzebue  Sound. 


MVRICACE^. 

Myrica  Gale  L.     Sitka,  northward. 

COXIFERiE, 

Abies  canadensis  Michx.     Sitka. 

A.  Mertensiana  Bong.  " 

A.  sitkensis  Bong.  " 

A.  alba  Michx.     Yukon  Territory, 

Larix  davurica  Fisch.     Kadiak.     Yukon  ? 

Finns  cotitorta  Dougl.     Sitka.     Fort  Selkirk,  southward. 

Chameecyparis  Jinikatensis  Spach.     Sitka  (=  Thuja  excelsa  Bong). 

yunipcrus  communis  var.  alpina  Willd.     Sitka.     Yukon  ? 

LILIACE.E. 

Fritillaria  kamc/iafkensis  Fisch.     Sitka,  northward, 
Alliuju  schcEUOprasum  L.     Yukon. 
Veratrutn  Escholtzii  Gray.     Sitka. 

GRASSES. 

G  R  A  M  I  N  E  ^  . 

Hordeum  pratense  L.     Sitka. 
H.  jubatum  L.     Yukon. 
Elymus  sibiricus  L.     Sitka. 
E.  arenarius  L.     Norton  Sound, 

E.  mo/iis  Trin.     Sitka,  northward. 
Triticuin  repens  L.     Kotzebue  Sound. 
Festuca  ovina  L,  " 

F.  rubra  L,     Sitka,  northward. 
F.  subulata  Bong.     Sitka. 
Bromus  ciliatus  L.     Kotzebue. 


USEFUL  PLANTS  OF  ALASKA.  593 


B.  siibtilatus  Led.     L^nalashka. 
B.  aleutcnsis  Trin.  " 

B.  sitkensis  Bong.     Sitka. 

Poa  sienantha  Trin.     Unalashka. 

P.  flavlcans  Led.  " 

P.  arctka  R.  Br.     Sitka  to  Kotzebue. 

P.  cents ia  All.  "  " 

P.  rotundata  Trin.     Unalashka. 

P.  Jiemoralis  L.     Sitka  to  Kotzebue. 

P.  annua  L.  "  " 

P.  pratensis  L.     Kotzebue. 

Colpodiiun  fidvum  Led.     Kotzebue. 

Diipontia  psilosautha  Rupr.     Kotzebue. 

Catabrosa  aquatica  Beauv.     Sitka.     Kotzebue. 

C  algida  Fries.     Kotzebue. 

Airopis  maritwia  Led.     Sitka. 

A.  angiistata  Led.     Kotzebue. 

Glyceria  aquatica  Smith.     Sitka. 

G.  glicmaris  Led.     Sitka.     Kotzebue. 

Hierochloa  borealis  R.  &  S.  " 

H.  alpina  R.  &  S.  " 

Trisetum  subspicaiuni  Trin.         " 

T.  sesquiflorum  Trin.     LTnalashka. 

T.  ccrnuinn  Trin.     Sitka. 

Aira  ccespitosa  Trin.     Unalashka. 

Aira  var.  Bottnica  Trin.     Sitka. 

A.  arctica  Trin.     Sitka.     Unalashka. 

A.  atropurpurea  Scheele.     Sitka.     Unalashka. 

Calamagrostis  aleutica  Trin.    "  " 

C.purpurascens  R.  Br.     Yukon. 

C.  strigosa  Wahl.     Sitka. 

C.  lapponica  Trin.     Unalashka. 

C.  neglecta  Gaert.     Kotzebue  Sound. 

C.  canadensis  Beauv.     "  " 

C.  Langsdo7-fii  Trin.      "  " 

Arctagrostis  latifolia  Led.     Kotzebue  Sound. 

Cinna  latifolia  Led.     Sitka. 

Agrostis  cequivolvis  Trin.     Sitka. 

A.  exarata  Trin.  " 

A.  geminata  Trin.     Unalashka. 

A.  laxiflora  R.  Br.  " 

3S 


594  APPENDIX. 

Phleum  pratense  L.     Sitka. 

P.  alpiniiDi  L.     Sitka.     Kotzebue. 

Alopeciinis  alpiiius  Sin.  " 


EQUISETACE/E. 

Eqiiisetum  arvense  L.     Sitka,  northward. 

FUNGI. 

Erineum  roseum  Schultz.     Norton  Sound. 

Several  fungi  which  in  warmer  latitudes  are  deleterious  are,  in  the 
northern  portions  of  Alaska,  eaten  with  impunity  (among  them  Agarkiis 
miitabilis,  according  to  Dr.  Kellogg). 

ALGiE. 

Alaria  esailenta  Grev.     Arctic  and  western  coasts. 
Other  species  of  algce  are  eaten  by  both  Indians  and  Innuit,  which  I 
have  no  means  of  identifying. 


Note.  —  The  greater  part  of  the  above  list  is  extracted  from  the  Report  of  Dr.  J. 
T.  Rothrock,  Botanist  of  the  Scientific  Corps  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Ex- 
pedition, Smithsonian  Report  for  1867,  pp.  432-463. 


APPENDIX    H. 

LIST  OF  WORKS  CONTAINING   INFORMATION  IN  REGARD   TO 
ALASKA  AND  THE  ADJACENT  TERRITORIES. 


Adelung. 

Geschichte  der  Schiffahrten  und  Versuche  welche  zur  Entdeckung 

des  N.  O.  Weges  nach  Japan  und  China  von  verschiedenen  Nationen 

unternomenen  wurden,  &c.     Von  Christoph  Johann  Adelung.     4to. 

Halle,  1768. 

Alaska  Herald,  The.     Edited  semi-monthly  by  Agapius  Honcharen- 

ko.     San  Francisco,  March,  1868,  &c. 
Aleutian    Islands,    and    their    Inhabitants.      St.   Petersburg,     1845. 

(In  Russian.) 
Arch^ologia    Americana,    by   the    American    Antiquarian    Society. 

Cambridge,  October,  1836. 
Archives  of  the  Russian  American  Company.     Published  by  the 

Directors.     St.  Petersburg,  1862. 
Atlantic  Monthly.     Boston,  June,  1867.     pp.  731  to  750. 
Baer  and  Helmersen. 

Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  des  Russischen  Reiches  und  der  angranzen- 
den  Lander  Asien's.     Auf  Kosten  der  Kaiserlichen  Akad.  der  Wissen- 
schaften,  herausgegeben  von  K.  E.  von  Baer  und  Gr.  von  Helmersen. 
St.  Petersburg,  1839. 
BarAnoff. 

Biography   of  Alexander   Andreavich    Baranoff.      St.    Petersburg, 
1835.     (I"  Russian.) 
Barrow. 

Chronological   History  of  Voyages   into   the  Arctic   Regions.     By 
John  Barrow,  F.  R.  S.,  Szc.     London,  18 18. 
Beechey. 

Narrative  of  the  Voyage  of  the  Blossom  to  the  Pacific  and  Behring 
Straits.     By  Captain  F.  W.  Beechey.     London,  183 1. 
Belcher. 

Narrative  of  the  Voyage   of  H.    M.   S.   Sulphur  during   the   years 
1836- 1842.     By  Captain  Sir  Edward  Belcher.     London,  1843. 


596  APPENDIX. 

Bellin. 

Remarques  sur  le  Carte  de    I'Amerique  Septentrionale.     Par  M. 
Bellin.     Paris,  1754. 
Benyowski. 

Memoirs  and  Travels  of  Maurice  Augustus,  Count  de  Benyowski. 
Written  by  himself.     London,  1790. 
Bergh. 

History  and  Chronology  of  the  Discovery  of  the  Aleutian  Islands 
and  of  the  Russian  Fur  Trade.  By  Vasili  Bergh.  St.  Petersburg, 
1823.     (In  Russian.) 

The  first  Voyages  undertaken  by  Russians  to  discover  the  Separation 
of  Asia  and  America.     By  Vasili  Bergh.     St.  Petersburg,  1858.     (In 
Russian.) 
Blaschke. 

Topographia     medica,     Portus     Novo    Archangelensis.      By    Dr. 
Blaschke,  Surgeon  to  the  Russian  American  Company.     St.  Peters- 
burg, 1842. 
Broughton. 

Voyage  of  Discovery  to  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  and  Round  the 
World.     By  William  R.   Broughton.     London,   1804.    Two  volumes, 
4to,  with  Atlas. 
Buchanan. 

Sketches  of  the  History,  Manners,  and  Customs  of  the  North- 
American  Indians.    By  James  Buchanan.     London,  1824.     8vo. 

BUESCHING. 

Nachricht  v.  d.  Russ.  Entd.  zwischen  Asien  und  Europa,  &c.,  aus 
dem  St.  Petersburger  Hist.  Geogr.  Kalender  fiir  das  Jahre  1781,  iiber- 
setzt  V.  Consistorialrath  Hase.  And  also,  Mag.  f  die  neue  Hist,  und 
Geogr.  Vol.  XVI.  Halle,  1782.  4to.  pp.  235-286.  Von  Dr. 
Anton  Friedrich  Biisching. 

BURNEV. 

A  Chronological  History  of  Northeastern  Voyages  of  Discovery, 
and  of  the  early  Eastern  Navigations  of  the  Russians.  By  Captain 
James  Burney,  F.  R.  S.     London,  1819. 

BUSCHMAXN. 

Die  Sprache  der  Koloschen,  in  Abhandlungen  der  Konigl.  Ak.  der 
Wissenschaften  zu  Berlin,     pp.  376-432.     Berlin,  1856. 
Campbell. 

Voyage  Round  the  World,  &c.,  from  1S08-1812.  By  Archibald 
Campbell.      Edinluirgh,  1816.     8vo. 


LIST    OF    WORKS    IN    REGARD    TO    ALASKA 


597 


Chamisso. 

Reise  um  die  Welt  mit  der  Romanzoffischen  Entdeckungs  Expedi- 
tion in  den  Jahren  1815-1818,  auf  der  Brig  Rurik,  Capt.  Otto  von 
Kotzebue.     By  Adalbert  von  Chamisso.     Leipzig,  1836. 

Chlebnikoff. 

Notes  on  America,  &c.     By  Alexie   Chlebnikofif.     (See   Materials 
for  the  History  of  the  Russian  Colonies). 
Choris. 

Voyage  pittoresque  autour  du  Monde,  Sec.     Folio.     Paris,  1822. 

Chramchenko.     (See  Krainclwiko) 

Chruschoff.     (See  Kntshchoff.) 

Chwostoff.     (See  Davidoff.) 

Collections  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  for  1804. 

collinson. 

Proceedings  of  Captain  CoUinson,  C  B.,  in  H.  M.  S.  Enterprise, 
Behring  Strait  Division  of  Arctic  Search,  185 1  -  1854.     (Blue  Book.) 
Cook. 

Voyage  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  in  the  Years  1776-  1780.     By  Captain 
James  Cook.     London,  1782,  1784,  1785. 
Coxe. 

Account  of  the  Russian  Discoveries  between  Asia  and  America. 
London,  1780.     By  Rev.  William  Coxe.     London,  1787. 

Also  by  the  same,  A  Comparative  View  of  the  Russian  Discoveries 
with  those  of  Captains  Cook  and  Clerke. 
Dall. 

Die  Telegraphen- Expedition  auf  dem  Jukon  in  Alaska.  Mit  Karte. 
N.  19.  By  W.  H.  Dall.  Petermann's  Geographische  Mittheilungen. 
1869.     Heft  X.     Gotha.     Justus  Perthes. 

Remarks,  &c.  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  Proceedings, 
Vol.  X.     November  4,  1868.     Vol.  XL     1869. 

Note  on  the  Geology  of  Alaska.  Silliman's  American  Journal  of 
Science  and  Arts.     January,  1868. 

Remarks,  October,  1868.  Proceedings  California  Academy  of 
Sciences.     (Errors  of  reporter  excepted.) 

Observations  on  the  Aurora  Borealis,  read  before  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Northampton,  September,  1869. 

Note  on  the  Trend  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  north  ox'  Latitude  60°, 
and  its  Influence  on  Faunal  Distribution  ;  and 

On  the  Distribution  of  the  Aborigines  of  Alaska  and  adjacent  Ter- 


598 


APPENDIX. 


ritories.      American   Association   for  the   Advancement   of    Science. 
Read  before  the  Salem  Meeting,  August  20,  1869,  by  W.  H.  Dall. 

Report,  by  W.  H.  Dall,  on  the  Agricultural  Resources  of  Alaska, 
(in)  Report  of  United  States  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  for  1868. 
Washington,  1869. 

Observations  on  the  Geology  of  Alaska  (in  the  Coast  Pilot  of 
Alaska.     See  Davidson).     Washington,  1869. 

First  Day  on  the  Yukon.      (In  Old  and   New.)      Boston,    1870. 
pp.  44-47- 
Dall  and  Bannister. 

List  of  the  Birds  of  Alaska,  with  Notes  on  their  Habits  and  Distri- 
bution.    By  W.  H.  Dall  and  H.  M.  Bannister,  A.  M.     Transactions  of 
the  Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences,  1869. 
Davidoff. 

Reise  der  Russischen  Kaiserlichen  Flott-officiere,  Khwostow  und 
Dawidow,  von  St.  Petersburg  durch  Sibirien  nach  Amerika  und  zu- 
riick,  in  den  Jahren  1802,  1803,  1804.  Beschr.  von  Dawidow,  und 
aus  dem  Russischen  iibersetzt  von  Dr.  Karl  Joh.  Schultze.  Berhn, 
1816. 
Davidson. 

Coast  Pilot  of  Alaska.    (First  Part.)    Southern  Boundary  to  Cook's 
Inlet.     By  George  Davidson,  Assistant  United  States  Coast  Survey. 
Octavo.      Government    Printing   Office,    Washington,    D.   C,    1869. 
(Published  by  the  Coast  Survey). 
Delisle  de  la  Croy£re. 

Explication  de  la  Carte  des  nouvelles  Decouvertes  au  Nord,  &c. 
par  Ph.  Buache.  Par  Joseph  Nicholas  Delisle  de  la  Croyere.  Paris, 
1752.     4to. 

De  Mofras.     Voyage  Around  the  World  in  1841  -  1842.     By  Duflot  de 

Mofras.     Paris,  1845. 
Denys. 

Les  Californies,  I'Oregon,  et  les  Possessions  Russes  en  I'Amerique, 
les  iles  Noutka  et  de  la  Reine  Charlotte.     Par  M.  Ferdinand  Denys 
(in  L'Univers).     Paris,  1849. 
Directory  for  Behring's  Sea  and  the  Coast  of  Alaska. 

From  Findlay's  Directory  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  &c.     United  States 
Bureau    of   Navigation.      Government    Printing   Office,  Washington, 
1869.     8vo. 
Dixon. 

Voyage  Round  the  World,  but  more  particularly  to  the  Northwest 


LIST    OF    WORKS    IN    REGARD    TO    ALASKA. 


599 


Coast   of    North    America.      By    Captains    Nathaniel    Portlock    and 
George  Dixon.     London,  1789. 

DOROSCHIN. 

Beobachtungen  und  Bemerlvungen  iiber  das  Gold-vorkommen  in 
der  Besitzung  der  Russ.  Am.  Com.  nach  dem  Russischen  des  Herrn 
Freimann,  &c.  (Erman's  Archives,  Vol.  XXV.  pp.  229-237.)  By 
P.  Doroschin. 

Dove. 

Ueber  die  Warme-Abnahme  in  hoheren  Breiten.     Zeitschr.  f.  All- 
gem.  Erdkunde,  p.  336.     Von  Herr  Prof.  Dove.     Berlin,  i860. 
Dunn. 

History  of  the  Oregon  Territory  and  British  North-American  Fur 
Trade,  &c.     By  John  Dunn.     London,  1844. 
Du  Petit  Thouars. 

Voyage  of  the  French  Frigate  Venus.  By  M.  Du  Petit  Thouars. 
Paris,  1837. 

Engelhardt. 

Russische  Miscellen.     St.  Petersburg.     Vol.  I.  pp.  28-69.     8vo. 
Erman. 

Beitrage  zur  Klimatologie  des  Russischen  Reiches.  Erster  Ab- 
schnitt.  Vol.  I.  p.  562,  in  Archiv  fur  Wissen.  Kunde  von  Russland. 
Her.  von  Adolph  Erman.  Berlin.  8vo.  Also  in  the  same,  Vol.  VI. 
p.  499  et  seq.  Vol.  VH.  ;  pp.  467-480,  ibid.;  pp.  480-512,  p.  613 
et  seq.,  ibid.  (On  Zagoskin's  Expedition,  &c.) 
Espinosa. 

Memorias  sobre  las  Observaciones  astronomicas,  &c.,  por  los  navi- 
gantes  Espanoles,  &c.,  orderadas  par  Don  Josef  Espinosa  y  Tello. 
Madrid,  1809.     Two  volumes.     4to. 
Fedis. 

L'Oregon  et  les  Cotes  de  I'Oce'an  Pacifique  du  Nord.     Paris,  1848. 

FiNDLAY. 

Directory  for  the  Navigation  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.     By  A.  G.  Find- 
lay.     London,  185 1. 
Fischer. 

Siberische  Geschichte  von  den  Entdeckungen  Siberien's,  &c.    Books 
HL  and  IV.     St.  Petersburg,  1768.     8vo. 
Fleurieu. 

Voyage  autour  du  Monde  pendent  les  Annees  1790-  1792.  Par  E. 
Marchand ;   precede  d'une   Introduction  historique,   avec  Cartes   et 


6oO  APPENDIX. 

Figures.      Paris,   Tan  de   Rep.  VI.  et  VIII.      Four  volumes.      4to. 
Edited  by  C  P.  Claret  de  Fleurieu. 

FORSTER. 

Geschichten  der  Reisen  seit  Cook  auf  den  N.  W.  und  N.  O. 
Kiisten  von  Amerika.  Aus  dem  Englischen,  by  Georg  Forster. 
Berlin,  1791.     Three  volumes.     4to. 

History  of  the  Voyages  and  Discoveries  made  in  the  North. 
Translated  from  the  German  of  John  Reinhold  Forster,  J.  U.  D. 
Dublin,  1786.     With  a  Map. 

Franklin. 

Narrative  of  a  Second  Expedition  to  the  Shores  of  the  Polar  Sea, 
from  1825  to  1827.     London,  1828.     4to. 
Frederick. 

Proceedings   of   Captain   Charles   Frederick,   Commander   H.   M. 
S.   Amphitrite,   on   a  Visit  to   Behring  Straits  and  Vicinity.      1852. 
(Blue  Book.) 
Freimann. 

Bemerkungen  iiber  eine  Reise  von  Sitcha  durch  die  Besitzungen  der 
H.  B.  Co.,  nach  dem  Russischen  des  Herrn  Freimann.  (Erman's 
Archives,  Vol.  VI.,  pp.  226-240. 

Freygang. 

Report  to  the  Naval  Bureau.  By  A.  Freygang,  captain  of  the  2d 
rank.     St.  Petersburg,  1868.     Official  Document. 

Gmelin. 

Reise  durch  Siberien.  By  Dr.  Johann  Georg  Gmelin.  Gottingen, 
1767. 

GOLOFNIN. 

Travels  Round  the  World.  (Russian.)  By  Basil  Michaelovicii 
Goldfnin.     St.  Petersburg,  1822. 

GOLOVIN. 

Review  of  the  Russian  American  Colonies  in  1861.  By  Paulus 
Nikolai-evich  Golovin.     Morski  Sbornik,  1862. 

GOVORLIFKI. 

Report  of  G.  Govorlifki,  M.  D.,  for  i860.  Diary  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  Division  2,  Book  I.     St.  Petersburg,  1861. 

Greenhow. 

Memoir,  Historical  and  Political,  on  the  Northwest  Coast  of  North 
America  and  the  Adjacent  Territories.  By  Robert  Greenhow. 
(Senate  Document,  174.)     Washington,  1840. 


LIST   OF   WORKS    IN    REGARD    TO   ALASKA.  6oi 

History  of  Oregon  and  California  and  the  other  Territories  on  the 
Northwest  Coast  of  North  America.  By  Robert  Greenhow.  Second 
edition.     Boston,  1845. 

Grewingk. 

Beitnige  zur  Kenntniss  der  orographischen  und  geognostischen 
Beschaffenheit  der  Nordwest-Kiiste  Amerikas  mit  den  anUegenden 
Insehi.  Von  Dr.  C.  Grewingk.  (With  five  Maps.)  St.  Petersburg, 
1850.     8vo. 

Harper's  Magazine.    July,  1867,  pp.  170-185.     Also  the  same,  Vol- 
ume XXXVIH.,  1869,  p.  589. 

Hartwig. 

The  Polar  World  ;  Arctic  and  Antarctic  Regions.  By  Dr.  John 
Hartwig.     London,  1869,  and  New  York,  1869. 

Hawaiian  Spectator.     1838  to  1840.     Published  at  Honolulu,  Sand- 
wich Islands. 

HOFMANN. 

Geognostische  Beobachtungen,  gesammelt  auf  einer  Reise  um  die 
Welt.     (By)  E.  Hofmann.     Berlin,  1829.     8vo. 
Holmberg. 

Ethnographische   Skizzen   iiber  Volker  des  Russischen   Amerika. 
Von  H.  J.  Holmberg.     Helsingfors,  1855. 
Hooper. 

Ten  Months  among  the  Tents  of  the  Tuski,  with  Incidents  of  an 
Arctic  Boat  Expedition  in  Search  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  as  far  East  as 
the    Mackenzie  River   and   Cape   Bathurst.      By   Lieutenant  W.   H. 
Hooper,  R.  N.     (With  a  Map.)     London,  1853. 
Humboldt. 

Essai  politique  sur  le  Royaume  de  la  Nouvelle  Espagne.     Par  Alex- 
ander  von    Humboldt   et   Aime'    Bonpland.     Part  III.     Paris,  1811. 
4to.     pp.  328-350. 
Importations  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 

Published  by  the  Directors  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.     Lon- 
don, 1844. 
Invalid  Reuski,  No.  266.     St.  Petersburg,  1822.     (Russian.) 
Janoffski. 

Articles  in   the   Russian   Journal   Sin    Otechestva,  for    1820- 182 1, 
1839,  and  1845.     By  Lieutenant  Janoffski. 
Journal  des  Savants.     Paris,  18 17.     (Contains  documents  relating  to 
the  life  of  Baranofif.) 


602  APPENDIX. 

Journal  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior. 

Contains  the  Annual  Reports  of  the  Russian  American  Company. 
Official  Documents.     1790?  to  1862.     St.  Petersburg.     (Russian.) 

KashevAroff. 

Note  from  A.  P.  Kashevaroff,  in  Morskoi  Sbornik,  April  and  Sep- 
tember, 1862.  Also,  Articles  in  the  St.  Petersburgski  Vicdomati,  1845, 
Nos.  190,  193,  and  the  Sin  Otechestva,  1839  and  1845, 

KiTTLITZ. 

Vegetation  of  the  Pacific.  By  F.  H.  Von  Kittlitz.  Translated  by 
Dr.  B.  Seemann.     London,  1861. 

Travels  in  Micronesia,  Russian  America,  and  Kamchatka.  (Ger- 
man, by  the  same.)     Gotha,  1858. 

KOSHKIN. 

On  the  Kolosh  Method  of  Hunting,  &c.  In  the  Journal  of  the  In- 
terior Department.     St.  Petersburg.     (Russian.) 

Kostlitzeff. 

Notes  on  the  Koloshes.     In  the  same.     (Russian.) 

Kotzebue. 

Voyage  of  Discovery  into  the  South  Sea  and  Behring  Straits,  for  the 
Purpose  of  Exploring  a  Northeast  Passage,  in  181 5  -  18 18.  By  Lieu- 
tenant Otto  von  Kotzebue.    Translated  by  H.  E.  Lloyd.    London,  182 1. 

Voyage  of  the  Brig  Rurik  in  the  Years  1815  -  1818.  By  Otto  von 
Kotzebue.     (German.)     Weimar,  182 1. 

New  Voyage  Round  the  World,  in  the  Years  1823-  1826.  By  Otto 
von  Kotzebue.     London,  1830. 

Kramchenko. 

Bruchstiicke  aus  dem  Reise-Journal  des  Herrn  Kramchenko,  &c. 
(in  Krusenstern,  Mem.  Hydr.,  1827,  p.  108,  and  1835,  P-  9^)- 
Krashininikoff. 

History  of  Kamchatka  and  the  Kurilski  Islands.    By  Steven  Krash- 
ininikoff    Translated  by  Greve.     Glocester,  1764. 
Krenitzin.    (See  Coxe,  Appendix,  and  Pallas,  Beitriige,  Vol.  I.  pp.  249  - 

272.) 
Kruschoff. 

Voyage  of  the  Sloop-of-War  Apollo  in  1821.     (See  Journal  of  the 
Navy  Department.     St.  Petersburg.      1847.     Russian.) 
Krusenstern. 

Hydrographic  Memoirs  and  Charts  of  the  North  Pacific.  Published 
at  Leipsic,  18 19.     St.  Petersburg,  1824,  1827,  and  1835. 


LIST   OF   WORKS    IN   REGARD   TO   ALASKA.  603 

Voyage  to  the  Russian  American  Colonies,  1803  to  1806.  By 
Admiral  Von  Krusenstern.     St.  Petersburg,  1812. 

KUPFFER. 

Observations  Meteorologique,  faites  a  I'Academie  Imperiale  des 
Sciences.     By  A.  T.  Kupfifer.     St.  Petersburg,  1836.     4to. 

Langsdorf. 

Voyages  and  Travels,  1803  to  1807.  By  G.  H.  v.  Langsdorf. 
London,  1813. 

Bemerkungen  auf  einer  Reise  um  die  Welt  in  den  Jahren  1803- 
1807.     Herr  von  Langsdorf.     Frankfort,  18 12. 

La  Perouse. 

Voyage  Round  the  World.  By  Jean  Francois  de  Galloup  de  La 
Perouse.    London,  1799. 

La  Place. 

Campagne  de  Circumnavigation  de  la  Fre'gate  L'Artemis,  pendant 
1837,  1838,  1839,  et  1840.  Public'  par  I'Ordre  du  Gouvernement. 
Paris,  1854.     (Six  Parts.) 

Lasareff. 

Voyage  of  the  Sloop-of-War  Ladoga,  1822 -1824.  By  Captain  M. 
P.  Lasareff.     St.  Petersburg,  1832. 

Lebrun. 

Abre'ge  de  tous  les  Voyages  au  Pole  Nord.  Par  M.  Lebrun. 
Paris,  1 8-? 

Lenz. 

Ueber  die  Fluthwiisser  auf  Sitcha.  (Erman's  Archives,  Vol.  III. 
p.  361.)     Von  E.  Lenz. 

Lesseps. 

Journal  historique  du  Voyage  de  M.  deEesseps.  Paris,  1790.  8vo. 
(See  La  Perouse.) 

Levasheff.     (See  Coxe,  Appendix  L,  and  Pallas,  Nord.  Beitr.,  pp.  249  - 

272.) 

Lisiansky. 

Voyage  Round  the  World  in  the  Ship  Neva.  By  Urey  Lisiansky, 
Captain,  Russian  Navy.     London,  18 14. 

LUTKE. 

Voyage  autour  du  Monde  sur  la  Corvette  Seniavine,  dans  les 
Annees  1826  to  1829.     By  Captain  Frederic  Liitke.     Paris,  1835. 


6o4  APPENDIX. 

Mackenzie. 

Voyages  from  Montreal  over  the  Continent  of  North  America  to 
the  Frozen  and  Pacific  Oceans,  in  the  Years  1780- 1793.  By  Alex- 
ander Mackenzie.     London,  1801.     4to.     With  Maps. 

Maguire. 

Proceedings  of  Commander  Rochefort  Maguire,  commanding  H. 
M.  S.  Plover,  in  Vicinity  of  Behring  Strait.  And  further  Report  of 
Proceedings  to  August,  1853.  Also,  Proceedings  at  Moore's  Harbor, 
September,  1852,  to  August,  1853.  Also,  Proceedings  during  Second 
Winter  passed  at  Point  Barrow,  1853-54.     (Blue  Books.) 

Marchand.     (See  F/eurieu.) 

Materials  for  the  History  of  the  Russian  Colonies.     Four  Parts.     8vo. 
St.  Petersburg.     1861.     (Russian.) 

Meares. 

Voyages  from  the  Northwest  Coast  of  America.     By  John  ]\Ieares, 

Esq.     London,  1790. 
Memoirs  et  Observations  Geographique  et  Critique  sur  la  Situation  des 

Pays  Septentrionaux.     Lausanne,  1765.     Anonymous. 

Moore. 

General  Proceedings  of  Commander  T.  E.  L.  Moore,  H.  M.  S. 
Plover,  through  Behring  Strait  and  towards  Mackenzie's  River,  1848- 
1849.  Also,  Proceedings  in  Vicinity  of  Behring  Strait,  in  the  Winter 
of  1851-52. 

Proceedings  of  Commander  T.  E.  L.  Moore,  H.  M.  S.  Plover, 
September,  1849,  to  September,  1850.     (Blue  Books.) 

Mueller. 

Voyages  from  Asia  to  America,  &c.     By  Gerhard  Friedrich  Miiller. 
London,  1761  and  1764. 
Northwestern  American  Boundary. 

With  Maps,  «S:c.     London,  181 7.     8vo. 

Official  Documents. 

Report  of  the  Senate  Committee  on  the  Russian  American  Colo- 
nies, Official.     St.  Petersburg,  1863.     (In  Russian.) 

Pallas. 

Nordische  Beitrage  zur  physikalischen  und  geographischen  Erd- 
und  Volkerbeschreibung,  Naturgeschichte,  und  CEkonomie.  By  Dr. 
P.  S.  Pallas.     Leipzig,  1781. 

Neue  Nordische  Beitrage.  (See  also  Appendix  to  Pennant's  Arctic 
Zoology.) 


LIST    OF   WORKS    IN    REGARD    TO    ALASKA.  605 

Pamiatnik  tradoff  provoslavnich  blahoviestniskoff,  &c.     (Memoirs    of 
the  Orthodox  Missionaries.)     Moscow,  1852. 

Paulv. 

Description  Ethnographique  des  Peuples  de  la  Russie.  Par  M.  T. 
de  Pauly.  PubUe'e  a  I'Occasion  du  Jubile  millenaire  de  I'Empire  de 
Russie.     St.  Petersburg,  1862.     Folio.     (Astor  Library.) 

Petermann. 

Notes  on  the  Telegraph  Explorations  in  Alaska.     By  Dr.  A.  Peter- 
mann, LL.  D.,  Geographer.    Mittheil.    October,  1869.    Gotha.    (Also 
same  for  1866). 
Phipps. 

Voyage   toward    the   North    Pole.      By  Constantine  John    Phipps 
(Lord  Mulgrave).     London,  1774. 
Pleshneff. 

Survey  of  the  Russian  Empire.  Translated  by  Smirnove.  London, 
1792. 

PORTLOCK. 

Voyage  Round  the  World,  &c.,  performed  in  1785 -1788.  By 
Captain  Nathaniel  Portlock.     London,  1789.     (See  Dixon.) 

Raduga. 

A  Periodical  of  Revel,  1S33.     Articles  by  Kotzebue,  &c. 

Reports  of  the  Russian  American  Company.     Published  annually  (in 
Russian)  at  Sitka  and  St.  Petersburg. 

Richardson. 

The  Polar  Regions.    By  Sir  John  Richardson,  LL.  D.     Edinburgh, 
1861. 
Robertson. 

Our  Right  and  Title  to  Oregon.  By  Rev.  Dr.  Robertson.  Wash- 
ington, 1846. 

History  of  America.     By  Rev.  Dr.  Robertson.     New  York,  1856. 

ROCQUEFEUIL. 

Journal  d'un  Voyage  autour  du  Monde  pendent  les  Annees  1816- 
18 19.      Bv   Camille    de    Rocquefeuil.      Paris,    1823.      Jena,    1823. 
8vo. 
Ross. 

Narrative  of  a  Second  Voyage  in  Search  of  a  Northwest  Passage, 
&c.     By  Captain  John  Ross.     London,  1835.     4to.     Three  volumes. 

Notes  on  the  Tinneh  or  Chippewyan  Indians  of  British  and  Rus- 
sian America.     By  Messrs.  Ross,  Hardisty,  and  Jones.     Communi- 


6o6  APPENDIX 

cated  by  George  Gibbs.     Report  of  Smithsonian  Institution  for  1866. 
Washington,  D.  C. 

RUSCHENBERGER. 

Voyage  Around  the  World.     Philadelphia,  1838. 

Sankt  Peterburgski  Viedomati. 

St.  Petersburg  News,  for  the  Year  1845.     (See  Kashevdroff.) 

Sarycheff  (Gavrila). 

Achtjiihrige  Reise  im  N.  O.  Siberien,  &c.,  iibersetzt  von  Johann 
Heinrich  Busse,  mit  Kupft.     Leipzig,  1805  -  1806.     8vo. 

Saur. 

An  Account  of  a  Geographical  and  Astronomical  Expedition  to 
the  Northern  Parts  of  Russia,  by  Commodore  Joseph  Billings,  in  the 
Years  1785 -1794.  By  Martin  Saur,  Secretary  to  the  Expedition. 
London,  1802. 

ScHEMELiN.     Diary  of  the  First  Russian  Circumnavigation  of  the  World. 
By  F.   Schemelin.     In  Two    Parts.     (Russian.)      St.    Petersburg, 
1816-1818. 

Schloezer. 

Neue  Nachrichten  von  den  neuentdeckten  Inseln  in  der  See  zwi- 
schen  Asien  und  Amerika,  &c.  Von  J.  L.  S.  Schloezer.  Hamburg 
und  Leipzig,  1776.     8vo. 

SCORESBY. 

Account  of  the  Arctic  Regions,  and  History  and  Description  of  the 
Northern  Whale  Fishery.     By  W.  Scoresby,  Jr.     Edinburgh,  1820. 

Seemann. 

Narrative  of  the  Voyage  of  H.  M.  S.   Herald,   1845- 185 1.     By 
Dr.  Berthold  Seemann.     London,  1853. 
Seward. 

Speeches  of  Hon.  William  H.  Seward  in  Alaska,  Vancouver's,  and 
Oregon.     August,  i86g.     Washington,  pamph.,  1869.     Svo. 
Shabelsky. 

A^oyage  aux  Colonies  Russes  de  I'Amerique  pendent  les  Annee's 
1821-1823.     Par  Achille  Shabelsky.     St.  Petersburg,  1826. 

Shelikoff. 

Gregorie  Shelikoff  s  erste  und  zweite  Reise  von  Ochotsk  in  Siberien 
durch  den  ostlichen  Ocean  nach  den  Kiisten  von  Amerika,  in  den 
Jahren  1783  - 1789,  aus  dem  Russischen  iibersetzt  von  J.  J.  Logan. 
St.  Petersburg.     1793.     8vo. 


LIST    OF    WORKS    IN    REGARD    TO    ALASKA.  607 

Shillinglaw. 

Narrative  of  Arctic  Discovery  from  the  Earliest  Period  up  to  the 
Present  Time.     By  John  J.  Shillinglaw.     London,  1850. 

SlE.MENOFF. 

Geographical  and  Statistical  Dictionary.     Three  Volumes.     (Rus- 
sian.)    St.  Petersburg,  1863  -  1867. 
Simpson. 

Narrative  of  the  Discoveries  on  the  North  Coast  of  America, 
effected  by  the  Oiificers  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  during  the 
Years  1836- 1839.     By  Thomas  Simpson,  Esq.     London,  1843. 

Narrative  of  a  Voyage  Around  the  World  during  the  Years  1841  - 
1842.  By  Sir  George  Simpson,  Governor  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Terri- 
tor)\     London,  1847. 

SOKOLOFF. 

Narrative  of  Chirikofif's  Voyage.     (Russian.)     By  Captain-Lieuten- 
ant A.  P.  Sokoloff.     St.  Petersburg,  1849. 
Staehlin. 

Account  of  the  New  Northern  Archipelago,  lately  discovered  by 
the  Russians.     By  M.  J.  von  Staehlin.     London,  1774.     (Translated 
from  the  German.) 
Steller. 

Beschreibung  von  dem  Lande  Kamchatka,  &c.  By  Georg  Wilhelm 
Steller.     Frankfurt  und  Leipzig,  1744. 

Beschreibung  der  See-reise  von  Kamtschatka  nach  Amerika.    Georg 
Wilhelm  Steller.     Frankfurt,  1774. 
Strahlenberg. 

Description  Historique  de  1' Empire  Russe.     Par  M.  le  Baron  de 
Strahlenberg.     Amsterdam,  1757. 
Stuckenberg. 

Studium  der  Geographic,  Topographic,  Ethnographie,  und  Statistik 
des  Russischen  Reiches.     Von  J.  Ch.  Stuckenberg.     St.  Petersburg, 
1849.     8vo. 
Sumner. 

Speech  of  the   Hon.  Charles  Sumner  on  the  Cession  of  Russian 
America  to  the  United  States.     Washington,  1867. 
Swan. 

Three  Years'  Residence  in  Washington  Territory.     By  J.  G.  Swan. 
New  York,  1857. 
Taraikanoff. 

Schiffsbuch   iiber   eine    Fahrt  der  Russisch-Amerikanischen  Com- 


6o8  APPENDIX. 

pagnie,  Sloop  St  Nikolai,  unter  Befehl  des  Steuermanns  Bulaegin  an 
der  N.  W.  Kiiste  Amerikas,  von  Timotheus  Taraikanoff,  in  ■5'/.  Fders- 
burger  Zcitimg,  1822.     X.  pp.  22-52. 

Tebenkoff. 

Hydrographic  Atlas  and  Observations.  By  Captain  Michael  Teb- 
enkoff. (Russian.)  With  forty-eight  Charts.  St.  Petersburg,  1848 
and  1852. 

TiKHMENIEFF. 

Historical  Review  of  the  Progress  of  the  Russian  American  Com- 
pany, and  its  Operations  until  the  Present  Time.  By  P.  Tikhmenieff. 
Two  Volumes.     October.     St.  Petersburg,  1861.     (Russian.) 

United  States  Executive  Documents. 

House,  No.  177,  Parts  I.  and  II.,  1868.  Correspondence  on  the 
Alaska  Purchase.  Communicated  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States. 

House,  129,  1870.  Letter  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  on 
the  Fur  Seal  Fisheries. 

House,  136,  1870.  Letter  and  Report  of  F.  N.  Wicker,  Treasury 
Agent  in  Alaska. 

House,  144,  1870.  Report  of  Vincent  Colyer,  Secretary  Board  of 
Indian  Commissioners,  on  Alaska. 

House,  112,  1870.  Report  of  Captain  C.  W.  Raymond,  U.  S.  A., 
on  the  Position  of  Fort  Yukon,  Hudson's  Bay  Company  ;  &c. 

Senate,  32,  1870.  Reports  of  Captain  Charles  Bryant  and  H.  E. 
Mclntire,  Treasury  Agents  in  Alaska. 

USTINGOFF. 

Hydrographic  Explorations  in  Russian  American  Company's  Annual 
Reports. 

Vancouver. 

Voyage  to  the  North  Pacific  Ocean.  By  George  Vancouver.  Lon- 
don, 1 80 1. 

Voyage  of  Discovery  to  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  &:c.,  in  the  Years 
1790- 1792.     By  Capt.  George  Vancouver.     London,  1798. 

Veniaminoff. 

Notes  on  the  Unalashka  District.  By  Father  Innocentius  Ve- 
niaminoff    St.  Petersburg,  1840.     (Russian.) 

Vsevolojsky. 

Dictionnaire  geographique  et  historique  de  I'Empire  de  Russie. 
Par  M.  U.  S.  Vsevolojsky.     INIoscow,  1823. 


LIST    OF    WORKS    IN    REGARD    TO    ALASKA.  609 

Wappaexs. 

Handbuch  der  Geographic  und  Statistik  von  Nord  Amerika,  Vol.  L 
B}-  Dr.  J.  E.  Wappaens.     pp.  293  to  294. 
Wheildon. 

The  New  Arctic  Continent,  or  Wrangell's  Land,  &c.     By  W.  W. 
Wheildon.      Proceedings  of  the   American   Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science.     Vol.  XVIL     1868. 
AVhymper. 

Travel  and  Adventure  in  the  Territory  of  Alaska,  and  in  various 
other  Parts  of  the  North  Pacific.  By  Frederick  Whymper.  London, 
1868. 

A  Journey  from  Norton  Sound,  Bering  Sea,  to  Fort  Yukon.     By 
Frederick  Whymper.     (With  a  Map.)     Journal  of  the  Geographical 
Society  of  London,  1868. 
Wilkes. 

Narrative  of  the  United  States  Exploring  Expedition   during  the 
Years    1838- 1842.      By   Charles   Wilkes,    Captain    United    States 
Navy.     Philadelphia,  1844.     Vol.  IV. 
Wrangell. 

Statistische  und  ethnographische  Nachrichten  iiber  die  Russischen 
Besitzungen,  an  der  Nordwest  Kiiste  von  Amerika.  Auf  Kosten  der 
Kaiserlichen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften,  &c.,  &c.  Von  Count 
Admiral  Ferdinand  von  Wrangell.  St.  Petersburg,  1839.  (Edited  by 
Baer  and  Helmersen,  which  see). 
Yermoloff. 

Article  in  the  Nouvelle  Annales  des  Voyages.     By  M.  Yermoloff. 
Paris,  1846. 
Zagoskin. 

Travels  on  Foot,  and  Description  of  the  Russian  Possessions  in 
America,  from  1842  -  1844.  By  Lieutenant  L.  Zagoskin.  St.  Peters- 
burg.    1847.     (Russian.) 

Also  in  German,  in  Erman's  Archiv  fiir  wissenschaftliche  Kunde  von 
Russland.     Vols.  VI  and  VII. 
Zapeeski  Admiralskavo  Departamenta. 

Journal  of  the  Naval  Bureau  of  the  Russian  Government.  Vol.  V. 
pp.  219-227.     1844,  1845.     St.  Petersburg. 


39 


INDEX 


Abasa,  Major  S.,  sails  for  the  Amoor,  356. 

Abba-to-tena  tribe,  429. 

Abenaki,  language  of  the,  531. 

Aberfoyle,  in  Scotland,  444. 

Abo,  the  transport,  340. 

Aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Alaska,  373-432  ;  ques- 
tions of  origin,  374. 

Acapulco,  294. 

Acheto-tena  tribe,  492. 

Acheto-tinneh  tribe,  106. 

Adakh  Island,  247,  260  ;  hot  springs,  473. 

Adakh  volcano,  466. 

Adams,  the  pioneer,  34. 

Adams,  F.,  surgeon,  52,  344,  345. 

Adams,  George  R.,  240. 

Admiralty  Islands,  250,  471  ;  coal  on,  474. 

Admiralty  Bay,  257. 

Admiralty  Inlet,  314;  explored,  318. 

Afognak  Island,  248,  259. 

Agattu  Island,  247. 

Agricultural  College  of  Pennsylvania  referred  to, 
441. 

Agricultural  Resources  of  Alaska,  433  -  456. 

Agulmuts,  tribe  of,  406. 

Agun-alaska,  530. 

Ah-gish-an-akhou,  an  Indian  deity,  424. 

Ah-tena  Indians,  429. 

Aian,  341,  522. 

Ainos,  523  ;  different  tribes  of,  525,  526. 

Alton's  treatise  ;  referred  to,  434. 

Ajax,  the  ship,  333. 

Akhun  Island,  248,  260,  469  -  472  ;  coal  in,  474, 
478. 

Akutan  Island,  248;  peak,  289;  volcano,  ,467,  470, 
471 ;  hot  springs,  472,  478. 

Al-ak-shak,  early  name  of  Alaska,  529,  530. 

Alai  volcano,  289. 

Alasica,  value  to  the  United  States,  242 ;  geog- 
raphy, history,  and  resources.  Part  II.,  243- 
526 ;  boundaries,  245 ;  treaty  of  cession,  245  ; 
ceded  to  United  States,  259  :  river  system,  270- 
289;  area  of,  290;  inhabitants  of,  373-432;  lan- 
guages in,  377;  Innuit  in,  401;  climate  and 
agricultural  resources,  433-456;  compared  with 


Scotland,  444-448;  timber,  453;  geology  and 
mineral  resources,  457-480 ;  hot  springs  in,  472- 
474:  coal,  473-475;  gold,  476,  477;  ice,  479; 
fisheries  and  fur  trade,  481-505;  adjacent  terri- 
tories and  inhabitants,  506-526  ;  origin  of  name, 
529;  early  name,  530;  population,  537,  and  see 
Appendix  for  miscellaneous  tables,  mammalia, 
575  ;  fishes,  578 ;  birds,  579  ;  insects,  586 ;  noc- 
turnal lepidoptera,  586  ;  hymenoptera,  5S6  :  neu- 
roptera,  5S7 ;  indigenous  plants,  58S ;  grasses, 
591  ;  authorities  cited,  594. 

Alaskan  mountains,  2S6. 

Alaskan  range,  loi. 

Alaganik  village,  272. 

Al-ay-ek-sa,  early  name  of  Alaska,  529,  530. 

Albatross,  ship,  arrives  at  Sandwich  Islands,  328. 

Aleut,  the  sloop,  340. 

Aleuts,  the,  civilization  of,  115,  334,  339,  350.  353; 
description  of,  374  ;  origin  of,  376 ;  characteristics 
of,  385-400;  seal-catching,  485-495. 

Aleutian  Islands,  240,  246 ;  area  of,  290 ;  explora- 
tions in,  313-320;  trees  planted,  323,  330,  332, 
443-450,  459;  fish  in  archipelago,  4S1  et  seq., 
488  ;  origin  of  name,  530. 

Aleknagak  River,  273. 

Alexander  Archipelago,  246,  247,  250  ;  area  of,  290 ; 
explored,  319,  334,  337,  353,  450,  454,  455,  463, 
470.  477- 

Alexander,  Fort,  452. 

Alexander  I.,  Emperor,  327. 

Alexander  Nevski,  the  ship,  320  ;  wreck  of,  328. 

Alexieff,  Feodot,  295. 

Aliaska  Peninsula,  289  ;  north  coast  of,  335  ;  south 
coast  of,  336,  338 ;  geology  of,  458  et  scq.  ;  vol- 
canoes in,  467  et  seq.  ;  origin  of  name,  530  ;  dis- 
tinguishes from  the  mainland,  530. 

Alikoif's  barrabora,  42. 

Alsekh  River,  271. 

Amagat  Island,  hot  springs  in,  472. 

Amak  Island,  260,  466,  468,  470. 

Amber  in  Alaska,  476. 

Amber  Bay,  476. 

Amchitka  Island,  247,  260,  289,  471  ;  coal  in,  474, 
478. 

America,  the  transport,  336. 

American  traders  at  Kadiak,  320. 


INDEX. 


6ii 


Amilka,  27,  36. 

Amlia  Island,  30,  247,  248,  260,  335,  339  ;  school 
at,  352,  47 1- 

Amoor  River,  353,  355,  516,  518. 

Amphitrite,  ship,  346. 

Amukhta,  248 ;  volcano,  467. 

Amulets  worn  by  Indians,  141. 

Anadyr  Gulf,  246,  2S5,  374,  378,  465,  570. 

Anadyr  River,  285,  295,  356-35S.  5i°- 

Anadyrsk  ostrog  or  village,  533. 

Anadyrsk,  post  of,  295,  298. 

Anderson,  Captain,  347. 

Andon  domni  tribe,  519. 

Andreaffsky,  119;  description  of,  229,  230,  231. 

Andreanoffsky  Islands,  247. 

Ankudinoff,  Gerasim,  his  voyage,  295. 

Anligmuts  of  Holmberg,  408. 

Anniak  River,  274. 

Anthracite  coal  in  Alaska,  473-476. 

Antoine  River,  280. 

Anui  River,  514. 

Anvik  River,  217,  238,  264,  276,  282,  283. 

Apache  Indians,  428. 

Apollo,  ship,  333. 

Appendix  A.     Glossary,  529. 
"         B.     Population,  537. 
"         C.     Fur  trade,  53S. 
"         D.     Meteorology,  541. 
"         E.     Latitude  and  longitude,  545. 
"         F.     Vocabularies,  547. 
"         G.     Natural  history,  575. 
"         H.     Authorities  cited,  594. 
Apraxin,  Admiral,  297. 
Archangel,  299. 

Archimandritoff's  observations,  343. 
Archipelago,   Alexander,   246,   249,   250 ;    area   of, 
290;  explored,  319,  334,  337,  3S3.  4SO,  454.  455, 
463,  470,  477. 
Arctic  explorations,  331. 
Arguello,  Don  Luis  de,  324. 
Argyll,  statistics  of,  447. 
Ark-hannok,  129. 
Arran,  statistics  of,  447. 
Arrowsmith's  maps,  290 ;  errors  in,  291. 
Aryan  resemblances,  523.  j 

Asia,  fossils  in,  488.  I 

Asiagmut,  408.  [ 

Astor,  John  Jacob,  his  fur  company,  326,  327.  : 

Astoria,  settlement  of,  327,  328 ;  delivered  to  United 

States,  330. 
Atahualpa,  ship,  321. 
Atka  Company,  317,  334. 
Atka  Island,  247,  260,  289,  333,  335,  336,  344,  350,   ' 

351  ;  volcanoes,  466,  46S-473  ;  coal  in,  474,  478 
Atkan  tribe,  386. 
Atlantic  Cable,  success  of,  507. 
Atlassoff,  Vladimir,  his  explorations,  296. 
Atna  River,  272. 
Atnaer  Indians,  429. 
Attenmut  village,  284. 


Attou  Island,  246. 

Attu  Island,  247;  discovered  by  Bassoff,  301-336. 

Atuia  Island,  329. 

Auckland  Islands,  seal  fisheries  at,  492. 

Augustin  Island,  258,  273. 

Aurora  borealis,  59,  60. 

Authorities,  list  of,  594. 

Avatanak  Island,  248. 

Avatcha  Bay,  270,  285  ;  river,  285. 

Aziak  Island,  138,  268,  313,  418. 


Back's  Arctic  expedition,  265,  331. 

Baer's  descriptions  of  Indians,  406,  594. 

Baie  de  Monte,  257. 

Baikal,  the  transport,  342;  lake,  51S,  532. 

Bald  Head  Mountain,  270. 

Bald  Mountains,  271,  288. 

Bannister,  H.  M.,  6. 

Baptist,  John,  an  interpreter,  115. 

Baranoff,  Alexander  A.,  recall  of,  304,  313,  315  ; 
director,  31S,  320,  324,  328,  329,  467,  485,  594; 
resigns,  330  ;  dies,  331. 

BaranofF  Island,  250,  254,  256 ;  description  of,  326, 
332,  342,  474,  4S5. 

Baranoff,  the  schooner,  330,  333. 

Barber,  Captain,  321. 

Baring  Island,  345. 

Barley,  grovk'th  of,  441. 

Barlow's  Bay,  471. 

Barnard,  Lieutenant,  his  search  for  Franklin,  48  ; 
attacked  by  Indians,  49-52,  344,  345. 

Barono-wolokoff,  death  of,  328. 

Barren  Island,  258. 

Barrow,  Sir  John,  his  narrative,  594. 

Barrow,  Point,  401  ;  tribe  of  Innuit  at,  410. 

Bassarguine,  Commander,  explores  the  Stikine 
River,  271. 

Bassoff,  Emilian,  discovers  Attu  Island,  301. 

Bathing,  description  of,  20-31. 

Bear  hunting,  133. 
Bear  Island,  249. 
Beaufort,  Cape,  457,  474. 

Beaver,  the  ship,  327,  328. 
Beaver  hunting,  212. 
Beaver  Island,  473. 
Beaver  Lake,  39,  169,  186. 
Bechereff  explores  peninsula  of  Aliaska,  313. 
Beds,  Russian,  description  of,  9. 
Beechey,  Captain  F.  W.,  594. 
Beechey  Island,  347. 

Belcher,  Sir  Edward,  his  description  of  Ross  Set- 
tlement, 332,  338,  4S1,  595. 
Belkofsky  settlement,  260. 
Bellin,  M.,  594. 
Bellingham  Bay,  475. 
Bellingshausen,  the  explorer,  331. 
Bendeleben,  Baron  Otto  de,  292,  357. 
Benyowski,  M.  A.  de,  595. 


6l2 


INDEX. 


Beiizeman's  explorations,  342. 

Berens,  Captain,  338. 

Bergh,  Vasili,  596. 

Bering,  Captain,  297  ;  expedition  of,  297  :  results 

of  expedition,  299,  300  ;  death  of,  301,  531 
Bering   Sea,   4;   boundaries  of,  246;   river,   271; 

straits,  330,    33s.  34'.  374.  377.  459;   bay,  411, 

433.  439.  464.  493- 
Bering,  the  ship,  329. 

Besboro'  Island,   147,  267  ;   wrongly  located,  291. 
Bickmore,  Professor  A.  S.,  526. 
Biddle,  Captain,  330. 
Bidarka,  description  of,  15. 
Bihun,  or  shaman,  522. 
Billings,  Joseph,  in  charge  of  expedition,  310  ;  its 

failure,  316,  481. 
Birch  Indians,  431. 
Birch  River,  loi,  280. 
Birds  of  Alaska,  580. 
Black  River,  263,  275,  285. 

Blake,  Professor,  his  account  of  glaciers,  462,  471. 
Blanchard  and  Meek  arrive  at  Sitka,  334. 
Blaschke,  Dr.,  596. 
Bliven,  Captain,  250. 
Blizhni  Island,  247. 

Blodgett,  Professor  Lorin,  his  report,  451. 
Blossom,  the  ship,  334,  335  ;  voyage  of,  435. 
Boats,  skin,  description  of,  15. 
Bodega  Bay,  306,  327,  328,  332. 
Bogoslova  volcano,  289,  469,  471. 
Bolshoya  River,  302,  516. 

Bolsheretsk,  overpowered  by  Polish  exiles,  305. 
Borodino,  the  ship,  332. 
Boston,  334 ;  ice  from,  346. 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  463. 
Botokudo  tribe  of  Brazil,  416. 
Boulder  Island,  247,  478. 
Boundaries,  333  et  seq. 
Bouvette's  Island,  492. 
Brazil,  Indians  of,  416. 
Bristol  Bay,  246,  249,  261,  273,  333,  340,  330,  405, 

484,  504. 
British  Columbia,  464  ;  description  of,  506  et  seq. 
Britton  and  Rey's  charts,  290. 
Broken  Slave  dialect,  106. 
Broughton,  W.  R.,  596;  Robert,  314. 
Browning,  O.  H.,  Acting  Secretary  of  State,  367. 
Buchanan,  President  James,  596. 
Buckland's  Voyage,  434,  435. 
Buckland  River,  284,  486. 
Buesching,  A.  F  ,  596. 
Bukadoroff,  attacked  by  natives,  323. 
Buldakoff,  331. 

Bulegin,  Ivan,  killed  by  Indians,  49. 
Bulkley,  Captain  Charles  S.,  6,  355. 
Bulvvan  idols,  519. 
Burney,  Captain  James,  596. 
Burials,  description  of,  19. 
Burning  Point,  126. 
Burnt  Island,  247,  2S9. 


Buschmann,  596. 
Bush,  Richard  J.,  336,  358. 
Butler's  surveys,  292. 

Byrnes,    Michael,  explores  the  Yukon,   277,   338, 
5°7- 


Caamano,  Lieutenant  Jacinto,  313. 

Cabrillo,  voyage  of,  294. 

Cache,  description  of  a,  133. 

Caithness,  statistics  of,  447. 

Calder  Mountain,  467. 

Calendar,  the  Russian,  39. 

California,  expedition  to,  324  ;  purchase  of  land  in, 

326;  Russian  settlement  in,  328;  salt  from,  335; 

ceded  to  United  States,  342;    admitted  to  the 

Union,  344 ;  miners  in,  478 ;  Academy  of  Natu- 
ral Sciences,  460. 
Cambridge  Bay,  345. 
Camden  Bay,  346  ;  port,  474. 
Campbell,   Charles,   his  expedition  to  California, 

324,  507  ;  voyage  round  the  world,  396. 
Campbell,  Robert,  descends  the  Yukon,  276,  340, 

345- 
Canadians,  the  French,  103 
Canoes,  description  of,  126. 
Canton,  329,  492. 
Cape  Anderson,  249. 

"     Avinoff,  262,  406. 

"     Bathurst,  346. 

"     Beaufort,  457,  474. 

"     Bering,  510. 

"     Chacon,  251. 

"     Choukotski,  246. 

"     Chukotsky,  269. 

"     Constantine,  261. 

"     Dall,  263. 

"     Darby,  267. 

"     Denbigh,  137,  267,  472. 

"     Douglass,  25S. 

"     Dyer,  263,  264,  275. 

"     Edgecumbe,  253. 

"     Elizabeth,  25S 

"     Etolin,  262. 

"     Fairweather,  256,  271, 

"     Flattery,  314. 

"     Hawaii,  249,  509. 

"     Kamchatka,  246. 

"      Khramchenko,  262. 

"      Krusenstern,  262. 

"     Kygani,  251, 

"     Leonovich,  260. 

"      Lisburne,  269,  343. 

"     Manby,  237. 

"      Mendocino,  294,  30?. 

"      Muzon,  231,  331. 

"     Nenilchik,  474. 

"     Newenham,  261,  405. 

"     Parry,  343. 

"     Phipps,  236. 


INDEX. 


613 


Cape  Peirce,  261. 

"     Prince  of  Wales,  268,  269,  313. 

"     Puget,  25S. 

"     Rodgnoff,  260. 

"     Romanzoff,  406,  407,  477. 

"     Serdze  Kamen,  298,  299,  510. 

"     Shallow  Water,  119,  239,  264. 

"     Smith,  263. 

"     Spanberg,  268. 

"     Spencer,  256,  33S,  471. 

"     St.  Elias,  300,  316,  471. 

"     St.  Hermogenes,  300. 

"     St.  Thaddeus,  249. 

"     StarichkofF,  474. 

"     Strogonoff,  260. 

"     Suckling,  257. 

"     Thomas,  249,  509. 

"     Thompson,  457. 

"     Vancouver,  262,  275. 

"     Whymper,  262. 

"     Yakan,  509. 
Captain's  Harbor,  260,  472. 
Carbon  Station,  coal  at,  475. 
Caribou  Indians,  429. 
Carnivora  of  Alaska,  575. 
Cascade  range,  457. 
Casine,  description  of,  531. 
Catherina  Archipelago,  246,  288,  491. 
Caught-in-the-Rocks  River,  99. 
Cavicornia  of  Alaska,  578. 
Cervids  of  Alaska,  578. 
Chakwan  Bay,  262. 
Challik  River,  283. 
Chalmers  Bay,  257,  465. 
Chamisso  Island,  344. 
Chamisso,  voyage  of,  434,  443,  449,  397- 
Chappel,  Scott  R.,  355. 
Chart  of  the  Yukon,  first,  263 ;  of  Coal  Harbor, 

291. 
Charter  of  Russian  American  Company  renewed, 

322,  341- 
Chatham  Strait,  250,   252,   315  ;    Russians  driven 

from,  325. 
Chatham,  the  ship,  314. 
Chechitno  River,  272. 
Chechitno  volcano,  466,  467. 
Cheerful  Peak,  535. 
Chernoff,  the  explorer,  336. 
Chichagoff  Island,  250 ;  harbor,  260. 
Chichagoff,  the  brig,  337,  341. 
Chigmit  Mountains,  286. 
Children,  Indian,  98;  treatment  of,  381. 
Chili,  491,  492. 

Chilkaht  Indians,  100 ;  valley,  429 ;  tena,  429. 
Chilkaht  River,  100,  252,  271,  339,  429. 
Chilkaht,  the  schooner,  337,  339. 
Chiginagak  volcano,  289. 
Chimsyan  Island,  289,  258,  507. 
Chimsyans,  the,  411. 
China,  trade  open  with,  316,  491,  501,  504,  518. 


Chinese  compared  with  Innuit,  376. 

Chinook  jargon,  106  ;  tyhee,  535. 

Chippewyan  chain,  508. 

Chippewyans,  the,  28,  428. 

Chirikoff  Island,  248,  315. 

Chirikoff,  Lieutenant  Alexis,  297,  301. 

Chirikoff,  the  ship,  326. 

Chistakoff,  Lieutenant,  334,  335. 

Chiswell  Islands,  25S. 

Chlebnikoff,  his  notes  on  America,  597. 

Choris,  his  voyage,  597. 

Chramchenko  (see  Kramchenko),  597. 

Christian  Sound,  250. 

Christianity,  introduction  of,  392,  398. 

Christmas,  celebration  of,  58,  178. 

Chronology,  294-372. 

Chruschoff  (see  Knishchoff),  597. 

Chtagaluk  Island,  336. 

Chugach  Gulf,  257,   272,  290,   307,  313,  332,  467, 

484. 
Chugachigmut  Innuit,  401. 
Chugachik  Bay,  258,  430,  471. 
Chugatz  Islands,  24S,  258. 

Chukchee  Peninsula,  269 ;  Orarians  on,  374,  510. 
Chukchees,  137,  296  ;  attacked  by  Russians,  298  ; 

independence  of,   298,   353,   375,  378-385.    509. 

510,  513-515.  S19.  523. 
Chukluk  Island,  385. 
Chuklukmut  Innuit,  385. 
Chukotski  Nose,  511. 
Church,  First  Russo-Greek,  317,  351. 
Chumobour  Reef,  333,  335,  450. 
Chuvantses,  519. 
Chwostoff  (see  Davidoff),  597. 
Chy,  or  Russian  tea,  16. 
Circassian  tobacco,  81,  486,  S'S- 
Clara  Bell,  the  bark,  119;  arrives  at  St.  Michael's, 

121  ;  sails,  122,  356,  358. 
Clarence,  Port,  408,  409,  410. 
Clark  and  Lewis  descend  Columbia  River,  323. 
Clear  River,  84. 

Clerk,  Captain  Charles,  his  voyage  and  death,  306. 
Clothing,  description  of,  22,  82,  83. 
Clyoquot,  313. 

Coal,  false  reports  of,  98,  475. 
Coal  Harbor,  259 ;  chart  of,  291,  474,  483. 
Coast  Pilot  of  Alaska,  598. 
Codiac,  532. 
Collections  of  Massachusetts   Historical  Society, 

597- 
Collins,  Perry  M'D.,  355. 
Collinson,  Captain  Richard,  344,  345,  346. 
Collinson's  Expedition,  48.  345,  597. 
Columbia  College,  N.  Y.,  474. 
Columbia  River,  314,  328,  330,  337,  340,  342. 
Columbia,  the  sloop,  309. 
Colvile  River,  4,  432. 
Commander's  Islands,  285,  350,  471,  496. 
Company,  Russian  American,  11. 
Comptroller's  Bay,  257. 


6i4 


INDEX. 


Conit'erx-  of  Alaska,  592. 

Conradi,  Captain,  342. 

Constantine,  the  cutter,  322,  246,  466 :  harbor,  257. 

Convicts  settled  at  Mount  St.  Elias.  316. 

Cook's  Expedition,  Captain  James,  306,  314,  481, 

597- 
Cook's  Inlet,  248,  258,  262,  272,  308,  315,  330,  331, 

332,  342,  34S,  401,  428,  430,  446,  450-452,  455, 

456.  458,  469.  474.  475.  484.  4S5. 
Coosa  Bay,  475. 

Copper  Island,  246,  303,  341,  469,  537. 
Copper  River,  257,  272,  289,  292,  293  ;  mouth  of, 

discovered,  307,  317,  318,  331,  341,  342,  428,  429, 

430,  464,  477. 
Cordova  Bay,  252. 
Coronado,  voyage  of,  294. 
Cossack,  origin  of  Russian  designation,  410 
Cotter,  Richard  D.,  292,  357. 
Cowley,  death  of,  109. 
Coxe's  descriptions,  532. 
Creoles,   character  of,   45 :    as  citizens,    241  ;    as 

church-members,  341. 
Crillon,  Mount,  461. 
Cronstadt,  332,  334. 
Crow  Indians,  429,  430. 

Croyere,  Louis  Delisle  de  la,  death  of,  300,  59S. 
Crozier,  Captain,  343. 
Crucifers  of  Alaska,  598. 
Cruiser,  the  frigate,  333. 


Daedalus,  the  ship,  314. 

Dall  River,  100,  280,  281. 

Dall,  William  H.,  passim ;  his  writings  cited,  597, 
598. 

Dances,  Indian,  95,  igS. 

Dances,  Innuit,  149,  221. 

Danger  Peak,  513. 

Davidoff  explores  Aleutian  Islands,  320,  598. 

Davidson,  Glacier,  252,  448,  463,  183,  598. 

Davidson,  Mr.  George,  252,  255,  271,  448,  483,  4SS  ; 
his  works  cited,  598. 

Davis,  General  Jefferson  C,  appointed  Com- 
mander in  Alaska,  359. 

Davis  Straits,  509. 

Davison,  Lieutenant  John,  291,  356. 

Dawson,  Nancy,  the  yacht,  344. 

Day's  Harbor,  258. 

Dealy  Island,  346. 

Dease  and  Simpson's  Expedition,  338. 

Dease  Inlet,  269. 

Dease  Strait,  345. 

De  Castries  Bay,  526. 

Deep  Bay,  469,  473. 

Deep  Lake,  471,  485. 

Deer  River.  279. 

Delaroff  Bay,  260. 

Delaroff,  E.  A.,  314. 

Delaroff  Island,  247. 


Delphinid.ie  of  Alaska,  578. 

Demarcation  Point,  269. 

Dementoff  Uprovalisha,  275. 

Demiankoff  driven  from  Yakutat  Bay,  323. 

De  Mofras,  340,  598. 

Denys,  his  account  of  Baranoff,  331  ;  cited,  598. 

Derabin,  48,  50  ;  post  established  by,  276  ;  rebuilds 

at  Nulato,  341,  345. 
Derabin,  Fort,  46. 
Derby,  the  American  ship,  325. 
Deshneff,  his  voyage,  295,  296,  375. 
Devil's  Slough,  264 
Diagram  of  casine,  127. 
Dialects,  Indian,  28. 
Diana,  the  sloop  of  war,  325,  326. 
Diomedes,  the,  140,  375. 
Directory  for  Bering's  Sea,  &c.,  598. 
Discovery,  building  of  ship,  326,  331. 
Dixon,  Captain,  308,  598. 
Dixon's  Entrance,  251,  306,  314,  487,  488. 
Documents  pertaining  to  purchase  of  Alaska,  359- 

372. 
Dog-driving,  1S6. 
Dog  tribe  of  Tungusi,  the,  518. 
Dogs,  Russian,  25  ;  travelling  with,  25. 
Dokhteroff,  332. 
Dolphin  .Strait,  345. 
Domestic  life,  139,  140. 
Doroschin,  599. 

Doroshin,  mining  engineer,  273,  342,  457,  477 
Douglas  ascends  the  Taku,  271 ;  sails  from  Macao, 

309.  34°. 
Dove,  599. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  294. 
Dry  Bay,  271. 
Drymen,  445. 
Dumbartonshire,  444. 
Dunn,  599. 

Du  Petit  Thouars,  599. 
Dyer,  Lieutenant  J.  T.,  25,  35,  36;  descends  the 

Yukon,  56,  263,  277,  292,  357. 


Earthquake  in  17SS,  310. 

Earthquakes,  118,  342. 

East  Cape,  269,  286. 

Easter,  celebration  of,  68. 

Eastern  fisheries,  484. 

Eastern  Siberia,  465,  508,  510. 

Ebbets,  Captain,  321  ;  sails  for  Astor,  326. 

Eclipse  Expedition,  554. 

Eclipse,  the  ship,  321. 

Edgartown,  277. 

Edgecunibe  volcano,  467. 

Egg  Island,  3,  5,  24,  266,  267. 

Egg  River,  232. 

Ekogmut  tribe,  223,  227,  228,  407. 

Elisabeth,  the  vessel,  320. 

Elliott,  Dr.,  taken  prisoner,  329. 


INDEX. 


615 


Elson,  the  explorer,  335. 

Emma  Harbor,  270,  343,  511. 

Engelhardt,  599. 

English  Harbor,  25S. 

Ennis,  W.  H.,  S,  292,  357. 

Enterprise,  the  ship,  fitted  out  by  Astor,  326,  333, 
334.  344- 

Equidae  of  Alaska,  578. 

Erebus,  the  ship,  343. 

Eremin  in  charge  of  kyaks,  325. 

Erman,  57S. 

Erse,  Captain,  325. 

Escholtz  Inlet,  269 ;  Bay,  284. 

Eskimo  (or  Esquimaux),  373,  377,  379,  514;  de- 
scription of,  531. 

Espinosa,  599, 

Etolin,  12,  330,  332,  335-337.  340.  341.  352- 

Etolin  Strait,  249-251  ;  Bay,  275. 

Evelyn  Wood,  the  bark,  357,  358. 

Expedition,  organization  of  Telegraph,  355-35S. 

Explorations,  plans  for,  123. 

Exploring  Expedition,  U.  S.,  339,  340,  348. 


Fairway  Rock,  269. 

Fairweather  Mountain,  461. 

Falkland  Islands,  492. 

False  Pass,  260,  305,  396,  448. 

Fauna  of  the  Yukon  Valley,  287. 

Fedis,  599. 

Fenie,  the  ship,  391. 

Festivals,  description  of,  149-  153. 

Findlay's  Directory,  599. 

Fire  River,  25S,  272. 

Fischer,  599. 

Fish-catching,  172,  173,  180,  192. 

Fisheries,  4S1-488. 

Fishes  of  Alaska,  579. 

Fish  River,  284. 

P'lathead  Indians,  420. 

Fleurieu's  voyage,  599. 

Flying  Fish,  the  schooner,  339. 

Forbes,  Professor  E.,  435. 

Forcier  River,  279. 

Forster,  600. 

Fort  Alexander,  273  -  275,  452. 

"     Andreafsky,  283,  291. 

"     Archangel  Gabriel,  320. 

"     Archangel  Michael,  323. 

"     Babiiie,  114. 

"     Dease,  1 14. 

"     Defiance,  313. 

"     Derabin,  46. 

"    Dionysius,  337,  338. 

"     Drew,  340. 

"     Francis,  114. 

"    George,  328. 

"     Halkett,  340. 

"    Kennicott,  building  of,  68,  72,  124. 


Fort  Lukeen,  340. 
"     McPherson,  103,  2S0,  344. 
"     Nelson,  112. 
"     Nulato,  34S. 
"     Peace  River,  114. 
"     Pelly  Banks,  114. 
"     Selkirk,  114,  276,  277,  279,  283,  287,  345,  429, 

507,  508. 
"     Simpson,  203,  251,  252,  411,  454. 
"     St.  Michael,  336. 
"    Tongas,  251. 
"     Union,  458. 
"     Vancouver,  337. 
"     Wrangell,  251. 
"     Yukon,  69,  71, 

192 

SOI 


102 :  description  of,  102 
276,  292,  342,  348,  357,  437,  439.  441 
502. 


Fortuna,  the  ship,  297;  wrecked,  298,  331. 

Fossils,  67,  71,  280. 

Foster's  Mississippi  Valley  cited,  458. 

Four  Craters  volcano,  467,  468,  469. 

Fox  Islands,  explored,  304,  305,  350,  476. 

Frances  Lake,  278,  429 ;  River,  278,  279,  292,  508. 

Francis,  Mr.,  25,  35. 

Franklin,  Sir  John,  search  for,  48,  331,  334,  335, 

338,  343- 
Frazer  Take,  324  ;  River,  356. 
Frazer,  Simon,  324. 
Frederick,  Captain  Charles,  346. 
Frederick  Sound,  250,  252. 
Fremont,  J.  C,  his  Rocky  Mountain  Expedition, 

341- 
Freimann,  600. 
Freygang,  600. 
Fur  trade,  48S  -  504. 
Furuhelm,  Captain,  348  ;  supersedes  Woiwodsky, 

349>  353>  355  '•  superseded  by  Maksutofif,  355. 


Gabriel,  the  ship,  297. 
Gale,  Captain,  326. 
Galiano,  Lieutenant  D.  A.,  313. 
Gallapagos  Island,  492. 
Game,  201  -203. 

Gens  de  Bois,  the  tribe  of,  109,  430. 
Gens  de  Large,  109. 
Gens  des  Buttes,  108,  282. 
Gens  des  Foux,  109,  429. 
Gentianaces  of  Alaska,  591. 
Geosraphischer  Mittheilungen,  290. 
Geography  of  Alaska,  243-293. 
George's  Strait,  319. 
Germain,  Father,  339. 
Ghent,  treaty  of,  329. 
Ghihaks,  the,  522. 
Gibbs,  Dr.  George,  378,  430. 
Glacier  Arm,  253,  340. 

GlasunoflF  explores  the  Yukon,  etc.,  265,  275.  276, 
338. 


6i6 


INDEX. 


Glossan,',  529-  536- 

Glottoff,  the  explorer,  350. 

Glover,  Lieutenant  Russell,  356. 

Glubokoi  Lake,  253. 

Gmelin  cited,  600. 

Gold  in  California,  discovery  of,  344. 

Golden  Gate,  the  bark,  4,  356-358. 

Golikoff,  G.,  receives  medal  from  Catherine  IL, 

309- 
Golikoff,  Ivan,  316. 
Golofhin  Bay,  333 ;  the  ship,  333. 
Golofhin,  W.  M.,  in  charge  of  sloop  Diana,  325, 

326,  330,  331  ;  his  book  cited,  600. 
Golofnina  Bay.  267,  268,  284. 
Golovin,  Father,  339. 
Golovin,  P.  N.,  349,  353,  354.  449,  600. 
Golovin  Sound,  267,  333,  336. 
Golsova  River,  20,  129,  160,  267,  284. 
Good  Intent,  exploring  vessel,  331,  332. 
Goodnews  Bay,  262,  331. 
Gore,  Lieutenant  John,  306. 
Goreloi  Island,  247,  302. 
Goreloi,  volcano,  289,  466,  473. 
Govorlif  ki's  Report,  600. 
Graniinese  of  Alaska,  592. 
Grant,  U.  S.,  Secretary  of  War,  369. 
Grantley  Harbor,  party  at,  4,  61,  120,  147,  216,  284, 

240.  345.  358,  472,  501.  502. 
Grasses  of  Alaska,  592. 
Graves,  description  of,   19  ;  Ingalik,   132  ;   Innuit, 

146. 
Gray,  Captain  Robert,  from  Boston,  309 ;  carries 

United  States  flag  round  the  world  for  the  first 

time,  311,  314. 
Great  Britahi  and  Russia,  convention  between,  334. 
Great  Net  Island,  247. 
Great  Sitkin  volcano,  467. 
Greek  Catholics,  390. 
Greek  Church,  missionaries  of,  28,  226,  350-352, 

400. 
Greenough  visits  the  Columbia  River,  340,600,  601. 
Greenlanders,  language  of,  377. 
Greenhow's   History  of  Oregon,  &c.,  cited,  311- 

314;  error  in,  323. 
Gregorieff  explores  Copper  River,  341. 
Grewingk  cited,  2S8,  457,  475,  478,  601. 
Grossulacea;  of  Alaska,  590. 
Grouse-catching,  178. 
Guaymas,  345. 
Gugiak  Bay,  261. 
Guise,  Captain,  308. 
Gulf  Stream  of  the  Pacific,  285. 
Gwosdeff,  Michael,  engineer,  298. 


H. 

Hagenmeister,   Captain,   325 ;    assumes  duties 

Chief  Director,  330,  331,  335. 
Hagenmeister  Island,  261. 
Hall,  Captain,  313,  512. 


Halleck,  General,  374. 

Hamilton  Harbor,  253,  474. 

Hanemann's  calculations,  290. 

Han  Kutchin  tribe,  109,  430. 

Hanna,  James,  makes  trading  voyages,  307. 

Harder's  astronomical  observations,  342. 

Harding,  Captain,  356. 

Hardisty,  William  L.,  196. 
!   Harper's  Magazine,  601. 
I   Hartwig  cited,  passim,  519. 

Hawaiian  Spectator  cited,  601. 

Hawkin  Island,  257. 

Hearne,  Samuel,  explores  Copper  Mine  River,  305. 

Heceta,  Captain,  expedition  of,  305  ;  discovers  the 
mouth  of  Columbia  River,  306. 

Heights  of  mountains,  2S9. 

Helena,  the  ship,  334,  335,  338. 

Hellt,  the  astronomer,  343. 

Helmersen's  Beitrage,  265. 

Henry,  Mr.,  in  charge  of  Fort  Nelson,  112. 

Herald  Island,  250,  344,  509. 

Herald,  the  ship,  343. 

Hewston,  Dr.  John,  477. 

Hinchinbrook  Island,  257. 

History  of  Alaska,  294-372. 

Hofmann,  his  v.ork  cited,  601. 

Hohonila,  Mount,  84. 

Holmberg  cited,  428  et  seq.,  601. 

Hong  Kong,  345. 

Honolulu,  502. 

Hood's  Bay,  473. 

Hooper,  his  work  cited,  601. 

Hooper's  ov">inion  on  the  name  of  the  Tuski,  374 

Hospitals,  352,  353. 

Hotham  Inlet,  284. 

Houle,  Antoine,  interpreter,  86,  gi,  102. 

Houses,  description  of,  13,  14. 

Hudson  Bay,  344,  502,  507,  530. 

Hudson  Bay  Company,  91  ;  trading  with  Indians, 
104,  III,  112;  its  policy,  114:  difficulties  with 
Russians,  337  ;  compromise,  338  :  lease  re- 
newed, 34S ;   importations  of,  601. 

Hulitnak  River,  274,  275. 

Humboldt,  quoted,  385,  601. 

Hgnt,  Wilson  P.,  327  ;  arrives  at  Astoria,  329. 

Hunting,  201  -203. 


Ice  Company  on  Woody  Island,  259. 

Ice  from  Sitka,  346  ;  negotiations  concerning,  347 

348,  355. 
Icy  Cape,  256,  332. 
Icy  Strait,  250,  252. 
Ig'oo,  532. 
Iglii,  532. 

Ignalook  Island,  246. 
Ignatief,  Isai,  his  voyage,  294,  295. 
Iktigalik,  village  of,   26,  33  ;  expedition  starls  for, 

35;  reached,  37,  157;  expedition  at,  16S. 


INDEX. 


617 


rliamna  Lake,  273 ;  volcano,  2S9,  466,  467. 
Iliuluk,  444. 
Ilmen,  the  ship,  329. 
Imaklit  Island,  249. 
Indian  stocks,  411. 

Indians,  superstitions  of,  61  ;  Tananah  River,  83  ; 
religion  of,  88 ;  Lake  Superior,  91  ;  mode  of 
painting,  94 ;  ornaments,  95  ;  dances.  95  ;  chil- 
dren, gS ;  Chilkaht,  100 ;  Tananah,  107,  108  ; 
Natche  Kutchin  tribe,  log ;  Rat,  109  ;  Vunta 
Kutchin,  109 ;  Han  Kutchin,  log  ;  Iiigalik  tribe, 
193,  194 ;  sickness  among,  195  ;  music,  igg  ; 
utensils,  216,  218  ;  different  tribes,  373-432. 

Ingalik  tribe,  28  ;  description  of,  53  ;  cranium,  67  ; 
grave,  132;  sleds,  165;  habits  of,  193,  194;  ca- 
noes, 2ig. 

Ingechuk,  2g  ;  as  letter-carrier,  34. 

Ingenstrbm,  336. 

Inglutalik,  47g. 

Inglutalik  River,  284. 

Ingraham,  Joseph,  309. 

Inkalichljuaten  tribe,  432. 

Inkiliken  tribe,  432. 

Innoko  River,  282,  432. 

Innuit,  great  family  of.  13  :  description  of  the,  18  ; 
casine,    127;    characteristics    of,    136;    different 
tribes    of,    137 ;     habits    of,     141  -  146  ;    trading 
among,    143,   144 ;    description    of   grave,    146  ; 
dancing  among,  149;  festivals,  149-153;  kind- 
ness of,    159;    drawings  on  bone,  237;   village, 
264 ;    classification    of,    374 ;    of    Alaska,    401  ; 
meaning    of    name,    532  ;     Aleuts,    civilization 
among,  115  ;  honesty  of,  133  ;  Kaviak  tribe,  138  ;   I 
Mahlemut,  tribe  of,  138  :  ornaments  among,  141  ;   I 
clothing  of,  141 ;  trading  among,  143,   144  ;  dan-   I 
cing  among,  149,  221  ;  festivals,  149-153  ;  Ekog- 
mut  tribe,  223  ;  drawings  on  bone,  237. 

Invalid  Reuski,  601. 

Inverness,  445,  447. 

Investigator,  the  ship,  344,  347. 

Irkutsk,  308  ;  company  organized  at,  317,  320,  340, 
501.  532. 

Isabella,  the  ship,  330. 

Isanotski  Pass,  248. 

Isanotski  Strait,  260,  448,  469,  470. 

Isanotski  Mountain,  289. 

Ivan  Pavloff,  bidarshik,  44,  59  ;  rescued,  6g,  91. 

Ivan's  barrabora,  42,  170,  531. 

Ivrashka  Island,  248. 


Jacobi,  General  John,  his  direction  as  to  discov- 
eries, 308. 
Janoffsky,  Lieutenant,  331,  332,  601. 
Japan  current,  285. 

Japan  Expedition,  United  States,  347  ;  treaty,  347. 
Japanese  Archipelago,  347. 
Japanese  historians,  523. 
Japonski  Island,  254, 


Jearny's  barrabora,  176. 

Jelagin,  Ivan,  Bering's  pilot,  270,  299. 

Joanna  Bogoslova,  volcano  of,  324 

Joasaph,  Archimandrite,  315  ;  complains  of  Baran- 
off,  316  ;  made  bishop,  317  ;  death  of,  319,  339. 

Johnson,  President  Andrew,  his  Alaska  proclama- 
tion, etc.,  359-372. 

Jones,  Strachan,  Commander  at  Fort  Yukon,  196, 
202,  276,  355. 

Journal  des  Savans  cited,  601. 

Journal  of  Department  of  the  Interior,  602. 

JVgelnuten  tribe,  432. 

Junker,  Captain,  340. 

Junnakachotana  Indians,  431. 

Juno,  the  ship,  323. 

Juvenati,  Father,  attempts  to  put  down  polygamy, 
317- 


Kachidaguk  Point,  478. 

Kadiak  Archipelago,  259. 

Kadiak,  group,   246  ;  area  of,  290,  303,  313  ;  first 

census  of,  317,  331  ;  chu.ch  at,  317:  school  at, 

323>  331.   334.   338,   340.   34i>   342.   .345.   35°.  35'. 

352  ;  missionaries  at,  3gg,  401,  443,  450,  476,  477, 

478,  479,  481,  483,  529. 
Kadiak,  the  ship,  wreck  of,  349. 
Kadin,  Michael,  pilot,  349. 
Kadnikoff,  Captain,  339,  340. 
Kagataya  Koung'ns,  or  "  People  of  the  East,"  3S5, 

530. 
Kaiyuh-kho-tana,  431. 
Kaiyuh  River,  68,  282. 
Kake  Strait,  253,  321,  349,  458,  474. 
Kaknu  River,  258,  273,  336,  477. 
Kalgin  Island,  258. 
Kaltag,  village  of,  41,  65. 
Kamchatka,  313,  335,  354,  357,  358,  482,  484,  491, 

515,  523,  529,  532. 
Kamchatka,  Bay  of,  258. 
Kamchatka  River,  270,  285,  516,  51S. 
Kamlayka,  532. 
Kamokin,  40S. 
Kamshadales,  516,  517,  523. 
Kanaga  Island,  247  ;  volcano,  467,  469,  473. 
Kanaka  dialect,  3S1. 

Kaniagmuts,  385  ;  description  of,  3S5  et  seq. 
Karagin,  the  explorer,  249. 
Karaginski  Island,  249. 
Kashevaroff,  340,  341,  354 ;  cited,  602. 
Katmai  Bay,  259,  458. 
Kavalay  Island,  247. 
Kaviagmuts,  408. 

Kaviak  Peninsula,  26S,  288,  289,  498,  500. 
Kaviaks,  morals  of  138. 
Kavi-ava-zak  River,  284. 
Kayak  Island,  257. 
Kazarn  Bay,  251,  486, 
Keeska  Island,  247. 
Kegikhtuhhak,  533. 


6i8 


INDEX. 


Kegiklitiik,  533. 

Kegiktowruk,  cove  of,  16-20,  125;  casine  of,  126, 

158,  267,  283,  532. 
Kellett,  Captain  Henry,  343,  346,  509. 
Kellogg,  Dr.,  44S,  449,  452,  455. 
Kelsey,  358. 
Kenai  Peninsula,  258,  259,  315  ;  polygamy  in,  317, 

342,  351  ;  natives  hostile,  320. 
Kenaizer  tribe,  42S. 
Kendrick,   Captain   John,  309 ;    his  first   passage 

through  Straits  of  Fuca,  311. 
Kennan,  George,  356. 
Kennicott  Lake,  506. 
Kennicott  Mountain,  512. 
Kennicott,  Robert,  liis  experience  in  the  Hudson 

Bay  Territory,  4  ;  death,  5  ;  visits  Major's  Cove, 

20 ;  epitaph,  70 ;  plans  for  explorations,  122,  276, 

349,  355.  356,  35S,  457- 
Kentucky  coal,  475. 
Ketchum,  Frank  E.,  8,  14,  i8,  23,  43,  56,  116,  277; 

ascends  Yukon,  277  ;  his  map,  280,  283-292,  357, 

507- 
Ketchum,  Lake,  506. 
Ketlitk  Kutchin,  431. 
Khanukh,  414. 

Khlebnikoff' s  explorations,  326. 
Khwostoff  Peak,  289. 
Khwostoff  explores  Admiralty  Bay,  etc.,  317,  319, 

Kiachta,  501. 
Kikhtuk,  532. 
Kilen,  the,  522. 
King  Island,  268. 

Kipniuk  River,  253,  264,  265,  275,  407. 
Kirkby,  Rev.  W.  W.,  457  ;  his  travels,  278. 
Kirloff  Bay,  260. 
Kislakoffsky,  333. 
Kitlakalaks,  4S5. 
Kittlitz,  the  naturalist,  335,  602. 
Klatkakhatne    River,    46  ;    head-quarters    of   the 
Yukon   Division,    61,   6g,    71  ;   breaking   up  of, 

Klimoffsky  explores  Copper  River,  331. 

Klinkofstrbm,  Captain  Martin,  342. 

Klochkoff,  333. 

Klucheff  volcano,  423. 

Knife,  Kutchin,  105. 

Knight  Island,  257. 

Knik  River,  272. 

Kniktagmut,  408. 

Koch,  appointed  Chief  Director  of  Colonies,  325  ; 

death  of,  325. 
Kodiak,  529. 
Koliak,  Isaac,  216. 
Koliuchin  Bay,  374. 

Kolmakoff,  his  explorations,  331,  332,  336,  338. 
Kolmakoff,  Redoubt,  274,  275. 
Koloshes,  tribe  of,  393,  411,  416,  533. 
Kolshina  River,  429. 
Kolyma  River,  294,  313,  376,  509,  513,  515,  519. 


Koniandorski  Islands,  247. 

Konaton  River,  282. 

Koni  volcano,  473. 

Koniushi  volcano,  469. 

Koriaks,  the,  513,  514,  515. 

Korovin,  303  ;  Bay,  473. 

Korovin  volcano,  289. 

Korovinsky  Bay,  260. 

Korsakoff,  his  explorations,  274,  331. 

Koshkin  cited,  602. 

Kostlitzeff  cited,  602. 

Kotelkakat  River,  48,  53,  2S2. 

Kotelno  River,  53,  282. 

Kotlo  River,  280,  479. 

Kotzebue,  August  F.  von,  263,  329,  434,  446. 

Kotzebue,  Lieutenant  Otto  von,  329,  330,  331,  333, 
334- 

Kotzebue  Sound,  53,  124,  147,  161,  216,  246;  de- 
scription of,  268,  284,  335,  344,  345,  407,  409, 
434,  440,  465,  472,  479,  484,  486,  502,  602. 

Kou-i-u  Island,  250,  474. 

Koyuk  River,  284. 

Koyukuk  River,  48,  77,  192.  282,  357  ;  Sopka,  2S9 

Koyukukho-tana  Indians,  431. 

Koyukun  tribe,  48;  massacre  by,  48 -52;  charac- 
teristics of,  54,  345. 

Kramchenko,  333,  335  :  cited,  602. 

Krasnoyarsk,  Resanoff  dies  at,  325. 

Kreesa  Island,  247. 

Krenitzin,  Captain,  explores  the  Fox  Islands,  304, 
602. 

Krotky,  the  transport,  335. 

Krugli  Island,  247. 

Krusenstern,  expedition  under,  321,  603,  603. 

Krusenstern  Island,  246,  249. 

Krushchoff,  Captain,  333,  334,  602. 

Kruznoff  Bay,  474. 

Krnzoff  Island,  254,  289. 

Kugalga  Island,  248. 

Kuiu  Island,  250,  474. 

Kulukak  Bay,  261. 

Kun  River,  263. 

Kunguk  River,  269,  284. 

Kupffer,  cited,  603. 

Kuprianoff,  Captain,  succeeds  Wrangell,  338. 

Kuprianoff  Island,  250,  474. 

Kuprianoff  Straits,  340. 

Kurile-Ainos,  526. 

Kurile  Islands,  288,  296  ;  invaded  by  Russians,  297  ; 
explored  by  Spanberg,  299,  328,  336,  350,  496  ; 
description  of,  523. 

Kurilla,  a  Nulato  Indian,  55. 

Kurupanoff,  10. 

Kushevaroff,  12,  339,  340. 

Kusilvak  Channel,  264,  284. 

Kusilvak  Mountain,  232. 

Kusilvak  River,  265,  275,  283. 

Kuskoff,  attacked  by  Thlinkets,  321,  325  ;  expedi- 
tion under,  326,  327  ;  makes  settlement  in  Cali- 
fornia, 32S. 


INDEX. 


619 


Kiiskoquim  River,  262,  273,  274,  275,  292,  336, 
338,  340,  350,  406,  464,  479,  4S1  ;  bay,  331,  332. 

Kuskwogimits,  tribe  of,  405  ct  seq. 

Kutcha  Kiitchin  tribe,  428,  431. 

Kutchin  tribes,  428,  431. 

Kutelno  River,  53,  282. 

Kuthlatno  River,  282. 

Kiitkan,  Michael,  341,  354. 

Kutlik  Channel,  119,  234,  264,  2S4. 

KutusofF,  the  ship,  330. 

Kwee-ahogemut  village,  264. 

Kwichak  River,  260. 

Kwikhpak,  mouth  of  the  Yukon,  265,  273  ;  identi- 
fied with  Yukon,  277,  283,  351  ;  slough,  407,  533. 

Kwikhtana,  barrabora,  210. 

Kwinchagak  River,  260. 

Kyak,  description  of  a,  15,  137,  138. 

Kyber,  Dr.,  508. 

Kygani  Indians,  411,  417. 


Ladoga,  the  sloop,  333. 

Ladygin,  company  formed  by,  317. 

Lambert,  M.  Gustave,  357. 

Lamuts  tribe,  518. 

Lancaster  Sound,  346. 

Langsdorf,  Herr  G.  H.  von,  603. 

La  Perouse  describes  Lituya  Bay,  256,  271  ;  expe- 
dition of,  307,  478,  48 1,  602. 

La  Pierre's  House,  103,  430. 

La  Place,  602. 

Lark,  wreck  of  ship,  328. 

Larriown,  51  ;  description  of,  52  ;  as  a  shaman, 
193,  226,  438. 

Lasareff,  Michael  Petrovich,  in  charge  of  the  Su- 
warrow,  329. 

Lastochkin,  Lebedeff,  318  ;  visits  Copper  River, 
318. 

Leather  village,  220. 

Lebarge  Lake,  277,  279. 

Lebarge,  Michael,  8,  25  ;  accompanies  Ketchum, 
56,  240,  284,  2S9,  357,  507. 

Lebrun,  603. 

Lehigh,  Pa.,  coal,  475. 

Lena  River,  535. 

Lenz,  E.,  603. 

Leporidae  of  Alaska,  577. 

Leshinski  divulges  a  conspiracy,  325. 

Lesnoi  Island,  248. 

Levashefif,  Lieutenant,  e.xplores  Fox  Islands,  304. 

LevashefF,  603. 

Lewis  and  Clark  descend  the  Columbia,  323. 

Lewis  River,  276,  277,  441,  508. 

Liard  River,  106,  112,  291,  292,  337,  340,  429. 

Lincoln,  ships  built  by,  326. 

Lindenberg's  researches,  339. 

Linn,  member  of  Congress  from  Missouri,  341. 

Lisiansky,  expedition  under,  321,  323;  his  descrip- 
tion of  Indians,  430,  481,  603. 


Little  Sidorka,  55. 

Lituya  Bay,  256,  307,  47S ;  fish  in,  484. 

Lobos  Islands,  492. 

Lockhart,  349. 

Lofka,  the  Indian,  31,  51,  282. 

Lofka's  barrabora,  210. 

Long,  Captain  Theodore,  250,  509. 

Long  Strait,  509. 

Look-and-see-it  River,  85. 

Looncap  village,  224. 

Loucheux  Indians,  431. 

Lowrie,  Captain,  308. 

Lukeen,  Ivan  Simonsen,  274,  276 ;  ascends  Yukon, 

276 ;  establishes  post  at  Kuskoquim,  336  ;  fort, 

275.  340>  355>  357- 
Lutke,  Captain  F.,  230,  335,  481,  603. 
Lynn  Canal  explored,  317,  339,  471. 
Lynn  Channel,  250,  271,  411. 


M. 
Macao,  307,  335. 
Mackenzie,  Alexander,  315,  604. 
Mackenzie  River,  28,  loi,  284,  334,  338,  344,  373, 

401,  409,  428. 
Macmillan  River,  27S,  429. 
Mactavish  River,  328. 
McClure,  Robert  S.  Le  M.,  344,  345,  346. 
McDonald,  Rev.  Mr.,  103,  105,  no,  280. 
McDougal,  J.,  103,  105,  206. 
McLeod,  John,  337. 
McLeod,  Peter,  91,  277. 
McMurray  builds  Fort  Yukon,  102,  276  ;  descends 

Porcupine  River,  342. 
McRae,  Lieutenant,  356. 
Magemuts,  tribe  of,  407. 
Maguire,  Commodore  Rochefort,  346,  604. 
Mahlemuts,  tribe  of,   14  :  bidarra,  135  ;  morals  of, 

i39>  407.  409- 
Mahood,  James  A.,  356. 
Major's  Cove  visited  by  Kennicott,  20,   125,   159, 

267. 
MaksutofF  supersedes  Firuhelm,  355. 
Makushin  Bay,  289 ;  volcano,  467,  468,  469,  470. 
Malakoff,  12  ;  builds  a  trading-post,  48,  273,  276, 

.337.  339.  34I- 
Malespina,  Captain  A.,  313. 
Manatids  of  Alaska,  578. 
Manchoos,  tribe  of,  522,  523- 
Manki,  village  of,  223,  407. 
Mannheim  on  the  Rhine,  451. 
Maps  of  Alaska,  290. 

Marchand,  Captain  E.,  313,  604  ;  vide  Fleuneu. 
Maria  Louisa  River,  263,  275. 
Maria,  the  vessel,  322. 
Marmot  Island,  248. 

Marriage  in  Russian  America,  11,  12,  139. 
Marston,  Captain,  356. 
Marton,  birthplace  of  Captain  Cook,  306. 
i   Mary  Magdalene,  the  ship,  330. 


620 


INDEX. 


Masa  Fuero  Island,  492. 
Massacre  at  Nulato,  231. 
Mat  fay,  28. 
Mazatlan,  344. 

Meares,  Captain  John,  308,  309. 
Meares's  Great  Archipelago,  250. 
Meares's  voyages,  604. 

Medvednikoff  commands  the  Three  Saints,  317. 
Medvednikofif  volcano,  387,  467. 
Meek  and  Blanchard  arrive  at  Sitka,  334. 
Meek,  F.  B.,  457. 
Meeshka,  28. 

Melozikakat  River,  84,  282. 
Melville  Sound,  345  :  Island,  346. 
Merck,  Dr.  Carl,  310. 
Mercy  Bay,  345. 
Mertens,  the  botanist,  453. 
Mexican  War,  342. 

Michaelovski  Redoubt,   description  of,  9,  10:  at- 
tack by  the  Unaligmuts,  9  ;  defended  by  Kuru- 
panofF,  10. 
Milavanoff  River,  231,  283. 
Milton  Badger,  the  schooner,  356. 
Mineral  springs,  472  et  seq. 
Minnesota,  358. 
Minto  Inlet,  345. 
Miskuntl'kakat  River,  282. 
Missionary  labor,  in. 

Missions,   nS,   145,  223,  224;  description  of,  227; 
at   Ekogmut,  283,   291  ;  Roman  Catholic,   328 ; 
districts,  351. 
Mitkoff,  Captain,  345. 
Mock  suns,  40 
Mongolian  features,  376,  519. 
Monroe,  James,  Secretary  of  State,  announces  re- 
occupation  of  Astoria  by  the  United  States,  329. 
Montague  Island,  257. 
Moore,  Captain  Thomas  E.  L.,  343,  511. 
MordofFski,  Father,  333. 
Moroscovich,  L.  S,,  296. 
Morrell,  Captain  Benjamin,  492. 
Morse  settlement,  260. 
Morzhowi  Island,  248. 
Moscow,  330. 
Motora,  Simeon,  295. 
Mount  Baker,  342. 
"        Bendeleben,  289. 
"        Calder,  289. 
"        Crillon,  289. 
"        Devastation,  289. 
"       Diablo,  475. 

"        Edgecumbe,  259,  289,  306,  313,  317. 
"        Fairweather,  289,  428. 
•'        Hohonila,  289. 
"        Kennicott,  270,  289,  512. 
"        Kotlo,  280. 
"       San  Jacinto,  254,  306. 
"        Shishaldin,  289. 

"        St.  Elias,  2S9,  306,  340,  342,  350,  401,  428. 
"       St.  Helen,  470. 


Mount  St.  Paul,  342. 

"        Veniaminoff,  470. 

"        Vostovia,  471. 

"       Wrangell,  289,  469. 
Mountain  ranges,  286-290. 
Mountains,  height  of,  289. 
Mueller,  G.  F.,  604. 
Muganolwik  River,  263,  275. 
MuUer  cited,  515,  522. 
Mumford,  G.  H.,  292. 
Munich,  climate  of,  451. 
Murasheff,  the  explorer,  340. 
Muravieff,  Captain,  Director  of  the  Colonies,  332, 

334-  336.  337- 
Murderer's  Village,  220. 
Murid^  of  Alaska,  577. 
Music,  Indian,  199. 
Mustelidae  of  Alaska,  576. 
Mylnikoff  organizes  a  company,  317. 


N. 

Nadeshda,  the  ship,  321. 

Na-gun-alayeksa  Island,  529. 

Naknek  River,  261,  273. 

Nanaimo  coal,  475. 

Naplakoff,  conspiracy  of,  325. 

Xasse  Indians,  411. 

Nasse  River,  251,  270,  415,  485. 

Natche  Kutchin  tribe,  log,  430. 

Nearer  Islands,  247  ;  explored  by  Rybinski,  302, 

333- 
Nebraska,  458. 
Nehaunees,  tribe  of,  429. 
Nerpichoi  Islands,  261. 
Netsvieloff,  Father,  334. 
Neva,  the  ship,  321. 
Nevelsky,  Captain.  343. 
Nevodtsikoff,  Michael,  his  voj'age,  301,  302. 
New  Archangel,  254,  323,  412. 
New,  Lieutenant,  314. 
New  Russia,  settlement  of,  316. 
New  Westminster,  356,  506. 
New  York,  climate  of,  451. 
Newberry,  Professor  J.  S.,  474,  476. 
Newcastle  coal,  475 
Newenham,  Cape,  331. 
Newfoundland,  banks  of,  482. 
Niakina  Cove,  270,  299,  516,  530. 
Nightingale,  the  ship,  in  Norton  Sound,  3;  sails 

for  Plover  Bay,  8,  65,  337,  358. 
Nijni  Kamchatka,  285. 
Nijni  Kolymsk,  270,  513. 
Nikolai  I.,  the  ship,  339,  341  ;  loss  of,  349- 
Nikolaiffsk,  526. 
Nookmut,  village  of,  268,  40S. 
Nootka  Sound,  discovered  by  Perez,  305  ;  entered 

by  American  ships  in  1708,  309,  313,  4S4. 
Noquashinski  Bay,  471. 
Norfolk  Sound,  313. 


INDEX. 


621 


North  Fork  of  Stikine  River,  271. 

North  Star,  the  ship,  347. 

Norton  Bay,  147. 

Norton  Sound,  333,  336,  375  ;  Nightingale  anchors 
in,  3  ;  effect  of  wind  on  depth  of  water  in,  3, 
123,  127  ;  festivities  at,  154,  246,  267,  284,  287, 
292,340,  344,  345,  350,  355,  357,  518,  531  ;  Innuit 
of,  404,  405,  40S,  409,  410,  437,  440,  465,  4S4, 
498,  532- 

Norway  House,  344. 

Notarmi,  48;  commands  at  Nulato,  288. 

Notokakat  River,  100,  280. 

Nowikakat,  village  of,  85,  276. 

Nowikakat  River,  description  of,  86,  282,  341,  355. 

Nowikakat  Mountains,  2S8. 

N'tsoh,  village  of,  35. 

Nuchek  harbor,  factory  at,  318,  336. 

Nukhikahyet,  village  of,  86,  93,  276,  282,  428,  442. 

Nulato,  23,  42,  43  ;  made  head-quarters,  44  ;  de- 
scription of,  44-49;  Lieut.  Barnard  arrives  at, 
48  ;  massacre  at,  50,  65  ;  expedition  starts  from, 
74;  distance  from  to  Fort  Yukon,  102,  124;  ob- 
servations at,  192  ;  departure  of  Scientific  Corps 
from,  207,  276,  282,  283,  341,  345,  348,  358,  471. 

Nulato  River,  6,  47,  66,  69  ;  breaking  up  of,  205. 

Nulato  tribe,  attacked  by  the  Koyukuns,  49,  50. 

Nunarbook  Island,  246. 

Nunatok  River,  432. 

Nunivak,  137,  249,  262,  332,  406. 

Nushergagmuts,  tribe  of,  405. 

Nushergak  River,  4,  273,  275,  289,  292,  331,  336, 
339.  351.  352,  400.  40s.  464.  479- 

Nuwungmeun,  name  of  Point  Barrow  tribe,  410. 


Obi  River,  284. 

Observatory  at  Sitka,  337,  340. 

Observatory  Canal,  251  ;  Inlet,  270. 

Ocean  currents,  2S5. 

Ochotsk,  first  vessel  built  at,  297,  330  ;  government 
of.  333.  341  ;  vessel,  348  ;  sea,  356,  482,  483,  502 ; 
tribes  on,  518,  522,  532. 

Oglemuts,  tribe  of,  405,  406. 

Oke-ogmuts,  tribe  of,  249,  409. 

Olga,  the  brig,  356. 

One-Tree  Camp,  169. 

Ontario,  the  sloop  of  war,  330. 

Onug-anugemut  village,  264. 

Orarian,  a  name  proposed  for  the  tribes  of  Eskimo 
stock,  373  ;  on  Chukchee  Peninsula,  374 ;  in  gen- 
eral, 375  et  seq.,  404  ;  stock,  520. 

Oregon,  bill  for  occupation  of,  341  ;  climate  of,  44S. 

Orinoco  River,  284. 

Orkney  Islands,  103,  445  ;  agriculture  of,  447,  449, 
503- 

Ornaments  worn  by  Indians,  141. 

Oserski  Bay,  253. 

Ostrofskoi,  131. 

Otis,  Dr.,  on  aboriginal  crania,  410. 


Otter-hunting,  489^/^-^^. 
Ougamok  Island,  248. 


P. 

Pacific  Fur  Company,  organization  of,  326,  328, 
329- 

Pacific  Railroad,  475. 

Pallas,  Dr.  P.  S.,  604. 

Pallonoi  Point,  158. 

Palmetto,  the  bark,  357. 

Papoosh,  name  for  bunches  of  tobacco,  533 

Paramushir  Island,  523. 

Parenosa  Bay,  472. 

Parry,  Arctic  expedition  of,  331,  334. 

Paspilkoff,  61. 

Pastol  Bay,  147,  264,  265,  266. 

Pastoliak  River,  266,  284. 

Pastoligmuts,  tribe  of,  407. 

Pastolik,  14,  119,  137  ;  description  of,  236,  266,  284, 
407. 

Paul,  the  Emperor,  protects  trading,  60,  318. 

Paulosk,  399. 

Pavloff,  172. 

Pavloff  volcano,  289,  466,  467,  470  ;  Bay,  469. 

Pavlutski,  Captain  Demetrius,  298. 

Peace,  exploring  vessel,  331. 

Peacock,  the  sloop  of  war,  339,  340, 

Pearl,  the  brig,  333,  334. 

Pease,  Charles,  6,  357. 

Peel's  River,  103,  280,  287,  507. 

Peetka,  son  of  Ivan,  52. 

Peirce,  B    M.,  his  report,  449. 

Pelly  Banks  Fort,  50S 

Pelly  Lakes,  278,  292. 

Pelly  River,  278  ;  Indians  on,  429,  44'- 

Pemmican  as  food,  136, 

Penjinsk  Gulf,  295,  298,  357. 

Pennsylvania,  Agricultural  College  of,  441  ;  coal- 
fields of,  474. 

Perez  Inlet,  306. 

Perez,  Juan,  discovers  Queen  Charlotte's  Island, 
305- 

Peril  Island,  250. 

Perry,  Commodore,  346. 

Peter  the  Great  prepares  an  expedition  to  Ameri- 
ca, 297. 

Petermann,  Dr.  A.,  278  ;  his  map,  290. 

Peters,  Captain,  307. 

Petroleum,  259. 

Petropavlovsk,  270,  299  ;  vessel,  320,  330,  332,  335, 
343.  347.  348.  357.  35^.  516  :  horses  at,  518,  530. 

Philadelphia,  climate  of,  451. 

Philatoff.  Captain,  333. 

Philippine  Islands,  330. 

Phocids  of -Alaska,  577. 

Phoenix,  wreck  of  ship,  326. 

Physeterids  of  Alaska,  578. 

Pikmiktalik  River,  239,  265,  266,  284. 

Pim,  Captain  Bedford,  52,  345,  346. 


622 


INDEX. 


Pinik  Islands,  249. 

Pinnacle  Island,  298. 

Pinnipedia  of  Alaska,  577. 

Pipes,  tobacco,  81. 

Pittsburg,  Pa.,  coal,  475. 

Plans  for  scientific  operations  approved,  6. 

Platofif,  building  of  schooner,  330. 

Plavezhnoi  Lake,  341. 

Plover  Bay,  4,  250,  269,  289,  343,  357,  358,  375,  379, 

46s,  511,  514. 
Plover,  the  ship,  343,  344. 
Plymouth,  344. 
Podushkin,  Captain,  32S. 
Pogitcha  explored  by  Michael  Stadukin,  295. 
Point  Aziagakak,  264. 
"     Barrow,  250,  269,  335,  338,  339,  344,  345,  346, 

401,  409. 
"      Cornwallis,  253. 
"      Etolin,  405. 
"      Granville,  305. 
"     Hope,  269. 
"     Nome,  268. 
"      Rodney,  268. 
"      Romanoff,  264,  265. 
"      Woodhouse,  253. 
Polar  Sea,  509. 

Polish  exiles  conquer  a  garrison,  303. 
Polygamy  in  Kenai,  317. 
Ponafidin,  Captain,  332. 
Pope,  Frank  L.,  355,  356,  357. 
Pope's  River,  275. 
Poplar  Creek,  39. 
Popoff  Island,  259. 

Popoff,  Peter,  131,  297  ;  conspiracy  of,  325,  375. 
Population  of  Alaska,  537. 
Population  of  Yukon  Territory,  234. 
Porcupine  River,  6,   102,   105,  276,  280,  287,  32S, 

342,  430,  431,  472,  507,  508. 
Porpoise,  the  brig,  339. 
Porsanikoff,  the  Aleut,  397. 
Port  Chatham,  258. 
"     Clarence,  268,  346,  337,  408,  410. 
Conclusion,  315. 
Etches,  257. 
Francais,  256. 
Gardner,  251,  473. 
Mbller,  261,  472. 
I'rovidence,  511. 
Trinidad,  305. 
Portland  Canal,  245,  251,  313,  411. 
Portlock,  Captain,  308. 
Potifar,  the  brig,  339. 
Premorska  village,  223. 
Prevost,  J.  B.,  330. 
Pribyloff  Islands,  248,  308,  33T,  335,  337,  350,  400, 

469,  470,  473,  478,  481,  484,  499. 
Price,  Admiral,  suicide  of,  347. 
Prince  Albert  Island,  345. 

Prince   of  Wales   Island,    245,   250 ;    Strait,   345, 
467. 


Prince  William  Sound,  248,  452. 
Proboscidea  of  Alaska,  577. 
Proclamation  of  purchase  of  Alaska,  359. 
Progrumnoi  volcano,  469,  472. 
Promishleniks'  discoveries,  304. 
Puget  Sound,  258,  294,  357,  453. 
Pullen,  Lieutenant,  344. 
Pushkareff's  Expedition,  302. 
Pye  Island,  258. 


Quadra,  Captain  Bodega  y,  treats  with  Vancouver, 

314- 
Queen  Charlotte's  Archipelago,  Indians  on,  411. 
Queen   Charlotte's   Island,  discovered   by  Perez, 

305  ;  slate-quarry  on,  411,  415;  coal  on,  470, 


R. 

Racoon,  the  sloop  of  war,  32S. 

Raduga  cited,  605. 

Rainfall  in  Alaska,  437,  438. 

Ramparts  of  the  Yukon,  2S1,  284. 

Rasbinik  village,  229. 

Rat  Indians,  109. 

Rat  River,  280,  32S. 

Ratmanoff  Island,  246,  249,  269 ;  mountains,  289. 

Rattlesnake,  the  ship,  346. 

Raymond,  Captain,  280  ;  his  surveys,  2S3. 

Raynor,  Captain,  250. 

Red  Leggins,  Indian  Chief,  no. 

Redoubt  Constantine  and  Elena,  257. 

Redoubt  St.  Michael's,  arrive  at,  3,  338. 

Redoubt  volcano,  289,  469. 

Reid  House,  279. 

Relief,  the  store-ship,  339. 

Religiohs  views  of  Indians,  8S,  89,  in,  145  ;  dances, 

3S9  et  seq.  ;  superstitiojis,  391  ei  Sfr/. 
Renfrewshire,  444. 
Reports,  medical,   122;  scientific,   122;  Golovin's, 

353- 
Resanoff,    Count,    322  ;    institutes   reforms,    323 ; 

sketch  of,  323-325. 
Resolute,  the  ship,  346,  347. 
Restwick,  rainfall  at,  445. 
Resurrection  Bay,  258  ;  vessels  built  in,  316,  319, 

344- 
Return  Reef,  355,  462. 
Revel,  birthplace  of  Kotzebue,  329. 
Rey  and  Britton's  chart,  290. 
Richardson,  Sir  John,  331,  409,  492,  530,  605. 
Ricord,  in  charge  ot  the  Diana,  325,  326. 
Riedell,  Captain,  240,  342,  344,  466. 
Ringgold,  Captain,  347. 
Rio  del  Reyes,  314. 
River  volcano,  289. 
Robertson,  Rev.  Dr.,  cited,  605. 
Rocquefeuil,  Camilla  de,  cited,  330,  605. 
Rocky  Mountain  Expedition,  Fremont's,  341. 
Rodeiitia  of  Alaska,  577. 


INDEX. 


623 


Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  328. 

Romanoflf,  Point,  119. 

Romanzoff  Bay  (see  Bodega),  332  ;  Cape,  406,  407  ; 
Range,  286. 

Romanzoff,  Count,  329,  477. 

Romanzoff  Mountains,  loi,  286. 

Rosmaridae  of  Alaska,  577. 

Ross,  Arctic  expedition  of,  331,  428,  605,  606. 

Ross,  Bernard  R.,  112. 

Ross  Colony  in  California,  the,  274,  329,  331  : 
Schmidt  director  of,  332,  335,  338  ;  sold,  341. 

Ross  district  in  Scotland,  447. 

Rothrock,  Dr.  J.  T.,  his  report,  356,  441,  452. 

Rousseau,  General  L.,  arrives  at  Sitka,  184  ;  offi- 
cially receives  Alaska,  359. 

Roys,  Captain,  343. 

Rurik,  the  brig,  sails  from  St.  Petersburg,  329. 

Rusanoff,  S.  S.,  commander  of  District  of  St. 
Michael,  11. 

Ruschenberger  cited,  606. 

Russia  and  United  States  land  questions,  333  et 
seq.  ;  connection  with  Great  Britain,  334 ;  treaty 
with,  502. 

Russian  America,  rumor  of  purchase  of,  117,  119  ; 
rumor  confirmed,  181  ;  negotiations  for  sale  of, 
35S. 

Russian  American  Company,  workmen  of,  11; 
wages  of  workmen,  12  ;  charts  of,  260  ;  organiza- 
tion of,  31S  ;  monopolizes  fur  trade,  320  ;  arranges 
with  John  Jacob  Astor,  327,  329  ;  its  settlements, 
331  :  charter  renewed,  332,  341,  347  ;  difficulties, 
336.  33S  ;  facts  concerning,  349,  350  ;  treatment 
of  Aleuts,  350-353;  favors  agriculture,  449, 
452  :  trades  in  ice,  479,  498,  501,  522. 

Russian  calendar,  59. 

Russian  charts,  260,  533  ;  explorations,  292. 

Russian  children,  68. 

Russian  settlement  in  California,  328. 

Rybinski  explores  the  Nearer  Islands,  302. 


Saccatalontan,  291. 

Saginaw  Bay,  252  ;  the  steamer,  357. 

St.  Ambrose  Island,  492. 

St.  Chrysostom  harbor,  258. 

St.  Demetrius,  vessel  built,  319  ;  wreck  of,  322. 

St.  Dionysius,  trading-post,  258. 

St.  Elias  Range,  286. 

St.  Felix  Island,  492. 

St.  George  Island,  240,  248,  259,  471,  479,  491,  496, 

502. 
St.  Helen,  Mount,  470. 
St.  John,  New  Brunswick,  277. 
St.  John's  Bay,  471,  474. 
St.  Lawrence  Bay,  376,  515. 
St.  Lawrence  Island,  313,  330,  380,  471. 
St.  Mary  Magdalena,  the  ship,  322. 
St.  Matthew  Islands,  248,  249,  326,  335,  471. 
St.  Michael's  Island,  266,  276,  465,  472,  486,  500. 


St.  Michael's  Redoubt,  arrival  at,  3,  4,  6  ;  inmates 
of,  II  ;  party  at,  121  ;  Clara  Bell  arrives  at,  121, 
226,  265,  344,  355,  35S,  43S,  442. 

St.  Nicholas  Redoubt,  259. 

St.  Nicholas  settlement,  452. 

St.  Nikolai,  loss  of  ship,  325. 

St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  358. 

St.  Paul,  the  ship,  299. 

St.  Paul's,  248,  259,  313;  settlement  at,  314;  har- 
bor, 322,  334,  342,  449,  471,  478,  4S3,  491,  4,6. 

St.  Peter,  the  ship,  299. 

St.  Petersburg,  Bank  of,  320. 

St.  Petersburg,  the  Suwarrow  sails  for,  329  ;  expe- 
dition from,  330;  ships  from,  335,  349,  397,  453, 
486,  491,  501. 

Sakalin  Island,  347,  482,  522,  523,  525. 

Sakhniti,  Indian  chief,  107. 

Salt  from  California,  335. 

Samoyloff,  expedition  under,  317. 

San  Bias,  314. 

San  Francisco,  detention  in  harbor,  4  ;  ice  for,  346, 
347,  355,  4S3,  501. 

Sanak  Island,  467. 

Sands,  Captain,  356. 

Sandtmann,  Captain,  356. 

Sandwich  Islands,  329,  528  ;  trade  with,  342,  343, 
353.  485.  502- 

Sandy  Island,  263. 

Sankt  Peterburgski  Viedomati,  606. 

Sarycheff,  Gavrila,  cited,  406. 

Sarychefif  volcano,  468. 

Saur,  Martin,  Secretary  of  Billings's  Expedition, 
310  ;  his  journey,  376,  606. 

Scamfnon  Bay,  264. 

Scammon,  Captain  C.  M.,  3,  264  ;  his  survey,  291, 
355,  356-35S- 

Schemelin,  F.,  cited,  606. 

Schloezer,  J.  L.  S.,  cited,  606 

Schmidt,  Director  of  Ross  colony,  332. 

Schofield,  John  M.,  Secretary  of  War,  372. 

School.s,  339,  341,  351,  352. 

Scientific  Corps  of  Telegraph  Expedition,  4,  457, 
527- 

Sciurids  of  Alaska,  577. 

Scoresby,  W.,  cited,  O06. 

Scotland,  climate  of,  445  et  seq. 

Scoville,  Edward,  his  surveys,  292,  356. 

Sea  Gull,  the  schooner,  339. 

Sea  Lion,  wreck  of,  336. 

Seal  fisheries,  492  et  seq. 

Seal  Island,  260. 

Sebastopol,  fall  of,  348. 

Seduction  Tongue,  252. 

Seemann,  Dr.,  440,  484. 

Seguam  Island,  247,  302. 

Seguam  volcano,  467,  478. 

Selawik  River,  269,  2S4  :  Lake,  269,  284,  407. 
I   Seliverstoff,  296. 
I   Selkirk,  Fort,  507,  508. 

Semichi  Islands,  247. 


624 


INDEX. 


Semidi  Islands,  259. 

Semisopochnoi  Island,  247,  289,  467,  471. 

Semitic  traditions  in  ethnology,  374. 

Seniavine  Straits,  385. 

Seniavine,  the  corvette,  335. 

Serebranikoff,  272  ;  ascends  Copper  River,  342. 

Seven  Craters,  peak  of,  2S9. 

Seven  Peaks  Island,  247. 

Seward,  W.  H.,  357  -  372,  606. 

Shabelsky,  Achille,  cited,  606. 

Shageluk  Slough,  220,  221,  2S2,  283. 

Shaktolik,  24,  152,  284,  2S8,  407. 

Shaman  Mountain,  10,  43,  56,  471. 

Shamanism,  Part  I.,  88,  144,  et  />assiiii. 

Shantar  Islands,  297. 

Shedden,  Robert,  344. 

Sheep  River,  280. 

Sheerness,  342. 

Shelikoff  Company,  its  cruelty,   316  ;    organized, 

317;  opens  schools,  351. 
Shelikoff   receives   medal,    309 ;    monopolizes   fur 

trade,  310,  316  ;  death  of,  317  ;  cited,  606. 
Shelikoff  Strait,  259 ;  explored,  326  ;  Lake,  273. 
Shenandoah,  the  pirate,  487. 
Shestakoff  attack?  the  Chukchees,  298,  375. 
Shillinglavv,  John  J.  ;  cited,  607. 
Shishaldin  volcano,  467,  469,  470,  478. 
Shishmareff  Inlet,  268,  331. 
Shubrick,  revenue  cutter,  358. 
Shultz  explores  Lituya  Bay,  317  ;  death  of,  319. 
Shumagin  Islands,  24S,  259,  2S6,  350  ;  area,  290  ; 

discovered  by  Lieutenant  Waxel,  300. 
Shydekin,  Peter,  326. 
Siberia,  convicts  from,  11. 
Siemenoff  cited,  607. 

Sierra  Nevada  range,  457  ;  glaciers  of,  458. 
Silliman's  Journal  cited,  526. 
Simpson  and  Dease's  Expedition,  338. 
Simpson,  Sir  George,  340,  481,  521. 
Simpson,  Thomas,  462  ;  cited,  607. 
Sinking  Point,  257. 
Sirenia  of  Alaska,  578. 
Sitignak  volcano,  467,  473. 
Sitka,  4,  181  ;  General  Rousseau  arrives  at,  184, 

2S3>  254,  255  ;   Bay,  319,  412  ;  observations  at, 

337.   351.   352.  415.   425-   443   et  seq.,   472,   484; 

schools  at,  341  ;  ship  built  at,  326,  332. 
Sitka,  the  brig,  325. 
Silka-kwan  Indians,  346,  412,  427. 
Sitkin  Island,  247  ;  volcano,  289. 
Sitkinak  Island,  248. 
Sitzikunten  River,  282. 
Skoot  River,  270. 
Slavarassi  Bay,  260  ;  Colony,  321. 
Slavery,  420. 

Slaves  freed  by  a  chief,  339. 
Slavianka  River,  327. 
Sledge  Island,  138,  268. 
Sleds,    Eskimo,   26  ;  Innuit,    165  ;   Hudson   Bay, 

165  ;  Ingalik,  166. 


Small  Houses,  276,  277. 

Small-pox  at  Sitka,  338,  339. 

Smith,  Captain  E.  E.,  8,  60,  240,  263,  275,  277,  406. 

Smith,  E.  Peshine,  370,  372. 

Smith,  F.  M.,  acting  surgeon,  25. 

Smithsonian  Institution,  112,  114,  202,  475,  476. 

Smoking,  manner  of,  81. 

Snow-shoes,  different  kinds  of,  190. 

Snug  Harbor,  269,  513. 

Sokoloff,  cited,  607. 

Solfataras,  467. 

Solide,  the  ship,  313. 

Solokoff,  Father,  arrives  at  Sitka,  330. 

Solovioff,  I.  M.,  expedition  under,  304,  350. 

Soonkakat  River,  282. 

Sopka,  Koyukuk,  2S2  ;  Vesolia,  38,  77,  185,  2S9. 

Sorcery,  practice  of,  424. 

South  Pacific  Islands,  491. 

South  Shetland,  492. 

Sowles,  Captain,  313. 

Spanberg,   Lieutenant  Martin,    297  ;  explores  the 

Kurile  Islands,  299. 
Spaniards    claim   northwest   coast,    309 ;  interfere 

with  traders,  310,  311  ;  at  San  Francisco,  327. 
Spanish  expedition,  307. 
Spavarieff  Bay,  407. 
Springs,  36. 

Spruce  Island,  259,  339,  349. 
Squirtzoff  makes  first  telegraph  pole,  59. 
Stadukin,  Michael,  explores  the  Pogitcha,  295,  509. 
Staehlin,  J.  M.,  cited,  607. 
Stakhin-kwan  tribe,  346,  411. 
Staninkovich,  Captain,  335. 
Starichkoff  River,  273. 
Starr)'  Kwikhpak  village,  229. 
Staten  Land,  492. 

Steele,  Francis  L.,  the  schooner,  240. 
Steller,  G.  W.,  299;  cited,  607. 
Stepanoff,    12,   13,    122,  43S ;    Ball's  arrangement 

with,  123. 
Stephen's  Pass,  250,  253,  271. 
Stephen's  Strait,  340. 
Sterlingshire,  445. 

Stewart,  agent  of  Russian  American  Company,  341. 
Stewart  River,  279. 
Stikine  River,  252.  271,  291,  337,  342,  348,  357,  462, 

464  :  gold  deposits,  477.  .__ 

Stockton,  Commodore,  342. 
Stoeckl,  Edward  de,  negotiates  treaty  for  Alaska, 

359-372- 
Stop-a-bit  River,  46. 
Stoves,  Russian,  9. 
Strahlenberg,  607. 

Straits  of  Fuca,  294,  308,  313,  314,  340 
Stuart,  David,  327  ;  Robert,  328. 
Stuart  Island,  4,  5,  24,  266. 
Stuckenberg,  J.  C,  607. 
Suboff  Islands,  308. 
Suchitna  River,  258  ;  explored  by  Malakoff,  273, 

292.  337.  341.  464- 


INDEX. 


625 


Sue,  Eugene,  his  Wandering  Jew,  511. 

Sulima  River,  261,  273. 

Sulphur,  the  ship,  33S. 

Sulphur  springs,  346  ;  deposits  of,  478. 

Sumner,  Charles,  his  speech  on  Alaska,  607. 

Superior,  Lake,  486. 

Superior,  the  ship,  346,  487. 

Superstitions,  88-90. 

Sutherland,  in  Scotland,  statistics  of,  447. 

Sutter,  Captain  John,  buys  Ross  settlement,  341 

344- 
Suwacha,  original  of  Avatcha,  530. 
Suwarrow,  the  ship,  329,  330. 
Swan,  J.  G.,  cited,  607. 
Swetzoff,  expedition  under,  321. 
Swift,  Captain,  325. 
Synd,  Lieutenant,  expedition  under,  304. 


T. 

Tagalaxa  Island,  247. 

Tahco  River,  271,  277,  358,  441,  477,  508;  Lake, 
507  ;  identical  with  Taku,  628. 

Takajaksen  tribe,  432. 

Taku  River,  340,  628. 

Tanaga  Island,  260. 

Tanaga  Pass,  248. 

Tanaga  Peak,  289,  467. 

Tanak-Angunakh,  469. 

Tananah  Indians,  107  ;  habits  of,  108. 

Tananah  River  joins  the  Yukon,  57,  83,  93,  281, 
431- 

Tanara  Island,  247. 

Tarakanoff,  Timotheus,  321,  325. 

Tarentoff  rescued  by  Kennicott,  70. 

Tatla  Lake,  357. 

Tatsah  Kutchin  tribe,  431. 

Tatschegno  tribe,  432. 

Tatsun-ikhtun  River,  99. 

Tattooing  among  the  Indians,  140. 

Tattooing,  practice  of,  381. 

Tayakhonsiti  Harbor,  251. 

Tebenkoff,  Michael,  9  ;  his  chart,  250,  336,  33S, 
342.  343,  346,  607. 

Tebenkoff 's  Cove,  11,  266. 

Tee-ati-okwik  River,  275. 

Tekunka,  68. 

Teleezhik,  the  Interpreter,  29,  52,  221. 

Telegraph,  first  pole  erected,  58,  64 ;  erecting  poles, 
72,  254,  264,  270,  290,  291,  292  ;  plan  for  from 
San  Francisco  to  Bering  Strait,  355  ;  organiza- 
tion of  expedition,  355,  358,  457,  507,  511. 

Tennuth-Kutchin,  habits  of,  108,  431. 

Terakanoflf,  expedition  under,  321,  325. 

Terra  del  Fuego,  492. 

Terror,  the  ship,  343. 

Thlinkets,  256 ;  hostile  to  Russians,  320 ;  battle 
with,  321,  322  ;  trade  with  Russians,  325,  342, 
346,  348,  354  ;  description  of  the  tribe,  411  et  seq. 

Thljegonchotana  tribe,  432. 

40 


Thomas,  Captain,  509. 

Thompson,  Captain,  457. 

Thompson,  David,  527. 

Thome,  Captain,  sails  for  Astor,  326. 

Thouars,  Dupetit,  visits  northwest  coast,  338. 

Three  Saints'  Bay,  259. 

Three  Saints,  the  ship,  317. 
I  Thunder  Mountain,  289. 

Tiakinak,  248. 

Tigalda  Island,  24S,  260,  471. 

Tikhmenieff,  Historian  of  the  Russian  American 
Company,  9,  48,  608. 

Tinder,  how  made,  17. 

Tinneh,  family  of,  28  :  dialect  of,  53,  411  ct  seq. 

Tipping,  Captain,  308. 

Tobacco,  78,  81. 

Tohwun-nukakat  River,  loi. 

Tolstoi,  Andrean,  fits  out  a  vessel,  302. 

Tolstoi  Point,  20,  129;  geology  of,  135,  161,  184, 
267. 

Tongas,  Fort,  251. 

Tongas  Indians,  251. 

Tonquin,  the  ship,  fitted  out  by  Astor,  326,  327. 

Topanika,  20,  161. 

Totems,  system  of,  196  -  198. 

Tozikakat  River,  92,  2S2. 

Trade,  annual  Indian,  106. 

Trading  by  Hudson  Bay  Company,  104 ;  expedi- 
tions, 307  ;  by  King  George's  Sound  Company, 
30S. 

TrapesnikofF's  Expedition,  302. 

Treaty  of  Ghent,  329  ;  with  Japan,  347  ;  with  Hud- 
son Bay  Company,  etc.,  353  ;  for  Alaska,  245, 
359  -  372- 

Trevor,  the  ship,  329. 

Tristran  d'Acunha  Island,  492. 

TroUope,  Commodore,  346. 

T'satsumi,  village  of,   13  :  houses  in,  13,  14. 

Tschnagmuts,  tribe  of,  407. 

Tseetoht  River,  281. 

Tsutsin,  alias  for  Chukchees,  513. 

Tugidak  Island,  248. 

Tukkuth-Kutchin  tribe,  430. 

Tulubieff,  Captain,  333. 

Tungusi  tribe,  518,  523. 

Tunguska  River,  518. 

Tuski  tribe,  the,  374,  375  ;  description  of,  37S,  .510, 
514- 

Turanian  family,  524. 

Turnagain  Arm,  258,  272. 

Tutchone  Kutchin  Indians,  429. 

Tutsogemut,  13. 


U. 

Ugaguk  River,  261,  273. 
Ugalakmuts,  the  tribe  of,  401. 
Ugalentsi,  tribe  of,  430. 
Ukamak  Island,  248. 
Uka-wutne  River,  85. 
Ukivok  Island,  26S. 


626 


INDEX. 


Uliaga  Island.  248. 

Ulukagmuts,  tribe  of,  432. 

Ulukuk  mountains,  29  ;  arrived  at,  37,  43,  126,  132  ; 
expedition  starts  for,  164,  2S4,  28S,  289. 

Umnak,  248,  260,  2S9,  302,  322,  395,  467,  469,  471, 
473.  478. 

Unakhatana  Indians.  102. 

Unalashka,  248,  260,  289  ;  expedition  winters  at, 
304,  3"3.  330.  334.  335.  35°.  35 1  ;  school  at,  352, 
389,  443,  444  ;  rainfall  at,  445,  448,  467,  468,  469, 
471  ;  copper  found,  477,  499,  529,  535. 

Unalashkans,  tribe  of,  3S6. 

Unaleet,  tribe  of,  13. 

Unalga  Island,  247. 

Unaligmuts  attack  the  Michaelovski  Redoubt,  9, 
407. 

Unalaklik  River,  8.  9,  126,  130,  157,  267,  284,  340. 

I'nalaklik,  trip  to,  S,  14  ;  expedition  starts  for,  15  ; 
description  of,  24,  32,  57  ;  scurvy  at,  69,  125,  129, 
132,  357.  408.  486,  535. 

Unga,  inundation  of,  310,  356,  466,  477,  479,  484. 

Unga  Island,  248,  259. 

Ungulata  of  Alaska,  578. 

Unimak,  248,  260,  335  ;  Pass,  461,  466,  470;  volca- 
noes, 467,  469,  478,  4S4. 

Union  Strait,  345. 

United  States  and  Russia  boundary  questions.  333 
ct  seg. 

United  States  Exploring  Expedition,  339,  340 ;  J,i- 
pan,  347. 

Uphoon,  northern  mouth  of  the  Yukon,  119,  233, 
275.  283- 

Uprovalisha,  officer  of  Russian  American  Com- 
pany, 350. 

Ursidae  of  Alaska,  576. 

Ustiakoff,  a  navigator,  331,  400. 

Ustingoff,  cited,  608. 

Utensils,  216-  218. 


Valdes,  Lieutenant  C,  314. 
Valerianos,  Apostolos,  294. 
Vancouver,  Captain  George,  his  chart,  250  ;  dies, 

314;  his  explorations,  315,  608 
Vancouver  Island,  475,  506. 
Variag,  the  corvette,  357. 
VasarofF,  Captain,  396. 
VasiliefF,  336. 

Vatchee  Lake,  278  ;  head  of  Yukon.  628. 
Veniaminoff,  Father,  334,  336,  337,  340,  352,  353, 

377  ;  his  labors,  385,  443,  444,  445  ;  finds  copper, 

477  ;  cited,  608. 
Veniaminoff  Mountain,  2S9,  470. 
Vesolia  Sopka,  38 ;  description  of,  39,  77,  185,  289. 
Victoria  Land,  345,  356,  358,  464. 
Victoria,  the  brig,  465. 
Vienna,  climate  of,  451. 
Vincennes,  the  sloop  of  war,  339,  340. 
Vizcaino,  Sebastian,  294. 
Volcanoes,  list  of,  286-290,  466-470. 


Vose,  the  geologist,  463. 
Vostovia  Mountain,  254,  471. 
Vunta  Kutchin  tribe,  109.  430. 
Vsevidoff  Peak,  2S9  ;  volcano,  467. 
Vsevolojsky,  M.  U.  S.,  cited,  608. 


Waddington,  Mr.,  464. 

Wainwright  Inlet.  285. 
;  Walker  Bay,  345. 

Walrus  Island,  260. 

Walrus  Peak,  2S9,  467. 

Walrus  village,  469. 

Wappaens,  J.  E.,  609. 

Ward,  death  of,  i  lo. 
I   Washington  (D.C.),  climate  of,  451. 

Washington  Islands,  321. 

Washington,  ship,  from  Boston,  309  ;  makes  ex- 
plorations, 311. 

Wasilieff,  Baranoff  Island  described  by,  326,  331, 
332,  336- 

Water,  difficulty  in  obtaining,  32. 

Wa.xel,  Lieutenant,  discovers  Shumagin  Island, 
300. 

Weber  River,  475. 

Webster's  Dictionary  cited,  424. 

Westdahl,  Mr.,  14,  iS. 

Western  exploring  vessel,  331. 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Company,  355  -  35S. 

Whale  Bay,  478. 

Whale  Island,  270. 

Whaling  company  organized,  345. 

Wheildon,  W.  W.,  609. 

White  River,  279,  2S0. 

Whitehaven,  rainfall  at,  445. 

Whitney,  Professor,  his  geological  investigations, 
457-  470.  326. 

Whymper,  F.,  S  ;  artist,  25,  43  ;  ascends  the  Yu- 
kon, 56  ;  makes  sketches,  86,  205,  270,  277 ; 
travels  in  Alaska,  290,  291,  356,  609. 

Whymper  River,  99,  281. 

Wilder,  the  steamer,  60 

Wilkes,  Liei-  enant  Charles,  339,  340;  his  expe- 
dition, 400,  6C9. 

Williams,  R.,  Adjutant-General,  369,  370. 

Wilna  River,  521. 

Wilson,  Joseph  S.,  368. 

Windship,  American  vessel,  324. 

Winter  Harbor,  346. 

Woiwodsky,  as  chief  Director  Russian  American 
Company,  343  ;  superseded,  349. 

Wolasatux.  50,  64,  170,  2S2. 

Wolf,  his  drawing  of  sea-otter,  4S9. 

Woody  Island,  ice  depot  at,  259,  355. 

Woronkoffsky  explores  south  coast  of  Aliaska,  338, 
339- 

Wossnessensky,  Elia,  339 ;  his  collections,  457, 
4S8. 

Wrangell,  Baron  F.  P.,  265,  330,  332,  336,  337,  338, 
354.  4",  424.  S°8,  S°9.  609. 


INDEX. 


627 


Wrangell  Land,  250,  251,  289,  293,  344,  508,  509. 
Wright,  George  M.,  122,  355. 
Wright,  George  S.,  the  steamer,  5,  356,  358. 
Wyman,  Dr.,  376. 

Y. 

Vagor  Ivanovich,  45. 

Vagorkoffsky  village,  479. 

Yagorsha,  45. 

Yakan,  Cape,  509. 

Yakutat  Bay,  256,  316;  fort  at,  317,  321,  323,  333, 

4S1. 
Yakutat  tribe,  411,  428,  484. 
Yakuts,  the,  516  :  their  habits,  519  et  seq. 
Yakutsk,  12,  296,  519;  confounded  with  Irkutsk, 

S32.  S3S. 
Yakutzkalatenik,  357. 
Yaska,  the  interpreter,  229. 
Yeddo  Bay,  347. 
Yellow  Knife  Indians,  429. 
Yelowy  Island,  248. 
Yenisei  River,  519. 
Yermoloff,  609. 
YesRo-Ainos,  houses  of,  525. 
Yesso  Island,  347,  523. 
Yeterop  Island,  523. 
York  Factory,  103,  344. 
Yukagir  tribe,  296,  519,  523. 
Yukon,  description  of  river  and  territory,  1-242. 
Yukon,  Fort,  6;  Ketchum's  journey  to,  63,  6g,  72, 

86,  342,  348,  498,  SOI,  502. 
Yukon  Indians,  478,  498,  499,  525. 
Yukon  River,  identity  with  the  Kwikhpak,  4  ;  first 


sight  of,  41  ;  plans  for  ascending,  56  ;  chart  of,  62, 
66  ;  washing  away  of  banks,  71  ;  descent  of, 
Chap.  III.  ;  rapids  of,  97;  plans  for  exploration 
of  Lower  Yukon,  122-192  :  scenery  about,  209; 
first  chart  of,  263  ;  mouths  of,  264,  265  :  delta  of, 
27s  ;  head-waters  of,  276,  628  ;  identified  with  the 
Kwikhpak,  277 ;  explored,  278 ;  tributaries  of, 
278  ;  description  of,  279-284  ;  length,  284  ;  course 
of,  292  ;  explored  by  Glasunoff,  337  ;  explored  by 
Malakoff,  339,  345  ;  Jones  descends,  355  ;  Orari- 
ans  at  the  mouth,  373,  431,  464;  earthquakes  on, 
470 ;  gold,  477  ;  fish,  484,  485  ;  fur  trade,  492  et 
seq.,  509. 

Yukon  Territory,  plan  for  exploration  of,  6;  soil, 
71  ;  population  of,  224;  its  value,  241,  242,  350; 
schools,  352 :  delta,  Innuit  in,  407,  428,  533 ;  cli- 
mate and  resources  of  territory.  Chap.  XV.,  p. 
433  et  seq.  ;  rainfall,  437 ;  timber,  438  et  seq.  ; 
geology,  472. 

Yukutscharkut  River,  99,  281. 

Yulak  Island,  247. 

Yunaska  volcano,  248,  468,  469,  471. 

Yurup  Island,  523. 


Zacharias,  the  ship,  320. 

Zagoskin,  Lieutenant,  48,  276,  340,  341,  432,  609. 

Zaikoff,  Potan,  his  explorations,  307. 

Zaikoff,  Stephen,  makes  explorations,  305. 

Zapeeski,  cited,  609. 

Zaremba  Island,  250. 

Zaremba,  Lieutenant  D.,  337,  340. 

Zetland,  444,  445  ;  agriculture  of,  447. 


NOTES    AND    CORRECTIONS    ON   THE   MAP. 


As  these  sheets  are  leaving  the  press  I  am  alile  to  add  the  following  notes.  The 
examination  of  the  original  maps  of  the  explorations  of  the  Stikine  and  Tahco  Rivers, 
which  were  not  accessible  when  this  map  was  compiled,  show  some  corrections  to  be 
necessary.  The  imperfections  of  the  photographic  map  (No.  4)  alluded  to  in  the  text, 
the  only  source  of  information  then  accessible,  are  chiefly  the  cause  of  the  error.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  the  map  here  given  is  based  upon  approximate  data  to  a 
large  extent,  and,  as  explorations  multiply,  much  revision  in  the  smaller  details  will 
be  necessary.  The  principal  and  only  important  change  now  necessary  is  in  regard  to 
the  head-waters  of  the  Lewis,  Stikine,  and  Tahco  Rivers.  It  appears  that  the  tnie 
position  of  Fort  Mumford  is  57°  54'  N.  Lat.  and  131°  10'  W.  Lon.  from  Greenwich. 
This  brings  the  true  course  of  the  river  into  agreement  with  the  observations  of  Pro- 
fessor W.  P.  Blake.  Tlie  position  of  Lake  Kennicott.  is  58°  30'  N.  Lat.  and  131°  43' 
W.  Lon.  ;  it  is  fed  by  a  hot  spring  ;  and  of  Lake  Ketchum  58°  43'  N.  Lat.  and  131° 
50'  W.  Lon.  Vatchee  Lake,  with  the  streams  from  several  small  lakes  falling  into  it, 
proves  to  be  the  true  head  of  the  Lewis  River,  and  is  divided  from  the  Tahco  by 
a  very  low  and  narrow  divide,  some  three  miles  only  in  widtii.  The  north  and  south 
forks  of  the  Tahco  join,  in  the  main  stream  (in  Lat.  59°  07'  N.  and  Lon.  133'  W. 
Greenwich),  which  turns  abruptly  to  the  west  and  south,  and  without  doubt  (though 
unexplored)  enters  Glacier  Arm,  where  it  is  known  as  the  Taku  River.  All  of  this 
was  incorrectly  represented  or  omitted  in  ihe  photographic  map  alluded  to.  Regret- 
ting that  this  correction  is  necessary,  I  am  only  glad  that  I  have  had  the  opportunity 
of  correcting  it  here  at  the  last  moment,  tho' gh  not  in  the  text  itself.  The  remainder 
of  the  map,  from  the  latest  information,  u'uves  to  be  nearly  correct,  though  future 
revision  will  no  doubt  be  necessary. 

The  map  having  been  printed  before  the  spelling  was  revised,  the  following  changes 
are  desirable  in  the  orthography  of  the  names  :  — 

For  Kinqequan  read  Kingegan. 

"  Cape  Krleougoune  "  Cape  Kregugin. 

"  Nounivak  "  Nunivak. 

"  Youkon  "  Yukon. 

"  Katmay  "  Katmai. 

"  Unalaska  "  Unalashka. 

"  Iliaminsk  Pk.  "  Iliamna  Peak. 

"  Kuyck  R.  "  Kncek  R. 

"  Chilcat  "  Chilkaht.* 

"  C.  St.  Bartolom  "  C.  St.  Bartolomeo. 

"  Chimsain  Id.  "  Chimsyan  Id. 

"  Chacom  "  Chacon. 

"  Etoline  "  fitolin. 

N.  B.  — Cape  St.  Ilermogenes  is  the  soulii  point  of  Marmot  Island,  near  Kadiak. 
*  This  more  accurately  represents  the  sound,  according  to  Mr.  Davidson. 


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